Section Two: Religion and Hegemonies in the Long Nineteenth-Century

19th century white evangelicals emphasized:

"personal agency and the ability of individuals to change" (NOT AS TOLERANT OF RELIGION AS ASSUMED)

19th Century Protestant Concerns

- against religious authority and influence in politics (anti-Roman Catholic); feared society's ability to function under church and state combined leadership; Protestants and Catholics having religious debate about status of church in America and which one was considered to be "more" America - with huge shift in demographics with new immigrants; jump from 50,000 (1800) to 3 million (1860), stressed public because feared influx of outside ideas and influence on societal function - fear of change and growing Catholicism in public sphere - sees riots and public debates about Bible reading in public schools; King James Bible is not correct translation of Bible; also dislike idea of people reading the Bible for themselves, without Church properly interpreting teachings from Bible; Protestants also do want Bible reading to influence religious practice in society -- believe Protestantism is fundamental to allowing "religious freedom"

New Catholic Concerns of 19th Century

- with huge shift in demographics with new immigrants; jump from 50,000 (1800) to 3 million (1860), stressed public because feared influx of outside ideas and influence on societal function - fear of change in Catholic sphere - concerned whether Catholics were too Protestant; controversy surrounding power of lay people in parishes and ability for them to make decisions in service; European revolutions were very anti-clerical, democratic, but Trustee Controversy recognizes issue of people operating in control, inspires counter-movement to Protestant controls in 19th c America - Does Catholicism support separation of church and state? Should it? Brownson reading sees Catholics questioning stability of current societal function; sought to reveal to public and Protestants that their functioning is not working; questions "private judgment" of Protestants to overlook civic law, manipulating "Higher" law of God for personal endeavors - will cause "civic despotism" or breakdown of society in form of anarchy; still asserts authority of God as being highest authority, but need to follow Catholic leadership, not Protestant 'judgements' of what is just or right according to Biblical law (though hyprocrital) - sought to find societal agreement, with focus on good of everyone, not individual or simply American (Protestant) identities; Catholics claim Pope not influenced by external ideas, would offer uncorrupted leadership b/c has "own bank" of influence - Fugitive Slave Act sparked anti-slavery and anti-abolition controversy; Northern people willing to overlook legal law for moral or "higher" law was used as a means to expose instability in 'Protestant America'

From Jefferson to DeToqueville

19th Century Evangelicalism "fits" With Republican democracy and Market Economy - Focus on Individual Agency - Affirms Ability to Change (Even Perfect) - Provides for Virtuous Formation Amid Ambiguity of Polis and Market - Creates Mediating and Reform Institutions (Benevolent Empire) - Prophetic (on the part of many black evangelicals)

Catherine Beecher on the image of women in society

According to her Christian and Democratic values, Beecher believes that God intended for women and men to maintain separate but equal functions in society; she argues that the subordinate position of women, in secular, civic, and political settings, is necessary for the betterment of all. She further believes that to act against your female duties, is to act against God's will, just as going against the progress of democracy is also to challenge God's intention for humanity; she further emphasizes female virtue, domesticity, and intelligence, as the successful education and formation of youth, including the future of men, depends on these traits being imbedded into women as their teachers; she compares the female duties to society and faith to the building of a temple, in which she writes: "all builders of a temple are equal in importance, whether they labor on the foundations, or toil upon the dome"

Disestablishment as Protestant

According to some scholars, disestablishment in the late 18th and 19th centuries was seen as safeguarding a Protestant against tyrannical Catholicism: - Protestant minister Ezra Stiles (1783): "In this country (without power of Catholic church) religion may be examined with the noble Berean freedom, the freedom of American-born minds" - Lyman Beecher's "A Plea for the West (or to Ohio)" (1835): "[Protestantism] has always been on the side of liberty in its struggles against arbitrary power (Catholics)...through the Puritans, it breathed into the British constitution its most invaluable principles, and laid the foundations of the republican institutions of our nation, and fought the colonial battles with Canadian Indians and French Catholics, when often our destiny balanced on a pivot and hung upon a hair, and...it wept and prayed, and fasted, and fought, and suffered through the revolutionary struggles when there was almost no other creed but the Calvinistic in the land" Collective Protestant Argument: must remember that it was Protestant religion that came to this land to establish freedom from British persecution, not Catholics; controversy is that though everyone has freedom to believe in whatever religion they'd like in America, under Protestant influence, Protestantism must remain in charge

Protestant Evangelicalism: What is the role of religion in public and political life? (de TOQUEVILLE)

Alexis de Toqueville of 1830s: Frenchman who wrote "Democracy in America" after visiting the region; European who sought to understand how U.S. was able to function without British monarchs and established churches successfully; observed that: 1) religion is first of American political institutions, but not head of government; better this way b/c allows for facilitation of freedom, and less potential corruption of religion had both religion and state run together 2) not everyone necessarily believes in Christianity, but everyone conforms to religion's moral teachings 3) whether intended or not, religion still has indirect effect on morals and expectations of nation's people, and thus moral code of state leaders 4) politicians can attack a sect, but cannot attack religion as a whole 5) believes individuals are religious, but society not in the same way 6) contrasts U.S. with Europe, where religion in combination with gov't often tyrannical (as seen in French Revolution); against this combination b/c allows for increased power, not influence (i.e. if gov't goes down, then so does religion; better to keep them separated to promote stability in gov't) Overall conclusion: 50 years later from Jefferson's 'Virginia Bill,' religion still holds controversial place/influence in American politics and society

Armstrong on "Common Sense Realism"

Armstrong argued that: - All people share a "common sense" - God has created the world-and the Bible-so that they are perspicuous (or comprehensible as they are to our minds) - The best meaning of a text is the clearest one or the one most available to our common sense, a potentially democratized practice, but also one that does have checks and only works if the Bible is what it says it is - against church being a political body, only should focus on converting slaves and people - says slavery itself is not sinful because practice is featured in the Bible To counter-argue Armstrong, Philosopher David Hue says "humans use categorization to explain a phenomenon," and does not mean our minds are necessarily accurate - religious conservatives responded by saying that God sought for human minds to be able to correctly perceive the world — Bible is clear, and your mind understands it as it is meant to be understood; moment you try to bring in other pieces of information or argument of subjectification, sees common sense reading of Bible challenged (i.e. slavery is not wrong because it is clearly shown in Bible)

On Judaism

At the end of the 19th century, split formed between Jews in America, based on how much to adapt to the modern world; Isaac Meyer Wise saw Reform Judaism as a way to PRESERVE Judaism; the event that crystalized division was a lunch-in with the Ravis, in which the catering served everything Jews could not consume according to their beliefs (anti-semetic), also known as the "Shrimp Incident"; raised question of whether food laws are binding or if moral beliefs in love of God enough - what separates us from Protestants? Timeline: - 1654 - Jews come to New Amsterdam, by 18th century can vote and hold office in New York Could not vote in many colonies, including Pennsylvania; had to be Trinitarian (anti-semetic) After Constitution, allowed rights but still suspect (although only a minority of the population) - Between 1820 and 1880 - around 250,000 Jews come to U.S. from Central Europe; in Germany, Jews were more assimilated into society than in Eastern Europe (pre-WWII); already have expectation of being part of larger, foreign society (think Isaac Wise' desire to reform/adapt) - Between 1881 and 1924 - nearly 2 million Jews came to U.S., more now from Eastern Europe; Jews coming from places where they were never allowed to be part of population and faced sporadic but intense persecution (think Antin's story); still, Jews did face challenges of anti-semetic discrimination in America, though much improved from persecutive environment of Europe

HESCHEL - A PROMINENT JEWISH UNDERSTANDING OF JUDAISM LAW

Does not view Jewish law as restrictive or focused on punishment; describes means to live a just daily life: examples include Sabbath, as day dedicated to God, with no work, electricity, etc. for 24 hours; also observant cosure laws, relating to foods you can and cannot eat (i.e. no shellfish, no meat and dairy together) "What we must try to avoid is not only the failure to observe a single mitzvah, but the loss of the whole, the loss of belonging to the spiritual order of Jewish living...the order of living is meant to be, not a set of rituals, but an order of all man's existence, shaping all his traits, interests, and disposition; the belonging to an order in which single deeds, aggregates of religious feeling, sporadic sentiments, moral episodes become a part of a complete pattern" (447) - OR law which makes us who we are and promotes collective self-discipline, which shows loyalty to God and His ways Writes what is at stake is the "ultimate embarrassment," or that of infinite responsibility without infinite power and infinite wisdom; man is capable of many things, but we must need responsibility, and man's responsibility is the responsibility of God - WHAT YOU DO MATTERS, CAN HAVE INFINITE CONSEQUENCES Argues that faith isn't enough, nor intention; we need external influence, which helps to keep us from doing bad and focused on doing good - Law promotes responsibility and reminds us of correct means of living (i.e. a liberating reminder); Heschel recognizes law as grace, a gift given to us by God

Key Arguments: Douglass, Grimke, Armstrong

Douglass (African American): shows he is against slavery by exploiting religion in South as being used to justify racism, violence, and barbarity; says religious slave owners are the worse; argued that increased Christianity will only make situation worse. Grimke (white American woman): says slavery in the Bible is different than slavery in the U.S.; argues that Jesus not condemning slavery is not applicable; provides strong moral appeal to Southern women (to help change the racist mindsets of their husbands) Armstrong (white man): uses "essential" vs "incidental" to describe slavery, that we can remove bad parts of it and that slavery is fundamentally slavery; says slavery works; argues that work of church is spiritual not political; Armstrong's argument is particularly difficult to combat because he takes arguments of other side and rebukes them -- by saying church is not political, it separates America from European organization; pulls people who are on the fence about slavery (something needs to change but not drastically); promoted Bible, without reading it through unnecessary lens of interpretation

On W.E.B. DuBois' piece 1903-04, "The Souls of Black Folk"

DuBois was one of the first African Americans to receive a degree from Harvard; wrote pivotal book in 20th century, which helped to shape the way people viewed slavery - wrote of 'Double-consciousness' of black Americans; describes "black" and "American" as battling identities; black people do not see world as it is, viewed through white man's veil of explanation - African Americans cannot just blend - Argues in favor of education or "book-learning" as means to understand and promote equality; voting not working...if we can just get educated, then rights will be secured...still doesn't work - Debating with Booker T. Washington, tech and industrial educator who promoted not fighting for African American rights in exchange for education; DuBois against this plan, does not think industrial education will miraculously secure rights - DuBois argues for black people to not see themselves as a nuisance or stranger in their own home; black people are Americans, we simply want to be "part" not separate; recognizes this as a hard fight

Critical Points of American Citizenship: DuBois, Strong, and the Native American Commission (Gates)

DuBois, Strong, and the Commissioners (representative of the supreme authority in an area) on "The United States: Its Mission, People, and Character" DUBOIS: argued that this nation would not be the nation it is today without African Americans; we should promote a nation where your skin color does not impede your American freedoms and identity; we must challenge the "double-consciousness" of our current minority Americans through equal citizenship STRONG: argued that the goal of this nation is to unite or assimilate everyone under Christian and Anglo-Saxon principles; all those who differ or refuse to assimilate to this image are inferior and will eventually give way to this dominating culture; North America is our divine land, and we are destined to lead it; our white, Protestant mission will spread to the rest of the world. NA COMMISSION (Gates): Native Americans should be allowed education, proper law, and citizenship, like any other American, for we all share the borders of this nation; we must remember how this nation came to be so "great," or prosperous, by taking advantage of those weaker identities to promote a white-oriented land and business; if we are to be United or properly assimilated, NA's must have equal freedoms, legislative protection, citizenship, and proper Christian education; asks the question of how much cultural difference the nation can handle

Elizabeth Key and Bacon: Key Names Tied to Slavery and the Construction of Race

Elizabeth Key: argued against her enslavement on the basis of her original contract as indentured servant, father's white skin color, and Christian faith and won case (1640s); case would cause series of laws passed after to prevent these arguments from becoming a reality again — 1643 says black women should be levied for work; 1660s says levy applied only to black women; 1662 says slave women's children will be slaves; 1667 says baptism does not free "slaves by birth"; 1670 sees Indian captives in war made slaves for a finite period Bacon or Bacon's rebellion: showed vulnerability of elite (1670s), which saw poor white servants and enslaved blacks unite against elite whites; sought to destroy white ally ship by promoting difference in rights for poor whites (have more in common economically with blacks but have right to bear arms, cannot legally be enslaved, etc); 1705 Act Concerning Slaves and Servants sees all minorities as "Christian and..." while white people considered real Christians

18th Century (early republic influence)

Emphasis on Catholic "fit" with American democracy, though 95% of religious identity was Protestant up to 1780s (Maryland included); not a lot for Protestants to fear due to such little Catholic influence... JOHN CARROLL speaks in favor of Catholics, but "plays nice," influenced by Catholic French, American prelate of the Roman Catholic Church who served as the first bishop and archbishop in the United States, named the "Superior of the American Missions" by the Pope

Familiar/Compelling vs Unfamiliar/Uncompelling aspects of Mormon Faith

Familiar/Compelling of Mormon Faith: - God as exalted human -- more human view of God; allows for relatability > potentially confusing metaphysicality of God - God as approachable and ready to receive - describes America as "promised land"; Jesus came here and established America as sight of sacred ground under Mormon theology - religious toleration - wants people to understand, as communicated through formally uneducated or common man preaching truth - argues that we are not responsible for original sin --that we should not hold guilt over Adam's sin Unfamiliar/Uncompelling of Mormon Faith: - Polytheism -- believe in multiple Gods, but only worship one God - claims that male humans can become "exalted" or become Gods themselves - God as exalted human -- confusing or controversial - Book of Mormon being a revelation above Bible -- audacious claim during 19th century

Chinese Exclusion Acts (1882)

First act that precluded entire group of people from immigration; takes place on East coast - Some missionaries (white Protestant and Evangelicals) protested act; envisioned the U.S. as built upon a shared Christianity identity, not a shared white identity; how can you propose God loving everyone, spread mission, if we are kicking out those who look different? How can we successfully assimilate these identities, in accordance to American ways, by means of Christian conversion? - Complicated, however, anti-Chinese supporters proposed that what made someone 'Christian' required accepting norms of middle-class white Americans, who at the time ended up defining what "Christian" meant

Gender in the Early Republic

Focus on ideal womanhood - piety, purity, submissiveness, domesticity - Jefferson and deToque (and Catherine Beecher) believe in morality or ability of society to "police" themselves, without influence of religion in state powers, by means of moral domesticity, where necessity of women's virtue and domestic duties important; understood as "Cult of Domesticity" - men expected to handle all civic, political, and societal affairs; women to stay in the home - truth is that male and female relationships not nearly as perfect as Jefferson and deToque describe; alcoholism, spouse abuse, influence of poverty, etc - slave women, like Harriet Jacobs "Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl," expose master/slave sexual abuse and challenges of female virtuity; argues that idealization of perfect chasteness of women cannot be realistically achieved for many women, especially slave women, inspiring female Abolitionist support; argues that vision only appeals to middle/upper class white

Fugitive Slave Act on 19th Century Religion in America

Fugitive Slave Act, which states that runaway slaves in North be returned to owners in South, sparked anti-slavery and anti-abolition controversy; Northern people willing to overlook legal law for moral or "higher" law - used as a means to expose instability in 'Protestant America' by Catholics (i.e. Bible does not deliberately state slavery is a 'sin'); issues surrounds challenging of law or abolition, for what might stop abolitionists from wanting to challenge other legal laws? or causing anarchy in society? - highlights argument of having strong state set-up; do Catholics or Protestants make better authority?

Era of Citizenship (1865-1876)

In the decades following the Civil War, Christianity was entangled in debates about who could be a citizen and who the country really belonged to; Christians both challenged and supported the reconstruction of the country as a white, Christian nation; the "Era of Citizenship" covers the Reconstruction period; exposed issue of race being more determinative of rights than religion, as black Christians were still being denied the same rights as white Christians

A bad equation: common sense realism + racism = what the Bible says about slavery only applies to black people

James Henley Thornwell preaches: "the free citizens of England and America, could not endure the condition of African bondage-it would defeat his individual development" but "subjection to a master, [is] the state in which the African is most effectually trained to the moral end of his being" (from 'The Rights and Duties of Masters') - acts as recipient of the construction of race, which argues that white people are not part of slavery - debates about the Bible and slavery were ever only about black slaves; indicates the profound nature of racism, even among white Christians who opposed slavery Results see a DIVIDED church (split over slavery debates before nation does); brutal fighting; Southern Christian "lost cause"; problem of racism remains unsolved - in 1844/45, the two largest white Protestant Evangelicals split, both Methodists and Baptists - scholars have argued that this splitting removed mechanism to talking across difference, leaving politics alone to handle debate - slavery conflict challenges authority of the Bible (Southerner's 'Biblical civilization'); both sides face religious undertone of doing 'God's work,' did not start war but did permit for increasingly violent tactics and increasingly hopeless strategies - Mike Knowle argues post-Civil War settles some questions (i.e. of succession, of slavery through 14th/15th Amendments), but racism or true human equality still remains an issue

Joseph Smith: Mormon Beginnings

Joseph Smith born in NY "Burned Over District," district given nickname because so many 'fires' of revivalists had come through there and 'burned it over'; born into plain but religiously frustrated family, mother wanted to be baptized as Christian but not under specific denomination - in 1820, Smith claims had 1st vision of God and Jesus coming to him and telling him not to join any of competing denominations-that they all are corrupt - reported 2nd vision in 1823 of being visited by angel Moroni, who tells Smith that he is last survival of ancient Americans, who themselves were descended from "lost tribes of Israel," and that amid arguments between these natives, Jesus introduced himself and told them to stop fighting; angel shares that the story of Moroni is contained on gold plates, and Smith called to translate and publish information - resulted in 1827 publication of "Book of Mormon"

Native Americans as "Future Citizens"

Native American rights as citizens were very poor: - move to reservation system, in which the land given to NA's still had them removed from purchased lands; meant for removal of some groups (Cherokee's in 1820s) - "Peace Policy" under Grant; saw that religious groups were given control of reservations with intention to "civilize" Native Americans - As "Peace Policy" fails, focus moves to education (I.e. boarding schools); caused major distress for Native Americans; targeted assimilation of the kids - In 1887, government forces allotment policy (Dawes Act: breaks up reservations and gives families an allotment of land to farm on); also fails but is kinder than other methods; promoted by Gates

Mormonism and Protestant Assumptions

Protestants ask Mormons to "choose God" or "country" 1862: plural marriage made illegal; 1878: Reynolds vs US; 1882: Edmunds Act; 1890: Woodruff Manifesto; 1904: Seating of Reed Smoot - One way white Protestants justified treatment of Mormons: declaring them as a different, "non-white" race; Wanted Mormons to follow law of the land, not religious practices; Mormons considered a huge political threat during 19th century; Joseph Hill killed because people so scared How Mormons responded: - Mormons move into non-threatening mainstream in 20th century - Mormon men expected to complete 2-yr mission to travel and preach teachings of church and Book of Mormon; considered a "nuisance"; Not super coercive; will leave book with you without full explanation; went from being a serious threat to a "joke" in American culture, monumental shift over 100+ years - Mormons follow strict script of conformity (uniform, preaching, monogamy, etc) - Preaches story of Jesus coming to America after poly-marriage ends in church; began preaching less of Smith's on-going revelations to ease issue of Mormon "threat"

What do interactions between Mormons and Protestants and Catholics and Protestants in the 19th century tell us about how Protestants viewed themselves and the United States?

Protestants viewed selves as dominant religion in America; struggled with issue of religious tolerance (i.e. technically open to other religions, but had limitations regarding powers or influence); wanted others to conform to their ways in society; highlights anxiety and fragility of religion, with concerns over absence of established church "Question of handling religious liberty still an issue today; has improved but tends to struggle with religious identities who have capabilities of influencing legal or political system"

On the issue of 19th century immigration and religious language, what does it take to be American (according to different sources)?

Protestants: true American is Protestant religiously; argues in favor of common identity or religious denomination Brownson: coming from Catholic perspective, argues that Catholicism would be more appealing if foreign Catholics would come here and act like middle/upper class Anglo-white Americans; should stop speaking German or foreign languages, assimilate, learn and act like the dominating culture (known as highly conservative approach) HUGHES: offering different Catholic perspective, defends ethnic Catholics (and use of their language in the Church), argues that what makes someone American is to be in America; argues that there will be natural shift in what is considered American as people and society change; as long as you come here and conform to the constitution, you should be accepted and considered rightfully American; controversial part is that though Hughes is open to foreigners, does think power should be retained in the Catholic natives, not immigrant Catholics coming in (conversative but more centrist)

3 Major Forms (Branches) of Judaism in 20th century

Reform Judaism - emphasis on moral law and love of God and neighbor; see ritual law as no longer binding; LIBERAL; follows "some form of Shabbat" Conservative Judaism - sees law as binding, but can also be interpreted/adapted toward modern times (i.e. Jews can drive on Shabbat if need to go to synagogue) Orthodox Judaism - ALL laws strict and binding (i.e. no driving on Shabbat); much diversity found within Orthodox Jews but all maintain shared understanding of faith

First Great Awakening (1730s/1740s): focused on conversion promoted by priests, but sanctified already chosen by God

Second Great Awakening (19th Century): focused on conversion, in which priests helped to promote human choice to convert -- human will emphasized

Intro to Judaism

The American context allowed multiple ways to be Jewish, and over time, Jews made being Jewish a viable way to be American (Judaio-Christian movement, as inspired through post-WWII setting); Religion practiced in much of the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible or Christian Old Testament) from Ancient Isrealite religion; it is an antecedent to Judaism, but not Judaism; the Tanakh shows creation of a people and a "religion" - people (Genesis 17), law, and temple History of Ancient Israelite reflect series of catastrophes; split of Northern and Southern kingdoms (900 BCE), fall of Northern kingdom by Assyria (722 BCE), then later Southern kingdom invaded by Babylon, temple destroyed, captives taken (586 BCE); exile defining event (Daniel's story part of Babylonian exile), or destruction of the temple, sees introduction of Judaism, a religion less temple-focused, causing switch to correct daily living; "Second temple Judaism" occurs when exile ends and temple rebuilt (535 BCE); once again taken over again...Israel often under oppressive control of other empires such as Greeks and Romans RABBINIC JUDAISM (Judaism with no temple): 70 CE sees temple destroyed by Romans, causing end to sacrificial system again; new and permanent emphasis on holiness of everyday life - a focus already, particularly among Pharisees who had emphasized both temple observance and daily holiness

The Bible on ANTI-SLAVERY VS PRO-SLAVERY ARGUMENTS

The Bible provides a mixed position of its thoughts on slavery, but the major point of controversy is that it does not implicitly call slavery a sinful work; the Bible often was used to prolong slavery; did not take much digging to find tolerance of slave work and practice; issue of moral ambiguity in Bible (though Protestants would never admit to this during 19th century) Anti-Slave Points: - Exodus promotes anti-slavery; God hears the cry of slaves in Egypt and delivers them; God punishes Egyptians with Passover (death of 1st born son); should celebrate or remember Passover, praise freedom - All people are children of God through faith - Paul sends slave (O.) back BUT that he should welcome him like Paul; ambiguous whether Paul sending Onesimus back to be slave or to be free Pro-Slave Points: - Says slaves should "obey" masters, and masters should treat slaves well - "Okay" for non-Israelites to be enslaved - Exodus 12 says Israelites should own slaves; does not say they should release them - Paul sends slave (O.) back

Protestant Evangelicalism: What is the role of religion in public and political life? (THOMAS JEFFERSON)

Thomas Jefferson's "Virginia Bill" of 1780s: promoted separation of church and state; believed that all should be free to believe in what they want and that religious opinions should not prevent civic rights; against teachers leading prayer in public school (tyrannical); against politicians basing laws on non-verifiable church teachings, reason prioritized - controversial because believed truth could always be best found through reason and debate; universal decision does not always mean it is correct, what about intent behind decision?

Virginia on Race

Virginians argued that slavery made race, and race made racism. However, historians say this is not accurate because of what is truly happening in Virginia. - Race was more of an economic or labor problem; white Virginians needed a cheap labor system to run their crops. They considered using Native Americans, but they knew their own language, knew the land, and were often heavily armed. They then thought about indentured servants, but the market was heavily dependent on England, required high turnover (died early of disease or from hard labor), and saw potential loss of land. - Best option for white Virginians was the African slave trade; they did not have arms, were of multiple languages and so could not communicate with each other, and did not hold strong influence in the fight/debate for human rights; the goal was to find a labor force white Virginians could never be a part of

Charles Finney (1820s) vs Jareena Lee (1830s) on 19th Century Evangelicalism

both share deep and personal experience of process of conversion; share visions of faith; see conversion as complete faith in the Lord; experience baptism; scared of Hell (and influence of Satan); both experience "call from God" to preach faith and associate preaching as crucial part in influencing conversion Finney only: struggled with want to be "seen" practicing faith, would hide when felt need to pray; described detailed feelings of "spiritual tranquility" after being saved, with lightness and electricity; emphasizes justification with the Spirit Lee only: promoted female equality in preaching of faith (i.e. if a woman were to experience personal conversion and desire to preach, then she should be able to, not just male duty); features '7 Deadly Sins' and detailed visions of Hell; describes conversion as Three-Fold process: "First, conviction for sin. Second, justification from sin. Third, the entire sanctification of the soul to God"; struggled with Satan-influenced suicidal thoughts; emphasizes sanctification with the Spirit

Preaching vs Free Will

free will emphasized as final deciding factor in conversion; while preaching may act as leading agent of God and critical part of influencing conversion, it is ultimately consenting of free will that allows ways, guidance, and faith in the Lord

Richard Allen and the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME)

freed slave who worked with founder of Methodism in America (Asberry, white man); had been part of "bi-racial" church in PA but whites wanted to be in charge of its functioning; due to lack of racial equity in church, left to form own church, African Methodist Episcopal

The Methodists Circuit Riders

ministers, often young men, who moved from community to community preaching w/ great fervor & organizing churches; all share conversion experience and desire to preach; improved numbers of converted

19th Century Evangelicalism: Piety and Practice

part of revitalist movement, with focus on conversion; emphasis on human agency or free will and sanctification ('entire sanctification'); provided leadership opportunities for non-elites, which allowed for increased promotion of conversion

Methodists, along with Baptists, main denomination of 19th century

started as reform movement in Church of England by John and Charles Wesley; promoted use of "circuit riders" and allowed for significant conversion of free blacks and slaves (as non-elites); structure open to integrating some foreign practices 1) promoted Arminian: "God extends grace to all, which allows everyone to make real choice," anti-predestination 2) work-oriented faith, in that "means of grace" helped to emphasize connection with God 3) sanctification as long, church-based process -- Wesley believed that with faith and "means of grace," might become entirely sanctified over course of life

de Toqueville on gender equality

though primarily focused on the functioning of democracy in America, Toqueville also observes how both men and women function in American society; he draws a comparison between just Democracy and a successful society as depending on the morality and intelligence of its practicing people; however, he places women as being the willful teachers of virtue and domesticity, and all other civic and secular dominations as being secured to male leadership; he argues that female subservitude is necessary and that though women have different roles to men, both genders are of "equal value" to each other in the eyes of the Lord and political realm of institutional democracy

Limits of Methodist Church

while more open, still had limits to egalitarianism, relating to or believing in the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities; could not be fully anti-slave b/c would lose conversion of white slave owners; led to creation of African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) and African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church (AMEZ)