SOC-102-02 Final Exam Study Guide

family

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functionalist perspective

According to the functionalist perspective, inequality is not only inevitable but necessary for the functioning of society. Certain positions need higher levels of rewards because of the difficulty in acquiring the skills to perform them. Therefore, while some are advantaged, others should be disadvantaged, since anyone could perform the tasks of lower positions with minimal effort. In fact, society may need to threaten those at the bottom with sanctions simply to get them to do anything. (p. 153)

Brownfields Revitalization Act

Alyssa Mae Mamaclay: Hi Jeanine, I also don't remember anything about the Brownfields Revitalization Acts and was not able to find it in the textbook or any of the supplemental readings. After a bit of research, it looks like the Brownfields Revitalization Act was passed in 2002 combining two previous acts, the Small Business Liability Protection Act, and the Brownfields Revitalization and Environmental Restoration Act. The dual purpose of the act was to "provide relief from Superfund liability for small businesses and certain property owners, and to promote the revitalization of 'brownfields,' properties where redevelopment is hindered by the presence or potential presence of contamination" (Johnson 2004). The primary functions that the law serves are to promote the remediation and reuse of brownfields and provide financial assistance to do so. Hope this helps! Johnson, Keith. 2019. "Overview of the Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act." Poyner Spruill LLP. Retrieved December 12, 2021 (https://www.poynerspruill.com/thought-leadership/overview-of-the-small-business-liability-relief-and-brownfields-revitalization-act/).

anomie

Anomie, as described by Emile Durkheim, describes a state of normlessness within a society. It is "an episodic or permanent condition caused by broad social changes in society that render institutions designed to regulate goals and behavior ineffective" (Trevino 2019:630). I think the past year and a half of the global pandemic has resulted in a sort of anomie within our society. Treviño, A. Javier. 2019. Investigating Social Problems. SAGE Publishing.

risk contract

Beck (1992) suggests this form of modernization is part of what he calls the risk society. His overarching thesis is that risks are everywhere and play an increasing role in shaping society. The ability to avoid risk exposure creates a new way in which people are divided into social groups, replacing old systems that differentiated them by their access to money and other economic resources. Whereas conflict used to arise over the distribution of goods, with everyone wanting more, it now arises over dodging bads and wanting less of the undesirables. According to Beck, "The driving force in the class society can be summarized in the phrase: I am hungry! The movement set in motion by the risk society, on the other hand, is expressed in the statement: I am afraid!" (p. 49). Our fear is spurred by our inability to predict the future and our lack of assurance that the government can and will protect society. If risk is about a subjective evaluation of whether the benefits of some activity are worth the potential future costs, leaving it up to the government seems foolhardy. We have lost faith in what Beck calls the risk contract, or the implicit understanding that government will enact rules to make sure people will be protected as society bounds progressively forward. (799)

divorce

But the second half of the 20th century also brought some striking changes in the picture of all U.S. families. The number of divorces shot up, as did the number of children born to unmarried partners. Consequently, the number of families headed by divorced or never-married women rose dramatically.

C. Wright Mills

C. Wright Mills was a leading critic of U.S. society in the 1950s and made contributions to the sociological perspective known as conflict theory. Mills taught at Columbia University and wrote about the power arrangements in U.S. society in such books as White Collar and The Power Elite. His most famous book, The Sociological Imagination, was published in 1959. (79) A number of approaches—Marxist theory, critical theory, feminist theory, world systems theory, poststructural theory, and queer theory—can be included in the ranks of conflict theories. Here, we will briefly focus on the sociological analysis of C. Wright Mills (1916-1962). Although he wrote prior to the designation of "conflict theory" as a theoretical approach, Mills's approach to sociology and the study of work resides firmly within it. One of Mills's earliest works, The New Men of Power, originally published in 1948, looked at the way union officials shape the relationship between employers and employees (Mills, 2001/1948). In his later book The Power Elite (1956), Mills portrayed U.S. society in the 1950s as dominated by three interlinked elites: the managers of large corporations, upper-level government officials, and top military brass. In Mills's analysis, the rise of these forces threatened U.S. democracy itself. Unlike Marxists, however, he did not expect class- conscious workers to challenge this triumvirate. Absorbed in their efforts to acquire the consumer goods churned out by a booming postwar economy, members of the working class were not much inclined to dispute the prevailing distribution of power. Nor did Mills put much hope in the political consciousness of middle-class workers, a group he analyzed in another book, White Collar (1951). Although their ranks had grown spectacularly during the 20th century, white-collar workers did not lean toward concentrated political action. As with the working class, this group's "usual demands are for a larger slice of a growing yield, and its conscious expectations are short-run expectations of immediate material improvements, not in any change in the system of work and life" (Mills, 1951, p. 331). In Mills's glum summation, "the jump from numerical growth and importance of function to increased political power requires, at a minimum, political awareness and political organization. The white- collar workers do not have either to any appreciable extent" (Mills, 1951, pp. 352-353). Mills also sought to connect what he called "private problems" and "public issues." As individuals we tend to think our problems are unique to ourselves, failing to note that they are often produced by social forces beyond our control (Mills, 1959). For instance, we might view unemployment as a result of personal failings such as a lack of requisite skills or motivation. In fact, the widespread unemployment that followed the financial collapse of 2007-2008 was brought on by reckless and even criminal activities perpetrated by a financial sector liberated from prior government oversight. (575)

Power elite

C. Wright Mills was a leading critic of U.S. society in the 1950s and made contributions to the sociological perspective known as conflict theory. Mills taught at Columbia University and wrote about the power arrangements in U.S. society in such books as White Collar and The Power Elite. His most famous book, The Sociological Imagination, was published in 1959. (79) C. Wright Mills began an important tradition in U.S. social thought by examining how those in power assert themselves. In The Power Elite, originally published in 1956, Mills (2000) focused on the interconnections among corporate leaders, the military, and the government—what President Dwight D. Eisenhower would later term the military-industrial complex. By the late 20th century, academic leaders were also identified as 156 part of this matrix, participating in a process in which individuals moved readily from one position to another in the corporate world, the academic world, and the government. Economists Timothy Geithner and Lawrence Summers, for instance, have both held powerful positions in corporations, the federal government, and higher education (see below). G. William Domhoff has published a series of studies identifying these "interlocking directorates," which show that the United States, like many other countries, is dominated by a powerful elite whose members are able to maintain their control based on their own or others' wealth and social positions. (156-157)

technology

Chapter 15 Science and Technology, p. 811

conflict perspective

Conflict theory is the sociological theory that focuses on dissent, coercion, and antagonism in society. In this sense we may see conflict theory as the opposite of structural functionalism. It too has its roots in the 19th century, particularly in the ideas of Karl Marx. (p. 95)

Will Allen

Describe how the Will Allen Growing power case addresses social stratification and social mobility using specific points from his life story. The urban farming powerhouse had a global reputation. Then, it collapsed last year under mounting debt, prompting big questions about what happened and what comes next. Will Allen is a beloved figure. The former professional basketball player and founder of the Milwaukee-based nonprofit Growing Power has had an influence on urban agriculture that is as conspicuous as his 6'7 inch frame and the characteristic sleeveless hooded sweatshirts that reveal his lumberjack biceps. In 1993, Allen bought the city's last remaining farm at 5500 Silver Springs on Milwaukee's north side, four miles from the nearest grocery store and five blocks from the nearest public housing projects. What grew from that 19th century greenhouse could not be measured in pounds, bushels, or even dollars. What arose was a nonprofit organization that expanded people's ideas about what was possible in local food production and youth education. Then, last November, facing insurmountable debt and legal pressure (the nonprofit has eight pending judgments totaling nearly half a million dollars) the board of directors decided to dissolve Growing Power. Many questions remain about what caused the organization's downfall, but as Allen told Civil Eats recently, he has no intention of retiring. "The shutdown was unfortunate and something I had no control over," said Allen, who is still working on the farm. "We're trying to get this place back to its original glory days. What's been reported is absolutely not true. I can't tell the story because it's too involved, but I can tell you that we're on our way back." As the story unfolds—and accounts differ—the downfall of Growing Power raises larger questions about the risks of scaling up urban agriculture in today's complex philanthropic world. The Early Days From the beginning, Allen, a son of sharecroppers who grew up on a farm in Maryland, had two distinct priorities for his farm: composting and youth mentorship—the latter informed by the former. In drafty old greenhouses, Allen taught low-income children how to grow compost in rows of wooden boxes. Worms fed on decomposing vegetables, circuitously depositing dense nutrients into the soil and creating healthy compost, which was then sold by the organization. The compost was an essential part of the work. Where most people see vacant lots, Allen saw vegetables. Growing Power built over 100 hoop houses, each one spread with more than 100 yards of compost over asphalt and concrete. "You have to assume every vacant lot has contaminants in the soil," he said. "So that why I started this practice of composting at scale." Growing Power soon incorporated aquaponics, another closed-loop system that produced farmed fish and simultaneously fertilized the plants with their waste. In just six months, 50 tilapia emerged from this rudimentary but brilliant system. A defining characteristic of Allen's work was the way in which his social programs emulated the holistic feedback loops of his farm. Decorative plants were used for landscaping, then sold to schools and community centers, funding the continuation of the program. Students learned how to read, write, and can vegetables. Growing Power worked with the local juvenile justice system, training and rehabilitating children by planting flowers in vacant lots where—by Allen's own estimation—they might've otherwise been used for selling drugs. The 1990s in urban Milwaukee was unkind to its young Black men. In this period there were four times as many African Americans incarcerated annually for drug-related offenses as white men. (This persisted over the subsequent decade, with disparities rising to 11- to 12-fold between 2002 and 2005.) On a vacant lot at 24th and Brown, a planting flurry would yield what Will calls "a flower explosion." It was a way of running drug dealers off the corner, as it invited attention and activity. And in just two years, Growing Power itself was beginning to attract attention, on the front page of the Milwaukee paper, and from other civic leaders in high-crime neighborhoods around the country. By the early 2000s, the local food movement was no longer localized. Farmers' markets were popping up nationwide, and along with them a legion of so-called "good food" advocates. Growing Power was still centralized in Milwaukee, but its impact had grown nationwide. The two-acre flagship greenhouse was now a training facility with visitors coming from around the world to learn from the organization. It was a good food hub, creating access to healthy food in an area that desperately needed it. By 2009, Growing Power was selling food online, at farmers' markets, schools, restaurants, and via below-market-cost CSA boxes, reaching more than 10,000 people. In addition to growing and distributing food, Growing Power-led trainings grew exponentially. Visitors from the city of Milwaukee, the Midwest, and countless cities worldwide adapted Allen's knowledge of growing, composting, and aquaponics for their communities. Notoriety and Success Growing Power's expansion can be attributed, in part, to the MacArthur Genius Award Allen received in 2008, and the half-million-dollar prize that came with it. It also garnered high-level attention from the media, the food world, and former President Clinton. Will Allen demonstrates his aquaculture system for Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack (left) in 2015. (Photo credit: USDA) Allen became a star, and his organization grew radically, from a staff of a dozen or so to 200 people. A widespread recruitment and mobilization of urban agriculture and environmental justice workers ensued. A decade later, many of those workers now lead their own urban farming enterprises. People like Nick DeMarsh—a Growing Power employee from 2008-2010 and currently a program manager at Groundwork Milwaukee—attributes the health of Milwaukee's urban farming community to Allen's inspiration, saying, "We've seen Will as a model, and people have said, 'How can I do that in my own neighborhood?'" Educational programs spread throughout the region. There were leadership programs, job trainings for underserved youth, internships, and hands-on workshops. The funds also supported a Chicago chapter of Growing Power, led by Erika Allen, Will's daughter. We'll bring the news to you. Get the weekly Civil Eats newsletter, delivered to your inbox. SIGN UP TODAY There were more greenhouses and hoop houses, more kitchens and training gardens, fish, chickens, turkeys, goats, and bees. Most of what was raised on the farm was also packed, distributed, and promoted by the organization. By all accounts, Growing Power was doing exactly what they had set out to do. They were feeding, training, and exposing thousands of people to a more autonomous relationship with their food. The mission was being fulfilled, but with significant costs. Perhaps the income and activity obscured the high operating costs, but there was income. In 2012, Growing Power was again awarded a substantial grant, this time from the W.K. Kellogg Foundation, one of the largest philanthropic foundations in the United States. Kellogg had an explicit aim to support racial equity and community engagement, and Growing Power checked a lot of boxes for them. As the funding amplified, so did scrutiny about its origins. In fact, one of the very people that helped facilitate the crucial MacArthur grant would later become openly critical of Growing Power's choice of funders. Andy Fisher, the co-founder of the Community Food Security Coalition (CFSC)—a food justice organization on whose board of directors Allen served for six years—had seen Allen as "an inspiring and charismatic leader." But when Growing Power accepted a $1 million grant from the Walmart Foundation in 2011, Fisher was outspoken about his displeasure with this corporate philanthropy. Some, like Fisher, saw no distinction between the Foundation and the company, and worried that Walmart was brazenly trying to buy its way into the good food movement. As Fisher saw it at the time, the Walmart Foundation's giving was 100 percent linked to the strategic interests of Walmart the company. He saw the funds as an endorsement (or absolution) of the corporation's practice of exploiting and underpaying food-chain workers, farmers, and suppliers. "I thought it was naive and problematic that he was taking the money and giving them a pass on their payment practices," Fisher told Civil Eats recently. Some of Growing Power's hoop houses in Milwaukee. (Photo credit: Will Allen) For his part, Allen contended that significant progress without the buy-in of large corporations was untenable. "We can no longer be so idealistic that we hurt the very people we're trying to help. Keeping groups that have the money and the power to be a significant part of the solution away from the Good Food Revolution will not serve us," he said at the time, in a statement on the Growing Power blog. Regardless of the source, from 2012 through 2015, more money was exiting than entering Growing Power's doors. Internal Revenue Service documents from 2014 show that the nonprofit was running substantial deficits, in excess of $2 million that year. In 2015, an investor in a for-profit spinoff, Will Allen Farms LLC, filed a lawsuit against Allen and his accountant Thomas Schmitt. The investor alleged that she had been misled about the development of an industrial laundry site to be turned into an aquaponic facility. The Fallout People close to the organization were saddened by the news of its dissolution, but many were not surprised. As far back as 2014, the Chicago chapter of Growing Power had begun to move toward independent accounting and funding strategies. Warning signs about Growing Power's financial health were embedded in its mandatory annual filings and felt by its vendors. And despite Allen's passion and dedication, he may have suffered from a bit of founder's syndrome. Fisher theorizes that Allen's inability to empower and retain an operational management team was the main cause of the organization's collapse. "Will centralized all the power in himself, but he was never around. It became dysfunctional," Fisher said. "They tried to at times bring in others to run day-to-day operations so Will could have a more outward-facing role, but that person would resign and inevitably they'd go back to the old system." Will Allen (back row, right) at a 2016 White House garden event, alongside Barack and Michelle Obama, Alonzo Mourning, Sesame Street characters, and many others. (Official White House photo by Chuck Kennedy) Erika Allen, who has reorganized the Chicago chapter of Growing Power as Urban Growers Collective (UGC), also noted an inadequate composition of board members as a vulnerability of the organization. "There were weaknesses on the board. A little analysis would've exhibited the losses, and that the nonprofit needed to run more like a business," she said. Conflicting Accounts After Growing Power announced its discontinuance, it was reported that Brian Sales, founder of Green Veterans, would assume the transition. Sales, a Florida veteran who'd only met Allen one year prior, said he created Green Vets as a means of trauma resolution and green jobs skills training for military veterans. He reached out to Allen and soon after had joined him in Milwaukee for a 30-day aquaponics training. He was persistent about working with Allen, who soon gave him a job as an assistant facilities manager at the headquarters in Milwaukee, where he worked until the nonprofit's closure in November 2017. Prior to Growing Power's shutdown, Sales began working with Groundwork Milwaukee, a nonprofit chapter of an environmental land trust that also supports more than 100 urban farms in the city. The hope was that Sales would help manage the transition. Deneine Powell, Groundwork Milwaukee's executive director, told Civil Eats she was in regular communication with Allen and that she was under the impression that he planned to retire. Sales also seemed certain about Allen's retirement, and reported that he was "always hinting at retirement" and grooming Sales as a successor. Allen denied making any arrangements with Sales. And while he wouldn't share any details about his plans with Civil Eats, he said he hopes to reveal more soon. "My focus has to be on getting this place back and getting possession of it," Allen said of the lot on Silver Springs Street. It's clear that, in the meantime, Allen, Sales, and Groundwork all appear to be actively working to shape Allen's legacy. But just how coordinated those efforts will be is another question. Lessons Learned What can the demise of Growing Power teach the food movement? For some, collaboration (or lack thereof) was a prominent theme. Sales speculates that an inadvertent siloing of Growing Power left it too exposed. "One organization cannot take on that big of a task; you need multiple organizations that will work as part of the spokes on a wheel," he said. Meanwhile, Allen echoed his daughter's sentiments that a lack of oversight by board members compromised the organization's financial health. What is certain, however, is the undeniable impact the organization has had over the last two and a half decades. "The training, learning, and benefits of Growing Power will be felt for years to come," said Ricardo Salvador, director of the food and environment program at the Union of Concerned Scientists and a former program officer for the Kellogg Foundation. Everyone Civil Eats spoke to for this article unanimously agreed on that point. Erika Allen said UGC is now centered on empowering young people of color through education. "Growing Power was about feeding people, but for us, the education component is higher-stakes," she said. She noted that training programs are expensive to operate—even those that generate their own revenue tend to rely on outside funding. More fastidious financial oversight would've likely helped Growing Power arrive at the same conclusions, but for now, she hopes "to take the lessons of what worked" and move forward. Will Allen photo by Carlos Ortiz (Photo courtesy of Will Allen. It's clear that Will Allen's legacy will live on in the many organizations that grew from his work. In addition to empowering a generation of community leaders all across the country, who have gone on to radically transform their lives and neighborhoods, he also succeeded at teaching and protecting vulnerable Black children in an era when very few other entities were up to the task. A common adage for Allen was, "We're not just growing food, we're growing community." By that measure, his success is timeless. Allen is optimistic about the next generation of farmers, but he knows it will be a hard road and frames this challenge as only he can. "To be a sustainable farmer and grow without chemicals is harder than being a professional athlete," he said, adding that he knows this first-hand, "because I've been both." Top photo: Will Allen in a Growing Power greenhouse. (Photo credit: Growing Power) https://civileats.com/2018/03/13/behind-the-rise-and-fall-of-growing-power/

differential association theory

Edwin H. Sutherland developed differential association theory and drew heavily on his social psychological and symbolic interactionist training from the University of Chicago. Sutherland (1947) specifically drew on the work of W. I. Thomas—who defined social psychology as the scientific study of attitudes—and argued that the proximal cause of criminal behavior was one's evaluation of that behavior (the rationalization). He also drew on the work of George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley and argued that one's ability to fit a deviant rationalization into a concrete circumstance is dependent on his or her definition of that situation. According to Sutherland, we learn these definitions through structured interactions with others, who communicate that crime is either (1) wrong in all circumstances, (2) appropriate but only under some circumstances, or (3) appropriate in virtually all circumstances (Matsueda, 1988). However, our associates often give us mixed messages, and we are exposed to definitions that are both favorable and unfavorable to crime. When one's definitions favorable to crime exceed one's definitions unfavorable to crime, he or she is predicted to deviate. The differential association process is hypothesized to explain not just if or how often one is deviant, but also the types of criminal acts he or she commits (Thomas, 2015). Sutherland's (1947) differential association theory is considered a quintessential sociological explanation, as it identifies the causes of crime through interactions with social groups, one's learned attitudes toward crime, and in the meaning individuals place on immediate circumstances. Differential association theory has impressive empirical support. Associating with delinquent friends and possessing delinquent attitudes are two of the strongest predictors of deviant conduct (Pratt et al., 2010). (p. 633)

feminist perspective

From a liberal feminist perspective, the best way to reduce gender inequality is to reduce the barriers that stand in the way of women's advancement. Because women and men are essentially the same, once these barriers have been removed, gender inequality will gradually disappear. But as we've seen, from the radical feminist perspective gender inequality is explained by the prevalence of patriarchy as a defining characteristic of society. Thus merely changing a few laws here and there will not rid us of gender inequality. Instead, any effort to reduce gender inequality must involve a fairly radical restructuring of society—not just government but also educational institutions, religious institutions, the family, the media, work, and so on. (This explains why radical feminism is, in fact, radical compared to liberal feminism.) Socialist feminism: A version of feminist thought that employs Marxist paradigms to view women as an oppressed social class. Radical feminism: A version of feminist thought that suggests gender is a fundamental aspect of the way society functions and serves as an integral tool for distributing power and resources among people and groups. Liberal feminism: A type of feminism that suggests men and women are essentially the same and gender inequality can be eliminated through the reduction of legal barriers to women's full participation in society.

The built environment

Harvey (1973) argues that the continual redevelopment of certain areas of cities—not the areas with the most need—is driven by profit-motivated capitalists without interference from, and sometimes with the help of, local and federal governments. According to Harvey, this tends to benefit affluent whites and hurts poor African Americans and other minorities who have trouble obtaining loans to buy houses. From this vantage point, Harvey stresses the role of the built environment as commodity and as a source of profit and loss: Under capitalism there is a perpetual struggle in which capital builds a physical landscape appropriate to its own condition at a particular moment in time, only to have to destroy it, usually in the course of a crisis, at a subsequent point in time. The temporal and geographical ebb and flow of investment in the built environment can be understood only in the terms of such a process. The effects of the internal contradictions of capitalism, when projected into the specific context of fixed and immobile investment in the built environment, are thus writ large in the historical geography of the landscape that results. (p. 124) (950)

gemeinschaft/gesellschaft

Hi Yu'niek, The concepts of gemeinschaft and gesellschaft can be found in Chapter 17 (Urbanization) originates from German sociologist Ferdinand Tonnies. In his notable work by the same name, he described gemeinschaft and gesellschaft as two basic principles of social relationships and institutions in which they are organized. Gemeinschaft is "the first stage, or 'communal association,...[which] is the traditional, rural settlement with a homogenous population in which everyone knows all the other residents and their biographies" (Trevino 2019:930). It describes an extremely close-knot community in built of common values of the inhabitants. Gesellschaft, on the other hand, is described by Tonnies as the second stage and "societal associaiton". Gesellschaft "is the modern city in which 'rational self-interest' or individualism eclipses community interests" (Trevino 2019:930). It describes a less tight-knit and more formal community governed by external forces, like government, rather than shared values. Sarah Gallardo-Chavez: Hi Melika, You can find gemeinschafts and gesellschaft in chapter 17 Urbanization page 22. Gemeinschaft is a "communal association, or a sense of close-knit community relations based on shared traditions and values." (Trevino 26) Gesellschaft is the "societal association, or a sense of relationships typified by impersonal bureaucracies and contractual arrangements rather than informal ones based on kinship and family ties." (Trevino 26) Those terms connect to sociology because it refers to community and society. Victoria Trejo: Hi Melika, We learned about gemeinschaft/ Gesellschaft in chapter 17 urbanization on page 426. They are defined as gemeinschaft "communal association" Trevino (2014 pg 426) and Gesellschaft "societal association" Trevino (2014 pg 426). They connect to sociology as they are described by Tönnies as stages in the evolution of human society.

Federal Healthcare Reform

Home > Health Policy Issues > Health Reform Federal Healthcare Reform: Overview After a contentious debate that dragged on for a year, President Obama signed into law sweeping federal healthcare reform legislation (H.R. 3590) on March 23, 2010. A reconciliation bill, (H.R. 4872), to fix aspects of the major bill also passed and was signed March 30. Both bills passed with unanimous opposition from Republicans. Advocates hailed passage of the bills as an overdue victory for the uninsured which will prevent insurance company abuses that have kept people from being able to purchase affordable health insurance. Opponents decried both the method in which the law passed as well as its substance, arguing that the law's mandate on individuals to purchase insurance is unconstitutional and that healthcare costs will continue to soar in the future. Together these two federal healthcare reform laws create tighter regulations on health insurers and extend health insurance to millions of uninsured individuals. Specifically, the new laws remove lifetime benefit caps on insurance plans and ban insurance company practices such as denying coverage to individuals because of pre-existing conditions. States have the option of expanding Medicaid coverage to nearly all individuals under the age of 65 with incomes up to 138 percent of the federal poverty line - Ohio has taken advantage of this option. Changes to the Medicare prescription drug program aim to help close a gap in coverage. https://www.neohospitals.org/publicpolicyandadvocacy/health-policy-issues/federal-healthcare-reform

ecological modernization theory

If we adopt a structural functionalist perspective, we need to focus on reorganizing society to make bad environmental behaviors less appealing and more inconvenient, perhaps by raising the economic costs associated with them, or we could make good practices cheaper and more convenient. A third strategy is simply to make bad practices much less harmful. We've basically described the ecological modernization (EM) perspective. Ecological modernization theory suggests that we can find solutions to our environmental problems by altering our current economic system to encourage good environmental behaviors. Competition, management, and taxes can reduce our inclinations to use the environment for free. The production of green technology will follow, as efficiency and better use of resources become driving forces in research and development. Rather than rejecting modernization, as some environmental sociologists do, we should solve problems by modernizing further (Mol & Spaargaren, 2000). We can keep our basic standard of living and engage in the same types of activities with a much smaller environmental impact. Perhaps the greatest benefit of the EM approach is that it does not ask for massive changes to people's lifestyles or challenge the cultural practices they enjoy. It does not require any radical economic restructuring. The changes are subtle and organic and can occur without significant discomfort. The government can offer incentives for green changes too. The "cash for clunkers" program, or Car Allowance Rebate System (CARS), was an EM-style program introduced in 2009 in the United States to subsidize the purchase of high- efficiency vehicles when the buyers traded in old low-efficiency vehicles. Fuel is expensive, and people are willing to pay more for a clean environmental conscience, so high-efficiency technology is being developed and refined, and cars that utilize it are increasingly accessible and affordable. Ecological modernization theory has its critics, however. Some challenges invoke the idea of social inequality. Many countries now switching to green technology have undergone industrialization processes that were far from environmentally friendly, such as Australia, the United States, and the United Kingdom. If other countries undertake similar economic development, the environmental impacts will be significant and potentially disastrous. Yet the economic disadvantages in these countries, and their need for economic growth and infrastructure development, make it difficult for them to gain access to expensive new green technologies. Critics question whether EM theory is appropriate outside industrialized nations, where the need for environmentally sound economic development is greatest. (788)

industrialization

Industrialization: A process that leads to a significant increase in the proportion of a population engaged in specialized factory work and nonagricultural occupations; increases the number of people living near factories and relying on mechanically produced goods (930) Traditional images of science portrayed it as a truth-seeking activity that used quantitative assessments and expert knowledge to arrive at facts, until we began to question the facts of science. For example, society recognized that the atom bomb was a military marvel as well as a device of horrific destruction. Industrialization brought labor-saving devices into the factory and the home while also polluting environments with chemical by-products. These complications prompt us to ask the question: Is science a social problem? (824) With the entrance of industrialization, workers' skills and knowledge become obsolete next to the machine. This deskilling of workers shifts control from them to a centralized authority. (825) At the other end of the continuum, or the next stage in human social development, is gesellschaft, or "societal association." This is the modern city in which "rational self-interest" or individualism eclipses community interests. Relationships are no longer steeped in sentiment but instead are primarily associational and based on calculating, economic exchanges. Given the heterogeneous populations of emerging cities, residents no longer share language, religion, and traditions, and behavior and interaction are governed by external forces like the evolving criminal justice system. For Tönnies, the process of urbanization was inseparable from the parallel process of industrialization. Together these forces erode social bonds and weaken the family unit, which he saw as a vital component of a healthy society.

Urban Sociology

Jeanine Vanek-Valdez: Hi Sara. I found in the book that the definition for urbanization is the movement of population from rural to urban areas; the growth and development, and redevelopment of cities (Trevino 2019: 425). Urbanization is also the process by which cities, suburbs, and metropolitan areas develop and grow over time (Trevino 2019:425). Urbanism is the ways of life or cultures of people in cities; the myths, symbols and rituals of urbanites (Trevino 2019: 437). While looking at the symbolic interactionism perspective, most urban sociologists will start by looking at places in a city or cities where the social problem happens. This method allows researchers to build ideas from the ground up so they are aware of past theories and research on the area (Trevino 2019: 437). I hope this helped. Melika Ortanez: Hello Sara, Urban sociology can be defined with the terms; urbanism and urbanization. Urbanism means "the ways of life or cultures of people in cities; the myths symbols, and rituals of urbanities."(Treviño 2019: 437) And urbanization means "the movement of populations from rural to urban areas; the growth and development, and redevelopment, of cities." (Treviño 2019: 425) Urban sociologists would use the urban culturalist perspective or "symbolic interactionist" perspective in urban sociology. The urban culturalist perspective is placed based as it does not perceive one city as an "absolute example of 21st-century urbanism," as do contemporary scholars. And it views city-based theories as problematic because "they don't allow comparisons between cities (or between cities, suburbs, and towns)." But what urban sociologists would do is focus on one "social problem or phenomenon," and seek out the place where the problem is happening. References: Treviño, A. Javier. 2019. Investigating Social Problems. SAGE Publishing.

Robert Merton

Jim Hicks: Hi Sarah. Robert K. Merton is the man who constructed strain theory, and it was a theory used as a structural-functionalist perspective to crime. In America, there is a common ideal to the pursuit of happiness, and in our economic system that is often equated to pursuing our desires and achieving economic success. Although, as strain theory points out the opportunity and achievement to economic success is not always available to everyone. Thereby, causing a strain and pressure on people to commit crimes. For example, a person may desire to find more financial security and seek to fulfill that need by illegal means. That is what Merton would call the innovative way of doing things because it is not necessarily ethical and or legal. (Treviño 2019: 278-279)

demography

Just how extensive are these shifts in the demography of families? And do they indicate a growing disenchantment with the social institution of family? (485)

strain theory

Melika Ortanez: Hello Sarah, The strain theory is to explain "why crime rates are differentially distributed across different class structures in society." (Treviño 2019: 278) The strain theory is the theory " of crime that posits individuals commit crimes because of the strains caused by the imbalance between socially accepted goals and the individuals' inadequate means to achieve those goals." (Treviño 2019: 278) The goal is more likely to "target" people in the poorer class to figure out how to "improve the likelihood of achieving economic success." Which can be responded to in one of the five ways; conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion. (Treviño 2019: 279) References: Treviño, A. Javier. 2019. Investigating Social Problems. SAGE Publishing.

deskilling

Modern Times, a film written and directed by Charlie Chaplin in 1936, examines the idea of technology as a social problem. The film asks whether technology has gotten too big and made humans its servants, merely parts of the machine. With the entrance of industrialization, workers' skills and knowledge become obsolete next to the machine. This deskilling of workers shifts control from them to a centralized authority. (p. 826, under "Technology as a Social Problem")

reflexive modernization

Paula Raeside: Hi Alyssa! Reflexive modernization is mentioned in chapter 14, and is described as a way of developing economically while focusing on revising our current systems of production. It's characterized by making careful, reflective assessments of any possible outcomes that may result from our projects and decisions (Trevino 2019: 361). Technologically, we have gotten to the point where we are not fully confident that further advancements are for the best, so we can use reflexive modernization as a way of proceeding with caution, with our eyes wide open. I would apply this to our real life social problems by looking at the way we have rapidly urbanized since the industrial revolution. Back then, we were confident that advancements were in our best interest so we renovated quickly at the expense of certain groups as well as our environment. Now that we are functional and sufficient in our ways of life (more or less), it would be in our favor to try to anticipate the latent functions of further modernization, and to generally be more reflective in our day-to-day lives, individually and as a whole. Treviño, A. Javier. 2019. Investigating Social Problems. SAGE Publishing.

manifest/latent functions

Paula Raeside: Hi Victoria! The legalization of same-sex marriage has undoubtedly inflicted social changes on families that has had both latent and manifest functions. Manifest functions are intended, while latent functions are unintended (Trevino 2019: 143). A manifest function would be allowing two people who are in love to be together in a permanent and official manner, while a latent function might be the normalization and general acceptance of atypical relationships. Treviño, A. Javier. 2019. Investigating Social Problems. SAGE Publishing. Yu'niek Roberts: Hi Victoria, Being that manifest functions are conscious and deliberate/ intentional while latent functions are unintentional, in regards to the legalization of same sex marriage, there is a clear difference. Connecting manifest functions to the issues stemming around legalizing same sex marriage it would be when states intentionally pass laws recognizing same sex couple as a union and allowing them to benefit from being married. Latent functions would be these same law makers, who vote no to legalization, for reasons such as religion but are unable to intermix their religious beliefs publicly with their political beliefs. They instead give reasons such as of state and Federal governments declaring marriage to only be between man and woman. To understand it for race and do a slight comparison; Check out chapter of 3 of Treviño, A. Javier. 2019. Investigating Social Problems. 2nd ed.

War on Drugs

Sara Sanford: The "war on drugs" had been described as the "public enemy number one" by President Nixon back in the 1970s. According to the textbook, "When the Reagan administration began its own War on Drugs in 1982, less than 2% of Americans considered drugs the most important issue facing the nation. The media were used to reinforce the rhetoric and link drugs to crime, especially in impoverished inner-city minority neighborhoods. (Treviño 659)" The was on drugs contributes to homelessness due to how prevalent homelessness is in impoverished communities, primarily those that often include Black and people of color. The war on drugs targets those who are part of what is considered the lower-income group in our society, that caters to those who are financially vulnerable. The war on drugs ultimately contributes to homelessness due to how drug possession and criminalization is managed , as it targets those who are either underprivileged, lower class, etc. and then charges individuals of certain backgrounds with more severe sentences. This, as a result, leads to these individuals getting thrown in jail for long periods of time, and gets put on their records for possession, which then affects their life and their ability to live a life after their prison sentence. Simultaneously, those who do not get charged with possession or deal with any legal matter, often struggle with drug abuse and addiction. Both of these contributors often hold a massive dent in an individual's wellbeing, often resulting in financial and emotional recklessness, which can then lead to individuals in the direction towards homelessness. Both the criminalization of drugs and the aspect of drug abuse and addiction can result and lead to homelessness, and the war on drug establishes it to the extent which it is seen today. Treviño, A., n.d. Investigating social problems. Indrani Maharaj: During the War on Drugs declared by President Nixon, the criminalization of cocaine was directly targeted towards black communities. Although white and black communities consumed the drugs at similar rates, by enforcing the heavier policing of a form of cocaine that was predominantly consumed by black communities, the criminal justice system was allowed to disproportionately incarcerate black men specifically. Powder cocaine which was associated with whites was seen as a symbol of luxury, while crack was portrayed as unpredictable and deadly and associated with black counterparts of drug users in this era. A close aide to President Nixon, John Ehrlichman, stated that the Nixon campaign in 1968 pictured the anti-war left and black community as its enemy. To this day, Latinx and Black communities are disproportionately imprisoned and sentenced on drug enforcement pretenses. Known Black and Latinx communities which align with lower-income neighborhoods are policed heavier, and the prison population is filled with if I remember correctly around 38% black men even though they only make up 14% of the population. This leads to a lot of black households having a family member imprisoned on drug charges, or suffering on account of addiction which both drain income from households. When the household income is not able to be met, homelessness is the only option left. Either the addiction keeps one in a battle with family members and ostracizes them, or effects their job status due to their behaviors on such drugs. However, Nixon's initiative specifically, left homes unbalanced in income and left a lot of men on drug charges to come back into the world without stability also leading to homelessness. On page 307 of the textbook, "Legal scholar Michelle Alexander makes a compelling argument in her prominent book, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness (2012), that the War on Drugs is a strategy to continue the racial caste structure and push back the progress from the civil rights movement. The War on Drugs has largely contributed to the fact that one and three black men will spend time in prison in their lifetime (Lyons & Pettit, 2011)." The statement that the War on Drugs pushes progression back means that it also denies privileges and access to accommodations such as housing and shelter. REFERENCES Treviño A. Javier. 2019. Investigating Social Problems. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc.

labeling theory

Sara Sanford: The labelling theory is used to categorize individuals, to the extent in which certain groups and distinctions can be concluded based off the label. However, as mentioned, there are also many negative implications when using such a theory. According to the textbook, "Individuals seen as deviant or as outsiders become labeled by others who are more advantaged because of their sex, race, ethnicity, class, or age" (Javier 154). In turn, this can result in false and varied assumptions and conclusions based on the stereotypes associated with the label, which then, can contribute to the varied negative connotations associated with the label. This, implements the negative implications and contributes to the overall theory of symbolic interactionism. Treviño, A. Javier. 2019. Investigating Social Problems. SAGE Publishing. Antonio Leca: Trevino writes that originally, Labeling Theory was "applied to understanding why some groups become marginalized and learn to accept their disadvantaged position," which sounds genuine enough (Trevino: 54). However, labeling theory has impacted those "seen as deviant or as outsiders [and] become labeled by others who are more advantaged because of their sex, race, ethnicity, class, or age" (Trevino: 49). A. Javier Trevino. Investigating Social Problems. SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

Ferdinand Tönnies

Sarah Gallardo-Chavez: Hello Jim, Ferdinand Tonnies was a German sociologist. You can find more information about Tonnies on page 426 chapter 17 Urbanization. Tonnies " was interested in identifying the consequences of mass urbanization and the relational forms emerging in the new urban social order." (Trevino 426) He also identifies gemeinschaft and gesellschaft. Antonio Leca: Strain theory revolves around a "lack of fit between culture and social structure" (Trevino: 309). Culture establishes goals for us and social structure should provide the means to achieve those goals, but we experience strain when those means are insufficient. Strain leads to deviance. In that case, family would be related because someone coming from a poor family has fewer opportunities to achieve legitimate success in comparison to someone coming from a wealthier family. Gender norms can inflict a strain on those goals too. A. Javier Trevino. Investigating Social Problems. SAGE Publications. Kindle Edition.

deindustrialization

Some argue that deindustrialization and the loss of jobs in urban centers led this jobless cohort to crime as a means of economic survival. (p. 190) William Julius Wilson's (1978, 1987, 1996, 2009) research highlights the conditions faced by the worst-off African Americans. His spatial mismatch theory shows how deindustrialization left blacks without employment in the inner cities. (p. 210)

Environmental Sociology

Structural functionalism focuses on the macro-level structures and processes that shape society. In environmental sociology, a structural functionalist perspective directs our attention to the organization of society and how it might create environmental problems. We might also consider how environmental problems themselves reproduce types of social organization. (p. 787) Conflict theory is often associated with Karl Marx and his understanding of society's structure as being tied to the distribution of materials and resources. For the conflict theorist in environmental sociology, materials are pulled from the environment and used to generate profit, essentially without being paid for. Our economic system rewards companies for producing more and reducing costs, which encourages them to exploit the environment. (p. 780) We look next at two specialized theories within environmental sociology that tie some of the other perspectives together: risk society and ecological dialogue. Risk society emphasizes the ways in which conflicts between groups of people are increasingly tied to the groups' different perceptions of risk. Ecological dialogue considers how the meanings people give to environmental problems are constantly being renegotiated by the types of direct material experiences more commonly associated with ecological modernization or the treadmill of production. In these two theories, our social experiences and environmental experiences are very explicitly intertwined. (796) In the structural functionalist and conflict theory approaches, we largely assume that environmental problems have an objective, scientific grounding. This is called realism in environmental sociology, and it is often contrasted with social constructionism. In practice, however, the distinction between realism and constructionism can be a little fuzzy. Many theories that claim to be realist creep into social constructionism, and much social constructionism depends on the existence of material realities. But realists argue that we can separate ecological problems from human relationships and social organization, whereas constructionists claim that environmental problems are human problems and are impossible for us to parse out from human relations and experience in any sort of objective way. Theoretically, it sounds fairly straightforward. Practically, it becomes much more difficult to be clearly planted on one side or the other. Instead, sociologists often travel between the two when trying to think through environmental problems. Perhaps we should look at environmental problems using an ecological dialogue approach (Bell, 2012; Bell & Lowe, 2000), in which the material and the ideal interact and inform each other, together creating the world in which we live. That interplay between things and thoughts never generates a static product. It is constantly in flux with conflict, collaboration, and creativity. (802) Urbanization and the Natural Environment. Water Scarcity. (939)

Sick role

Talcott Parsons (1951), the major theorist of this position, identified a shared set of expectations between the patient and the doctor. The doctor is a highly skilled professional who applies scientific knowledge to the patient's trouble. The patient seeks out the doctor and complies with the doctor's directives so as to get better. For Parsons, illness is not just a physiological issue; it is a deviant behavior. People adopt "the sick role" as a way of avoiding social responsibilities (Parsons, 1951, p. 43). At the crux of Parsons's argument are the four dimensions of the sick role: 1. A sick person is excused from undertaking normal social obligations. 2. Deviant behavior through illness is viewed as being caused by nature, and thus the sick person's neglect of social obligations is not considered a personal fault or an intentional act of deviance. 3. The sick role is legitimated by the person's being socially required to seek treatment for the illness. 4. The sick person must comply with practitioners' instructions and follow general social norms, like resting or taking medication, to get better as soon as possible, thereby exiting the sick role. Thus Parsons argued that the sick role is a means for a person to escape arduous social responsibilities by adopting a role with different and less demanding social obligations. However, as discussed above, society often attributes illness to individuals' actions and behaviors. Alan is held accountable for suffering emphysema because he chose to smoke. Julie is responsible for her diabetes because she failed to eat well or exercise regularly. This shift in social conceptions of illness raises questions about whether Parsons's sick role is a valid social framework from which to consider questions of health and illness today. (p. 742)

climate change/global warming

Technological change is only one of the forces shaping work today and in the future. Climate change, government policies, and cultural shifts will change the mix of jobs we do, who does them, and the extent to which they are rewarded. Additionally, shifts in the size and composition of the workforce will profoundly affect jobs and the economy. The most important trend is, and likely will continue to be, a slowdown in population growth, and its complement, an aging society. These trends have been particularly evident in Japan and many European countries, but they also affect the United States. According to the U.S. Department of Labor Statistics, from 2014 to 2024, the labor force will grow at an annual rate of 0.5% (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015d). Such a slow rate of growth will result in a labor force of about 164 million men and women in 2024, composed of fewer younger workers, more older ones, and more retirees. Demographic trends will also change the composition of the labor force, which, due to immigration, somewhat higher fertility rates, and higher rates of labor force participation, will have relatively more Latinos and Asian Americans, and relatively fewer whites. (570) This is why scientists often object to defining the issue as "global warming" and favor the more accurate term climate change. Placing the emphasis on warming suggests that we should focus on heat alone, and the point, welcome to some, that winters are getting warmer too—in fact, they are warming faster than summers. In early 2017, northern parts of the United States were experiencing unusually warm weather for February, precipitating both delight at the return of barbecue-appropriate warmth and dread at the implications for climate change. But if our definition of this environmental problem reminds us that greater heat in winter is likely to be accompanied by other effects—like stronger winter winds, bigger snowfalls, and faster evaporation of snowpack—we will consider the problem differently and act on it differently. Definitions matter enormously in social life. (773)

Flexner Report

The Flexner Report of 1910 transformed the nature and process of medical education in America with a resulting elimination of proprietary schools and the establishment of the biomedical model as the gold standard of medical training. This transformation occurred in the aftermath of the report, which embraced scientific knowledge and its advancement as the defining ethos of a modern physician. Such an orientation had its origins in the enchantment with German medical education that was spurred by the exposure of American educators and physicians at the turn of the century to the university medical schools of Europe. American medicine profited immeasurably from the scientific advances that this system allowed, but the hyper-rational system of German science created an imbalance in the art and science of medicine. A catching-up is under way to realign the professional commitment of the physician with a revision of medical education to achieve that purpose. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178858/

treadmill of production

The absence of environmental costs in the economy feeds what environmental sociologists call a treadmill of production (ToP) (Pellow, Schnaiberg, & Weinberg, 2000; Schnaiberg & Gould, 1994; Schnaiberg, Pellow, & Weinberg, 2002). The ToP describes the production cycle, where, in its simplest form, resources and work generate goods that are sold for a profit, the profit is reinvested into the system, and waste from the production process is deposited back into the environment. Competition between producers causes companies to search out ways to cut production costs through more technology, or cheaper employees, cheaper resources, or cheaper ways to dispose of waste. As the profit-investment cycle spins, it spins at an increasing speed to produce more goods for less. (790)

sustainable communities

The social dimension is focused on creating and maintaining healthy, sustainable communities. A diversity of issues gets folded into the notion of healthy communities, including trust, cohesion, community identification, cultural and community diversity, pride, sense of place, security, and high quality of life, which also tend to translate into feelings of personal and collective responsibility for future generations (Colantonio, 2007; Colantonio & Dixon, 2011). An interest in social sustainability and in healthy communities centers on urban dwellers' basic needs and social well-being, social capital, equity, and social and cultural dynamism (Colantonio, 2007). These are critical elements for fulfilling individuals' needs for belonging and attachment in cities characterized by immense heterogeneity and mutual strangeness. (958) 2011). It takes seriously the imperative to build sustainable communities for all people (Agyeman & Evans, 2003). Moreover, research suggests that those living in low-income and racially segregated communities face serious barriers to social capital, social mobility (the ability to climb the social class ladder), and quality-of-life resources like access to good schools, high-quality health care, reliable transportation, and political representation (Massey & Denton, 1993). Ask Yourself: In what ways do or could the different types of sustainability complement each other? In what ways do or could they contradict each other? What do you think are the most important practices and principles for building sustainable cities? Creating sustainable communities in cities helps establish a collective will to preserve the communities and the cities. This attachment to place and foundation for the establishment of shared goals and visions can serve as the social and cultural buttress for growth plans that meaningfully incorporate environmental stewardship. When communities are invested in one another and in the environment, policies and practices like New Urbanism, "smart" growth, and civic engagement in general become much more potent. (961)

interactionist perspective

The third major sociological theory, symbolic interactionism, also takes a definitional approach to understanding social problems, but rather than looking at the social structure it tends to focus on social interaction, or the communication that occurs between two or more people. Symbolic interactionism is the sociological perspective that sees society as the product of symbols (words, gestures, objects) that are given meaning by people in their interactions with each other. Symbolic interactionism has its origins in the ideas of George Herbert Mead. (p. 98)

service economy

The working class, which we can place between the middle classes and the poor, generally consists of people who have a basic education (a high school diploma, vocational skills training, certification in a service occupation), modest income (earned from hourly wages), and jobs in manufacturing or the "service economy" (factory workers, truck drivers, cooks, waiters and waitresses, nurses, police officers). (p. 71)

Ulrich Beck

Yu'niek Roberts: Hi Melika, I can answer that Ulrich Beck is a German sociologist, who created and developed the reflexive modernization theory. He is mentioned in chapter 14 of the textbook, where the theory of reflexive modernization is explained. He focused specifically on peoples actions and the risk of peoples actions in modern times. Check out chapter 14 in Treviño, A. Javier. 2019. Investigating Social Problems. 2nd ed.

urban sustainability

Zainab Attarwala: Hey Natalie! To answer one of your questions, urban sustainability can be defined as the development of present day communities that serve as long term needs for future generations (Trevino 2019: 957). Urban sustainability can be divided into three main categories: environmental sustainability, economic sustainability, and social sustainability which should be balanced to ensure social equity and environmental protection (Trevino 2019: 959). Natural resources as well as human resources such as labor are limited and by exploiting them, society risks more future social problems. Additionally, sustainability should be inclusive of all people including low income communities, minority groups, etc. to work on minimizing the socioeconomic differences within/between communities. This will improve communication amongst people, pushing for a more like minded mentality towards taking care of one another/the environment (Trevino 2019: 961). The goals of urban planning include: limiting financial expenses on urban projects that are not a priority to stabilize the economy, avoid wasting natural resources such as oil and water, and creating/maintaining a healthy relationship between community members (Trevino 2019: 958). Treviño, A. Javier. 2019. Investigating Social Problems. SAGE Publishing.

social problems

a social condition, event, or pattern of behavior that negatively affects the well-being of a significant number of people (or a number of significant people) who believe that the condition, event, or pattern needs to be changed or ameliorated.