SOC 102 Exam 2

Be familiar with the relationship between overconformity to the sport ethic and hubris (Coakley reading and lecture) and be able to discuss the differences between deviance related to overconformity compared to deviance that is related to underconformity.

"Normative" Cheating In some sports, especially power and performance sports, athletes accept "good fouls," "cheating when you can get away with it," and "playing to the game official/referee" as part of the game. Overconformity - Interactionist View of Deviance Much deviance in sports involves overconformity to established norms in sports. Sport deviance must be understood in terms of the context of sport cultures and the norms of "the sport ethic." Overconformity and Hubris Hubris - pride-driven arrogance and an inflated sense of self-importance that leads one to feel separate from and superior to others Applies to a broad spectrum of social worlds — poiticians and celebrities Different set of rules that apply to them Underconformity - Interactionist Theory of Deviance in Sports Some acts result from underconformity Labeling theory — no act is inherently deviant. Norms and rules are created by those in power and violators of rules and norms may be labeled as such which preserves the structure of relationships. Stigma — once labeled as deviant, the negative view will often continue. Can become part of identity (The Bad Boys) Detroit Pistons Seen as playing basketball in a way that the rest of the NBA did not like Liked being confrontational

Know about the general features of the "death boost" in Parsons and Stern

"when a player dies, that draws attention to him, and also sympathy" a player's death during their career or shortly after may garner sympathy amongst sport fans and thus lead to inductions and honors they may not have gotten while alive

definition of aggression

Aggression Verbal or physical actions grounded in an intent to dominate, control, or do harm to another person Aggression is not the same as trying hard or being assertive and achievement-oriented Intimidation refers to words, gestures, and actions that threaten violence or aggression.

Jim Thorpe

Most talented athlete of 20th century Native American Could play so many sports Came from humble beginnings Representing the US when they did not really accept him because he was not really a citizen as he was born on Indian territory Lost medals because evidence that he played baseball professionally in a summer league

Althea Gibson

Broke the tennis color barrier in the 1950s Two-time Wimbledon champion, first black women to win Was from the slums of NYC, her dad would teach her how to box, Sugar Ray Robinson helped her train

Be familiar with the approximate percentage of D1 schools that currently have at least one sports program on probation (lecture)

NCAA Deviance (as of Earlier this Year) 32 of approximately 350 D1 schools currently have at least one of its sports programs on probation, including 15 of the 130 FBS (upper part of D1) schools 9.14% of D1 schools

Be able to discuss how fair play and sporting behavior is an ideal associated with social class (lecture)

Class, fair play, and sporting behavior Guttmann-cricket vs baseball Fair play is a class ideal. The ruling class makes the rules and these are relatively unchallenged in cricket, but in baseball, there are many instances of cheating Bourdieu-Fair play "is characteristic of those who do not get so carried away by the game as to forget that it is a game" More cheating in sports associated with lower classes If you come from higher class, do not feel the need to win Winning is not the end all, be all The Limits of Equality in Sports Guttmann's claim If true, race, gender/sex, and class should not matter Belief: Best, most qualified athletes, coaches, administrators, will be selected and retained and sports can be a pathway to upward social mobility Reality: Patterns of participation, selection, and outcomes suggest sport is closely aligned with other social institutions in providing stratified outcomes and serves as another mechanism of social reproduction

Be familiar with any data included in December 8 lecture about athlete deaths.

CTE and its aftermath Chronic traumatic encephalopathy or CTE, has affected boxers since the 1920s, Surged into the national consciousness in 2007 when it was reported that Andre Waters sustained brain damage from playing football, which led to his depression and ultimate death by suicide. More than 320 former NFL players, Waters the third but whose death brought the condition into the mainstream At least 24 players died in their 20s and 30s, according to Dr. Ann McKee, a neuropathologist and the director of the CTE Center at Boston University High-profile suicides include Dave Duerson, Ray Easterling, and Junior Seau Athletes and Death As we know, sporting events in previous eras had a higher risk of death than modern sports The modern sport with the highest number of deaths during competition is boxing, with 25 deaths in the ring Still, there are a number of athletes who die during their career 2022 and Recent College Sports Deaths Virginia football shooting claims lives Four student-athletes (all female) died by suicide in the first five months of 2022 Mental health advocates call on NCAA to recognize a potential crisis Youtube video At least two UM athletes have died by suicide in the past 5 years

Be generally familiar with which college sports have relatively high injury rates and the approximate rates of acute versus overuse injuries. (lecture)

College Sport Injuries About 500,000 NCAA athletes report 200,000 injuries per year. Football accounts for largest number of injuries, but when we account for number of athletes, men's wrestling and women's gymnastics have more injuries per capita About 30% of injuries are due to overuse. Female athletes are much more likely to suffer an overuse injury than male athletes Female athletes are about 5 times more likely to suffer an ACL injury than male athletes.

Be generally familiar with the tenets of colorblind racism and some of its tenets and frames (lecture and Bimper)

Colorblind Racism Eduardo Bonilla-Silva in writings that he developed into his book Racism Without Racists suggests there are four "frames" or ways of thinking (paradigms) that characterize colorblind racism: Abstract liberalism-ideas about equal opportunity for individuals. Some argue that race-based remedies may represent preferential treatment or a form of "reverse racism." Neglects how although barriers are gone, not everyone has an equal starting point to achieve success Does not take history into account and the historical disadvantages of racial minorities Naturalization—ideas about human behavior deriving from biological, genetic, innate factors lead to a form of self-segregation Idea that people choose to be with others who look like them Tries to justify residential segregation and other systemic problems Homophily and selection preferences Has deeper roots that go back to the very beginnings of the idea of race Problem is that this neglects the idea that there have been structural barriers put in place in terms of where people live Cultural racism-ideas that minority groups may have cultural behaviors that prevent members from being successful in the workplace, school, and other institutions of mainstream culture Derives somewhat from Oscar Lewis' "Culture of Poverty" thesis People, sometimes just to survive, made decisions that kind of put them at odds with the way that social norms would suggest that they behave Instead of being a part of market economy, they would barter Problem was that this idea got picked up on in an early culture war (60s, 70s, and 80s) If they are not going to engage within society the way that we expect them to, then, we cannot solve this problem by increasing funding Solution has been to neglect how to fix this inequality regarding poverty Minimization of current level of racism—discrimination is less significant than in the past People think that things have gotten better because of Civil Rights Act, Voting Rights Act People think that because things have gotten better, we should not be concerned about it Problem with this is that it is neglecting aspects and choosing other aspects as legitimating wy we see the inequalities we do rather than trying to understand the roots of how things came to be the way that they are

Hylton

Critical race theory Benign acceptance of differences in sport based on biology focus attention upon how critical race theory can be applied to sport experiences including the jack nicklaus syndrome as it was applied to tiger woods

TED TALK: David Epstein

David Epstein TED TALK Feeling that we are just getting better We have not evolved into a new species, so what is going on? Technology has made a difference in all sports, from faster skis to lighter shoes to full-body and low-friction swimsuits Also discusses how each sport has a specific body type that enables athletes to succeed or perform better in that sport Coaches pick athletes based on their body types and invest resources into athletes with the best body types

Diamond

Does playing football make you violent?

Anderson and Bullingham

Findings No universal pattern for the treatment of openly lesbian athletes existed in this era of decreasing homohysteria As with gay men in sport at the time, athletic capital influenced who came out and heterosexism was prominent This study addresses a gap in research concerning the experiences of openly lesbian athletes between 1998 and 2012 Research was taken place during a time of decreasing but still existent homohysteria The presence of an openly lesbian athlete was most frequently met with partial inclusion Self-silencing of lesbian coaches (silencing their lesbian players' identities) All players interviewed both in this article and Anderson 2002 article were players of high capital → athletes with high athletic capital are essential to team's success and therefore less likely to face discrimination

Fink

Fink article-differential representation Discusses sports media representation and differences between the coverage of men and women Explanations for these differences: Hegemonic masculinity Differential treatment by sport media is a conscious effort to maintain male power in society Sexism heterosexism/homophobia Women who are superior athletes threaten male dominance and are deemed as unnatural/lesbian Influence on marketing/promotion Better to focus on the sexuality/attractive female qualities/roles outside of sports for marketing purposes Shows how differential representation negatively affects society's perceptions of women's sport and female athletes

Zirin

Focuses on Jackie Robinson's struggles due to his race rather than his career on field. His resilience during racism coupled with his skill make him a legend Activism

From lecture, be able to relate Foucault's ideas about surveillance and panopticism to sports and also be familiar with some of the effects of surveillance upon the bodies who are being Watched.

Foucault Modern prisons and correctional facilities were preceded by the development of professional/scientific discourse about normality vs abnormality, health vs illness, decency vs immorality, and reason vs madness Note the binary categories Always in relation to the other. Contextual Norms Bourdieu notes that social norms are established and this helps to create distinctions between classes Foucault's position is that the norms are actually internalized and become self-policing practice. We know what is expected of us and monitor ourselves Additionally these norms serve as the basis for dividing and potentially excluding/segregating people Structuralist point of view Surveillance and Panopticon Foucault believes that surveillance is a key aspect of modern society Draws upon Bentham's idea of panopticism in prisons (guard tower in the center of the grounds) that serves as a reminder that someone is always watching Discipline Shapes and produces individuals through techniques of surveillance that reverberate through social and individual bodies Docile and Conforming Bodies Bordieu Controlled, healthy and regulated bodies whose training extends their capacity and usefulness Again, the question is for whose benefit? Social aspect Bodies are never simply trained but are subjected to normative judgements whch may also include an ethical dimension How do these ideas apply to athletics? Practice is at least partially about repetition, routine, drills Can promote muscle memory and allow for the development of skills (technique under pressure) Can also lead to boredom, overuse injury Environment for training Drills often under surveillance or self-surveillance Fitness and body regulation Benchmarks regarding strength, speed, endurance, weight Combine results are posted Are they really necessary Swimmers and sprinters trying to improve by 0.5 seconds even in 0.05 seconds

Know the sports that have the highest percentage of positive drug tests (lecture)

Highest incident rate for positive tests Cycling Weightlifting Boxing Triathlon Baseball Help recover to be able to perform so frequently in such a short period of time

Recognize how Taylorism (scientific management) pertains to sport (lecture)

How does conflict theory help us to study sports? Consider Taylorism (scientific management) as applied to scouting and identifying players Taylorism: A way of treating games as work Way of quantifying activity to such a degree that it is almost a form of surveillance Numbers we see Statistics How far a player runs in a game Examples of taylorism Another example: off-season training Held to responsibilities that are measured

Be familiar with the general timeline of the desegregation of professional sports as well as the approximate timing of the first black head coaches in pro sports after desegregation (lecture)

In the face of racial segregation, blacks could earn money by turning spots into entertainment that reaffirmed the racist stereotypes of whites There was cultural space for blacks to entertain whites as clowns, but not to play sports with whites Consolidation of Modern Sport in the United States Football is very popular in college, starts to professionalize in 1890s but it is not until 1920 that NFL forms Minor sport Also does not segregate until early 1930s Fritz Pollard, Paul Robeson along with seven other black players played in the league during the 1920s First major US sport to desegregate (1946 Rams) Consolidation of Modern Sport in the United States Baseball professionalizes in 1860s, National League forms in 1876 with no prohibitions about race and becomes an exceptionally stable league beginning in 1903 following the merger with the American League. Gentleman's Agreement creates segregation in the late 1880s Negro Leagues form (1887 as minor league, 1920 as more organized league) Post-World War II Sports begins desegregation in advance of the Civil Rights Movement GI Bill is foundational to help extend college opportunities and build middle class, but African-Americans face barriers in accessing benefits Although different colleges take different approaches to race, some college athletic programs do not desegregate until the 1970s (especially in the South) Desegregation of US Sports Los Angeles Rams-Kenny Washington and Woody Strode—1946 Jackie Robinson—1947 Earl Lloyd (Washington—first to play), Nat Sweetwater Clifton (New York—first to sign contract), Chuck Cooper (Boston—first drafted)—1950 Willie O'Ree (NHL) - 1957 Slow Pace of Desegregation Despite the fact that three major pro sports desegregate by 1950, it takes a while for each pro team in the leagues to have a black player on the roster and even into the 1960s there are limited numbers of minorities Slow Pace of Desegregation Colleges did not segregate across the board, but even in the west, there were limited numbers of minorities in football and basketball through the 1940s/50s However, colleges (PWIs) in the south did maintain rigid segregation into the 1960s and 1970s Kentucky basketball Alabama football African-American Participation Reaches high water marks during the 1970s as desegregation takes full effect However, leadership opportunities are few and far between Bill Russell 1966, Frank Robinson 1975, Art Shell 1989 First Black head coaches Unintended consequence of desegregation of pro (and college) sports Desegregation, especially in football and basketball, had profound unanticipated effects on athletics in HBCUs Many of the best African-American athletes began enrolling in other schools due to scholarship offers and opportunities Higher media profile of and the growing interest from many of the DI programs Pro scouts tended to focus on the big-name PWIs when looking for players to draft

Jack Johnson

Jack Johnson African-American heavyweight boxing champion in early 1900s Jim Jeffries the white champion refused to fight Johnson and chose to retire instead Next champion also refused to fight Johnson, but Johnson eventually shamed him into a fight Jeffries comes out of retirement to fight Johnson. Jeffries is labeled the Great White Hope and the fight was known as the Fight of the Century. Johnson easily defeats Jeffries in Reno

Jesse Owens and the Search of the Racially "Natural Athlete"

Jesse Owens' success in track and especially the 1936 Olympics heightened efforts to find racial explanations for athletic success in an age of eugenics. There is no evidence showing that skin color is related to physical traits that are essential for athletic excellence across sports or in any particular sport.

Be familiar with the sport associated with the scandal or set of scandals highlighted by John Oliver during lecture.

John Oliver on FIFA (redux) Soccer is the sport associated with the scandals highlighted by John Oliver

Be familiar with the definition of hegemonic masculinity (lecture)

Messner on Sports and Gender (different piece) "In contrast to the rational/professional masculinity constructed in schools, the institution of sport historically constructs hegemonic masculinity as bodily superiority over femininity and non-athletic masculinities." So it is more than just the traditional gender relations playing out in sport Also affects males Hegemonic masculinity What is it Why is it possibly more important in sport Think about sports as being this ultimate display of bodily ability If the hegemonic level of masculinity incorporates this ability, we are going to see this in sports, and it will be adopted by athletes in sport (expectation) How might it tie to other seemingly unrelated ideas in the class? Heroic vs. aesthetic Heroic Look very cool Involve something truly athletic Heroic is tied to the masculine Aesthetic Rather than the fundamentals and things you are trained to do Aesthetic is tied to the feminine Cult of manliness in 1890s (and muscular Christianity)

Be familiar with the structural strain theory posited by Merton and how it can be applied to sports. (lecture)

Midrange (semi-Functionalist) Views on Deviance - Merton and Structural strain Almost functionalist - does not have full macro view that functionalist theories hold Culture provides goals for members of society Structure provides (or fails to provide) the means to attain the goals IF goals and means are not in balance, a strain is created → behavior viewed as unacceptable or inappropriate by some members of society Five possible ways to adapt: conformity; innovation; ritualism (same means, change goals); retreatism; rebellion Conformity: following current rules Innovation: create our own path Ritualism: keep doing everything the same and change goals Retreatism: backing away from everything Rebellion: going against current rules to achieve goals

In general, are the number of concussions in the NFL rising or falling when we consider the game and practice data? Also be familiar with the recent development regarding how former players are tested for eligibility.

NFL Reports Drop in Concussions In 2017, diagnosed concussions had climbed to 281, but as of 2021, there has been a 34% decrease, with only 187 being reported Hard to trust an organization that has manipulated data in the past to resist the idea that they were partially responsible for the concussion epidemic NFL Concussions Time Line 2013—-NFL announces new concussion safety measures, including having an independent neurologist on the sideline for each game In August 2013, the NFL settled the lawsuit with retired players by agreeing to pay $765 million The question about how to distribute the money was left unresolved in the settlement. ESPN reported that retired players who died before 2006 would be excluded Last year, it was reported that former football players of color were being evaluated for payout eligibility differently, leading to a lesser payout and sometimes ruled ineligible based on "race-norming" to evaluate dementia tests. The NFL subsequently changed its policy.

Be able to briefly discuss the NFL concussion timeline presented in lecture notes and can be supplemented at PBS http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/sports/league-of-denial/timeline- the-nfls-concussion-crisis/ (with detailed information up through 2013)

NFL and Concussions Timeline 1994- NFL commissioner Paul Tagliabue announces the formation of the Mild Traumatic Brain Injury committee by the Jets team doctor who had no experience with brain injuries In December 1994, Tagliabue states, "On concussions, I think this is one of these pack journalism issues...there is no increase in concussions, the number is relatively small...The problem is a journalist issue." NFL Concussions Time Line March 1997 — Guidelines from the American Academy of Neurology say that repetitive concussions can cause brain damage, and suggest that players be removed from the game if they lose consciousness or exhibit any concussion symptoms 15 minutes post-injury NFL Concussions Time Line October 1999- NFL Retirement Board (a group that is independent of both the league and the union) ruled that former player Mike Webster was left "totally and permanently disabled as the result of head injuries he suffered as a football player." However, this ruling was not known until 2012 December 1999 - MTBI announces that there are an average of about 180 concussions per year, and the vast majority are minor injuries NFL Concussions Time Line May 2000 - Survey research suggests that players who had experienced concussions reported more neurological symptoms including issues with memory, concentration, speech difficulties, etc May 2000 - MTBI questions return-to-play guidelines citing lack of research evidence NFL Concussions Time Line October 2002 - Mike Webster died in September, and the Allegheny County Medical Examiner Bennett Omalu finds evidence of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) November 2003 - a research paper is published suggesting that repeat concussions can lead to slower recovery of neurological function NFL Concussions Time Line January 2004 - MTBI publishes a paper that emphasizes that the concussion problem in the NFL is relatively small and states that a "total of 92% of concussed players returned to practice in less than seven days. More than one-half of the players returned to play within one day." NFL Concussions Time Line Late 2004 — MTBI questions the research on repeat concussions and subsequently publishes a report that claims that NFL players are less susceptible to brain injury 2005 and 2006 — More research explores the linkages between concussions and depression as well as dementia NFL Concussions Time Line February 2007 — Roger Goodall, the new NFL commissioner, responds to a claim that players were being forced to return to games despite symptoms by saying he did not believe that the team did this as a practice, but that he was concerned June 2007 — The NFL hosts a concussion summit with NFL team doctors as well as doctors who were not associated with the league NFL Concussions Time Line January 2009 — Dr. Ann McKee and a team of scientists hold a press conference in Tampa during Super Bowl weekend discussing evidence of former players with CTE NFL Concussions Time Line May 2009 — McKee meets with MTBI, but her team's findings are largely dismissed, She reported that "it was like 'Oh the girl talked. Now we can get back to some serious business'." MTBI co-chair reported that McKee's research did not specify a cause for CTE and the research was based solely on case studious of those who had the symptoms of CTE and did not consider those without symptoms NFL Concussions Time Line Late 2009 - Another research report claims that former players were 19 times more likely to get dementia than general public. This report was challenged by MTBI. Congress is briefed by the outside scientists Shakeup on the MTBI Committee Get someone who really does have experience with brain injuries to show that they were taking this issue seriously In December, the NFL acknowledges long-term effects of concussions and develops new return-to-play protocols NFL Concussions Time Line 2010 - NFL provides $30 million for research into brain trauma 2011 - Class action lawsuit brought by former player Ray Easterling (later joined by 4,500 others). Dave Duerson suicide by shot in the chest to preserve brain For studying purposes NFL Concussions Time Line 2012 — 14% increase in concussions Easter line suicide Seau suicide NFL funds youth concussion awareness initiative NFL Concussions Time Line 2013—-NFL announces new concussion safety measures, including having an independent neurologist on the sideline for each game In August 2013, the NFL settled the lawsuit with retired players by agreeing to pay $765 million The question about how to distribute the money was left unresolved in the settlement. ESPN reported that retired players who died before 2006 would be excluded Last year, it was reported that former football players of color were being evaluated for payout eligibility differently, leading to a lesser payout and sometimes ruled ineligible based on "race-norming" to evaluate dementia tests. The NFL subsequently changed its policy. NFL Concussions Time Line March2016 — For the first time, an NFL official acknowledges a link between football and CTE July 2016 — NFL and NFL Players Association agree upon new concussion protocols July 2017 — Medical journal report finds 99% of former NFL players studied had evidence of CTE September 2017 — A study on Aaron Hernandez's brain showed severe CTE according to his attorney

Be generally familiar with the data regarding how the arrest rates of NFL players compare with the national average for men 25-29 (lecture and Diamond)

NFL versus peers In every case, the arrest rates are higher for non-athletes Does not take into account how NFL athletes have the resources to get a good lawyer to avoid arrests and punishments NFL crime in comparison to peer cirme Closest to domestic violence, gun-related incidences, and sex offenses

Know about the history of performance enhancing substances, including steroids, and some of the side effects presented in lecture and also be familiar with Toradol (ketorolac) which is discussed in Easterbrook.

Performance Enhancing Substances The use of performance-enhancing substances has a long history in high-performance sports. Elixir of Life 1889, doping 1910 The use of performance-enhancing substances occurs regularly today in high-performance sports Much substance use can be seen as a form of deviant overconformity. Such substances will be used as long as athletes believe they enhance performance and enable athletes to remain in the game they love Steroids Originally developed in 1958 Destabilizes the body's hormonal system Banned by the IOC in 1975 Possible side effects of steroids (per WebMD.com) Blood pressure → stroke and heart attack Cholesterol Liver Skin and hair Mood and mindset - irritability, rage, delusions Behavior - aggression, violence, uncontrolled energy, addiction Toradol used to numb players before going on the field.

Nylund

Policing boundaries of masculinity Although trivial-think about insults and the gendered nature of Nylund's article on Jim Rome About 20% of content relates to social issues Much of the conversation reinforces dominant gender ideologies and the "naturalness" of heterosexuality Many callers seem to seek homosocial approval, and reactions to sexuality-related topics serve as boundary work Anxiety about changes in men's and women's work and fear of feminization (masculinity under threat)

Be familiar with the general trends regarding leadership opportunities in sports for African- Americans and women, especially in college, including specific information about this year's men's and women's March Madness tournament (lecture)

Professional Sports Leadership and People of Color NBA GM 40%, HC 30%, Assistant Coaches 52.7%, Referees 56.9% Athletes 83.2% MLB GM 13.3%, Managers 20%, Assistant Coaches 40.5%, Umpires 14.7% Players 37.6% (7.6% black) NFL GM 15.6%, Head Coach 12.5% (9.375% black), Assistant Coaches 40.9%, Referees 12-14% Players 70.7% College coaching and leadership and race Athletic directors about 18% POC in D1 About the same breakdown for FBS Associate athletic directors only about 14.7% POC Coaching Football Head Coach 11.9% black in D1 (10% in FBS) Students-athletes are 62% POC Men's Basketball Head Coach 25.8% black in D1 Student-athletes are 52.8% POC Women's Basketball Head Coach 24.6% black in D1 (64% women) Student-athletes around 50% POC College coaching and race Sweet 16 coaches-Men's 5 out of 16 head coaches are black Three in 2021 and in the five years before that, never more than 2 Sweet 16 coaches- Women's 2 out of 16 Two female black coaches in 2021 Nine out of 16 teams coached by women (10 women in 2021) So, a total of 7 black head coaches out of the 32 teams in the Men's and Women''s Sweet Sixteen of NCAA tourney combined. About 22% Opportunities have increased beyond playing Women have become more involved in men's college and professional sport Athletic trainers Referees Reporters Broadcasters A few coaches, including increasingly significant assistant coach roles Administrative roles Owner NCAA coaching picture Between 1977 (90%) and 2008 (43%), there was a steep decline in the proportion of NCAA women's teams with a female head coach in the NCAA Recent trend is a leveling off with modest gains for females in the coaching ranks, but still less than 50% Michigan is currently at 64% female head coaches for female teams—in the Top 10 among Power Five conference teams Trend line Most of women's sports were coached by majority of females in 1977 Almost every sport decreased over time Female athletic directors About 20% across all NCAA schools Close to 10% in Division 1 A little under 6% among the FBS schools (top Division 1)

Be able to identify at least a few significant sport scandals both historically and in recent years

Scandals Gambling and point-fixing: Black Sox scandal, CCNY basketball 1950, University of Kentucky basketball, Pete Rose betting on baseball, Tim Donaghy as compromised NBA referee Illegal money and benefits to college athletes: SMU football and death penalty, University of Michigan basketball, Reggie Bush, Ohio State football, etc Cheating and scandals Academic fraud in college: University of Minnesota basketball, University of Georgia basketball, University of North Carolina, Syracuse basketball Bribes to host events—2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, 2022 World Cup in Qatar Judging scandal — 2002 Winter Olympics ice skating, Roy Jones 1988 Olympics Boxing Steroid and performance-enhancing substances: Russian athletes leading to country ban and the OAR; Lance Armstrong (and other cyclists); Marion Jones; Baseball players from the steroid era (Bonds, McGwire, Sosa, Clemens, etc); Olympics sprinters in the 80s and 90s Criminal Activity Tonya Harding/Nancy Kerrigan Penn State Sandusky coverup OJ Simpson Larry Nassar And these NCAA Basketball recruiting Deflategate Tiger Woods Admissions scandal of 2019 Astros technology and stealing signs What do scandals and cheating tell us about sports? Tells us that there are these norms and expectations for behavior Limits to behavior Restrictions on what is acceptable

Be familiar with the Nika Riots—what were they, what sporting event are they related to and how significant were they (lecture)

Rioting and deaths Fan rioting is very old phenomenon-Nika riots in 532 AD in Constantinople It is not unusual for riots to take place following championship matches in the home cities of the participants Izzo before National Semifinal Occasional deaths and many injuries among fans related to sports, especially soccer. Less frequent in American sports. Malice in the Palace Nika Riots 532 AD Constantinople At this time, there were chariot races People would support different chariot teams, which were mostly labelled by color There was also a political element Teams that spectators supported had connections to different political elements Resulted (over 4 or 5 days) in around 30,000 deaths More than just a sporting event Political intrigue that was going on around it

Be familiar with the Schneider-Eitzen theory about illegitimate violence in sport (lecture)

Schneider and Eitzen believe that illegitimate violence can be predicted by the "structure" of a sport. Specifically, Lower scoring leads to more violence Greater allowable body contact leads to less illegitimate violence More allowed player retaliation leads to less illegitimate violence More rewards available in a game leads to less violence

Be generally familiar with the timeline for increased female sport participation and the reasons behind the increase. Also be familiar with the approximate number of girls who have played an organized sport within the last year (based on 2013 data). (lecture)

Sports and society Single greatest change in sport in past 50 years is the astronomical increase in female participation in sports over the past 50 years Youth sport According to a 2013 ESPN Magazine report, a survey found that almost 70% of girls aged 8-17 had participated in an organized sport during the previous year High school and college female participation High school 2017-3.4 million girls versus about 4.5 million boys Reflects an increase of nearly 1000% since mid 70s College (NCAA) 2018-216,000 women versus 284,000 men Reflects an increase of over 500% since mid 70s Women's professional sports Baseball (A League of Their Own - 1940s and 50s) Basketball (WNBA 1997-present) Golf (since 1950) Soccer (currently NWSL - three different leagues off and on since 2001 in US, growing presence in European leagues) Softball (70s, reborn in 1997) Tennis (WTA since 1973 as separate entity) Ice hockey (2007-present in Canada, 2017-present in US) Opportunities in horse racing and motorsports Modern Olympics Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Olympics opposed the "indecency, ugliness, and impropriety of women ... in sports [because] women engaging in strenuous activities were destroying their feminine charm and leading to the downfall and degradation of ... sport." He went on to question whether anyone would want to watch women's sport Modern Olympics A limited number of women's events were added in 1900 and after a slow steady climb, women accounted for about 45% of the athletes at the past two summer games and a little over 40% in the past two winter Olympics The 2012 London Games was the first time that every participating team had at least one female athlete and the US team was majority female (also accounted for 66% of the US gold medals that year) Modern Olympics - Social Inequalities Redux Recent study showed that Olympic participants from Canada, US, Great Britain, and Australia are disproportionately white and attended private school Opportunities have increased beyond playing Women have become more involved in men's college and professional sport Athletic trainers Referees Reporters Broadcasters A few coaches including increasingly significant assistant coach roles Administrative roles Owner Two significant events King v Riggs-Battle of the Sexes II ABC brought in their Monday Night Football Crew to cover this event because they knew it was going to be important and influential King wins Shows that female athletes and tennis players are competent Title IX Passed in 1972 Changing the ideas about what are appropriate sports activities for females Title IX Fostered major changes in sport participation opportunities available to girls and women Evoked continuous resistance since it became law in 1972 (June 23 marks 50th anniversary) Title IX and the sociology of law Demonstrated that laws and law enforcement do not exist in a social and cultural vacuum Demonstrated that when laws challenge the ideas and lifestyles of people with power, the legitimacy and enforcement of those laws will be questioned Title IX Is a portion of the Education Amendments of 1972 designed as an update to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance."

Know about the Goldman dilemma discussed in the Pisk reading

Survey with 198 athletes Asked this question: Magic drug that enabled athletes to win every competition they entered But, it would kill the athlete five years after they take it Would you take the drug? 52% of respondents indicated that they would still take the drug

Douglas

Talks about Venus and Serena Williams Social Formation: allows for an understanding of race and racial identities as changing and complex, as a product of culture rather than nature, produced and sustained through power and subject to resistance, reappropriation and subversion Surveillance: refers not only to the practice of observing people in public spaces; it is also linked to the rapid and seemingly endless display of media representations that influence public discourse Limits range of available representations for Venus and Serena Focuses on their on-court play and off-court activities Form of exclusion and marginalization Penalizing the sisters while normalizing whiteness Discusses racism in sport and how this impacts Venus and Serena as black female athletes

Be familiar with the history of helmets in sports and when different sports mandated their use (lecture)

The Head and the Helmet The use of helmets in football, baseball, and hockey took years to emerge College football required helmets starting in 1939, and professional football followed in 1943 Batting helmets in Major League Baseball did not start until 1941, but it was not mandated until 1958 Hockey helmets are not mandatory until 1979, and even then, players who were already in the league were not required to wear them Helmets in Auto Racing Auto racing — initially cloth or leather with goggles in early 1900s Development of harder (metal) helmets in 1950s Formula One mandates hard helmets in 1950s NASCAR mandates in 2001, after death of Dale Earnhardt Head injuries NHL has put in rules about hits to the head, but it does not seem to have decreased the number of concussions 2012 study shows that return-to-play guidelines have not reduced the impacts or the potential for chronic damage among high school football players Helmet as weapon, not protection? Parallels the counterintuitive effect of boxing gloves Boxing glove absorbs force → boxers can hit opponents in the head without hurting their hands Made game more dangerous Before, players would tackle with their shoulders Face mask weaponized helmet Players started using their heads to tackle Concussion epidemic started in the 50s when the face mask was mandated

Wells and Darnell

The TrackNet (TN) Listerv as a data source E-mail based forum organized in Canada and moderated by three member-volunteers for Discussion of issues relating to track and field Members distribute messages to one another by posting an email to the central Dave Zirin on Caster Semenya Zirin is a sports commentator Looking at issue of how Caster Semenya has been treated She should not have been subjected to gender testing, it was unfair Hormonal composition is an inevitable variations between competitiors, should not be used to discriminate

Know the norms of the sport ethic (Coakley reading and lecture)

The sport ethic (Coakley) Comprised of four norms that guide and evaluate attitudes and actions in high-level competitive sports Athletes are dedicated to the game above all other things Athletes strive for distinction Athletes accept risks and play through pain Athletes accept no obstacles in pursuit of success

Be familiar with the idea of conspicuous consumption, what it means, and who developed the idea (lecture and textbook)

Thorstein Veblen - 1900 Theory of the Leisure Class "Conspicuous consumption of valuable goods is a means of reputability to the gentleman of leisure." Conspicuous consumption Participation in certain sports was used as a sign of status among the wealthy (not unlike previous times). Outward expressions of social class Also expressed through manners, gait, and good form. These become part of the body - see cultural capital Bourdieu

Be prepared to write a short essay (1 - 2 pages, be sure to write legibly) on the following: Discuss gender/sex inequality in sports focusing on current issues although you may very briefly note historical issues (prior to the 1990s). Be sure to include specific examples of how, and an analytical discussion of why this inequality persists even after the passage of Title IX. You do not need an introduction/thesis. You may receive additional instruction about how to conclude your essay on the exam packet.

Title IX Fostered major changes in sport participation opportunities available to girls and women Evoked continuous resistance since it became law in 1972 (June 23 marks 50th anniversary) Title IX and the sociology of law Demonstrated that laws and law enforcement do not exist in a social and cultural vacuum Demonstrated that when laws challenge the ideas and lifestyles of people with power, the legitimacy and enforcement of those laws will be questioned Title IX Is a portion of the Education Amendments of 1972 designed as an update to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance." Title IX-resistance Although Title IX was not controversial as it passed into law, the application of its equity provisions to high school and college sports was contested. In 1979, the Office of Civil Rights created standards to establish whether or not a school was in compliance Note: its original intent had nothing to do with sports participation. Title IX - compliance standards The proportionality test A five percentage point deviation has been okay The history of progress test Judged by actions and progress over past three years The accommodation of interest test Programs and teams meet the interests and abilities of the underrepresented sex An ongoing struggle In 1984, the US Supreme Court ruled that only programs that received direct government funding were compelled to comply with Title IX Current demographics Females are 57% of college population, but only 43% of the athletes at NCAA schools. Also, females receive about 45% of the athletic scholarships The average NCAA school sponsors 8 male teams and 9 female teams Circumvention Many schools have sought to find loopholes in the law and the interpretation of equity Examples: Claim an indoor track team despite never competing indoors (UCI) Undercounting male athletes while also overcounting female athletes (Oregon State track) Counting non-existent female athletes on women's crew (Univ of Washington, USC) Providing less equipment and lower quality of facilities to women's teams (University of New Mexico) Varsity jackets at U of M Cheryl fought for women to get block M on their varsity jackets Eventually, women got block Ms, but they looked different than the men's jackets Cheryl continued to fight so that women would get the same jackets as men Despite all the improvements Sport is still generally seen as male Women's sport is still often seen as less entertaining, less athletic, inferior Successful female athletes are sometimes demeaned/attacked/shamed/bullied Some female athletes are sometimes regarded as gender deviant Similar portrayals during women's suffrage movement Why do we say there are continued issues with inequality? The lack of visibility and media representation of female athletes and female sport? The struggles for equal pay and backlash when it happens? The efforts to circumvent Title IX De Coubertin's concerns about women in the Olympic games? The reluctance to offer U of M women varsity letter winners a letter jacket and then providing a cheap knock-off Boys high school wrestler unwilling to compete against girls in his weight category in state tournament Girls athletic identity less likely connected to academic success than boys athletic identity Serena punished for dispute with chair umpire but not Federer or Edmund earlier in year Limited spaces of acceptance for females in sport US Women's Soccer National Team Gender discrimination lawsuit Women's team was payed less than the men's team although they brought in more revenue The team protested Lawsuit was thrown out by the judge Did not look at the fact that women earned more because they played more Women advanced to finals so they were playing more games and making more money Update 1: case dismissed in court due to nature of the agreements between US soccer and its Men's and Women's teams Update 2: settlement for $22 M Media representation Missing female athlete - Cooky Fink article-differential representation Problem with designating a given year as the year of women's sports Women's sports are out of the ordinary Not apart of everyday life Media never calls it the year of men's sports Let's the news media off the hook Decline in coverage in women's sport Spent less time covering sports in 2014 than they did in 1989 880 stories on men's sports, 32 stories on women's sports News media covered men's sports regardless of whether or not it was in season Never too early, too soon, or too late to talk about men's sports Women are asked feminine questions Reporters ask questions that they would never ask male athletes Inappropriate sexualization of female athletes (give us a twirl and show us your outfit) Difference between how we see female athletes on the field versus in the media More likely to see female athletes in a bikini than on the field There is a relationship between sport participation and positive outcomes in the lives of women Media create demand as much as they meet it Cooky revisited - You can't be what you can't see ESPN SportsCenter website had 76 stories posted on yesterday afternoon — only one is very partially about a female athlete (15 seconds) in a story on social media and basketball Still very limited representation of women's sports despite increased opportunities for women in sport Limitations of Title IX Title IX does not apply to coaches and administrators Increased resources and pay for female high school and college teams since Title IX has led to an overall decrease in the number of female head coaches leading female teams. Men saw increased pay as an economic opportunity A recent reversal has led to the majority of female high school teams being coached by females NCAA coaching picture Between 1977 (90%) and 2008 (43%), there was a steep decline in the proportion of NCAA women's teams with a female head coach in the NCAA Recent trend is a leveling off with modest gains for females in the coaching ranks, but still less than 50% Michigan is currently at 64% female head coaches for female teams—in the Top 10 among Power Five conference teams Trend line Most of women's sports were coached by majority of females in 1977 Almost every sport decreased over time Female athletic directors About 20% across all NCAA schools Close to 10% in Division 1 A little under 6% among the FBS schools (top Division 1) Branded Video Women have certain brands while men don't Men make most money based off of skill Women athletes make most of their money on the side Inappropriate sexualization of women Battle of the sexes 1973 Billie Jean King won Beat male athlete Chris Evert First woman athlete that both men and women loved First to make 1M dollars from endorsements Martina versus Chris Evert Butch vs girl next door US woman won World Cup (Women's Soccer) All people could talk about is how she took her shirt off and exposed her sports bra WNBA Not as many viewers as NBA Someone asked about selling sex but that is not the niche audience of women's basketball Double standard with women Many male athletes are not good looking Sex appeal is (disgustingly) "required" for women's sport Title IX opened doors for girls in college and began process of opening minds Encouraged young girls to go out there and chase their sport dreams Scholarships for college female athletes Participation has gone through the roof Despite Title IX, women have not gained as much at the professional sport level Gender and Power "Once established, gendered social arrangements are justified by religion and cultural production and backed by law, but the most powerful means of sustaining the moral hegemony of the dominant gender ideology is that the process is made invisible, any possible alternatives are virtually unthinkable." Biology is also an important part of reinforcing gendered social arrangements Messner Revisited-Socialization is Important Parents notice that the boys and girls are so different from each other Messner feels that it is important to examine the contexts that activate children to view males and females as different. Patriarchy Additionally, gender relations in our society are partially the product of 3000+ years of "patriarchy, which is a set of personal, social, and economic relations that enable men to have power over women." Patriarchal ideas define women as inferior to and dependent on men, which extends to the gender roles and norms that are deemed culturally acceptable Messner on Sports and Gender (different piece) "In contrast to the rational/professional masculinity constructed in schools, the institution of sport historically constructs hegemonic masculinity as bodily superiority over femininity and non-athletic masculinities." So it is more than just the traditional gender relations playing out in sport Also affects males

Know facts about Title IX including what is included in the text, the three tests/standards to establish compliance, and a few of the efforts mentioned in lecture that have been attempted by universities to circumvent (cheat) the law (mostly lecture and some in textbook.)

Title IX Fostered major changes in sport participation opportunities available to girls and women Evoked continuous resistance since it became law in 1972 (June 23 marks 50th anniversary) Title IX and the sociology of law Demonstrated that laws and law enforcement do not exist in a social and cultural vacuum Demonstrated that when laws challenge the ideas and lifestyles of people with power, the legitimacy and enforcement of those laws will be questioned Title IX Is a portion of the Education Amendments of 1972 designed as an update to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance." Title IX-resistance Although Title IX was not controversial as it passed into law, the application of its equity provisions to high school and college sports were contested. In 1979, the Office of Civil Rights created standards to establish whether or not a school was in compliance Note: its original intent had nothing to do with sports participation. Title IX - compliance standards The proportionality test A five percentage point deviation has been okay The history of progress test Judged by actions and progress over past three years The accommodation of interest test Programs and teams meet the interests and abilities of the underrepresented sex An ongoing struggle In 1984, the US Supreme Court ruled that only programs that received direct government funding were compelled to comply with Title IX Current demographics Females are 57% of college population, but only 43% of the athletes at NCAA schools. Also, females receive about 45% of the athletic scholarships The average NCAA school sponsors 8 male teams and 9 female teams Circumvention Many schools have sought to find loopholes in the law and the interpretation of equity Examples: Claim an indoor track team despite never competing indoors (UCI) Undercounting male athletes while also overcounting female athletes (Oregon State track) Counting non-existent female athletes on women's crew (Univ of Washington, USC) Providing less equipment and lower quality of facilities to women's teams (University of New Mexico)

Lavigne

Title IX is also used to protect college students, but enforcement and accurate counts are compromised when officers are understaffed Sexual assault, abuse, coercion, exploitation, and other related behavior is about power and is informed by gender norms Nassar and Sandusky cases are particularly disturbing because they occurred within programs that are well-funded, but also very autonomous

Be familiar with labeling theory and stigma (lecture)

Underconformity - Interactionist Theory of Deviance in Sports Some acts result from underconformity Labeling theory — no act is inherently deviant. Norms and rules are created by those in power and violators of rules and norms may be labeled as such which preserves the structure of relationships. Stigma — once labeled as deviant, the negative view will often continue. Can become part of identity (The Bad Boys) Detroit Pistons Seen as playing basketball in a way that the rest of the NBA did not like Liked being confrontational

Be familiar with the timeline of the University of Michigan varsity jacket scandal and the Harlem Globetrotters story (lecture)

University of Michigan Varsity Jacket Scandal Varsity jackets at U of M Cheryl fought for women to get block M on their varsity jackets Eventually, women got block Ms, but they looked different than the men's jackets Cheryl continued to fight so that women would get the same jackets as men Harlem Globetrotters Reflection of American ideas about race reflections in the early to mid 20th century race /ethnic team formatoin Role of humor Victory over (white) professoinal league champs compareable with billie jean king's vicory Their appraoch was not a direct challenge to racial ideology Video Thought basketball would allow people to dance after the game Savoy big 5 (they all played together in southside chicago) Found themselves a coach abe saperstein (jewish white male) Was always an outcast Worked in a park where there were many black athletes He always wanted to form a team Mangagement decided the big 5 wasn't drawing big enough crowds so they replaced with rollerskating Abe made unifroms with "new york" across the front to give the impression that they had come all the way from NY Hinkley illinois 1927 (they won and went on to win 100 out of 106 games) Midwesteners were curious which made saperstein call lthe team the globe trotters They barely made any money Jim Crowe laws made it hard for the team to travel Had to sleep in county jail one time Four players refused to play one year unless they got more play (saperstein then replaced them instead) They still kept winning Trotters vs lakers big game (trotters won)

definition of violence

Violence The use of excessive physical force, which causes or has obvious potential to cause harm or destruction

Be familiar with the concepts of massification and commodification from the Eitzen article on ethical principles. Also know the four ethical principles that Eitzen says are necessary for an ethical sporting environment

Why cheat? Winning Smith — NCAA sanctions do not seem to have significant effects on outcomes of winning, recruiting, donations, attendance—lack of deterrence Eitzen — structure of sports involves competition and is aligned with massification and commodification Massification: refers to the transformed social relations in society resulting from a more specialized division of labor, large-scale commodity production and consumption, the widespread use of technology to increase industrial and administrative efficiency, and an increasingly authoritarian use state Commodification: refers to the social, psychological, and cultural uses of structures for the commercial needs of advanced monopoly capital Ethical principles that are necessary for an ethical sporting environment 1. Athletes must always be considered ends and not means Outcome for participants is infinitely more important than the outcomes of the contest, the money generated, or other extraneous considerations 2. The competition must be fair Administration of leagues and supervision of contests must be governed by rules applied impartially to all parties 3. Participation, leadership, resources, and rewards must be based on achievement rather than ascribed characteristics. Sports activities must be characterized by equal opportunity 4. The activity must provide for the relative safety of the participants. Rules of sport must protect athletes as should be the required equipment

Wiggins

Wiggins and History of Race and Sport in Colonies and Early US 1700s and early 1800s slaves and sport-hunting and horse racing

Be familiar with various current women's professional leagues in North America including when they began and how long in existence. (lecture and textbook)

Women's professional sports Baseball (A League of Their Own - 1940s and 50s) Basketball (WNBA 1997-present) Golf (since 1950) Soccer (currently NWSL - three different leagues off and on since 2001 in US, growing presence in European leagues) Softball (70s, reborn in 1997) Tennis (WTA since 1973 as separate entity) Ice hockey (2007-present in Canada, 2017-present in US) Opportunities in horse racing and motorsports

Be familiar with the injury statistics for youth sport and high school sports (estimated number of injuries, hospitalizations and concussions). (lecture)

Youth Sport Injuries USA Today reports that there are 1.35 million sports injuries among youth per year that required ER visits Over 150,000 of these visits involved concussions, and about half of these were 12-15-year-olds. High school sports account for an estimated 2 million injuries, including 500,000 doctor visits and 30,000 hospitalizations annually

TED TALK: Matt Roth

Youth Sport Injuries - Roth May be one of the most dangerous epidemics in America Kids are treated more like young professional athletes than kids who are playing sports 5 billion dollar per year industry Lure parents and kids in with promises of winning, making it to the next level, cool uniforms, and top-notch equipment Increased time commitment and financial commitment weighs on kids Sport no longer seems fun anymore Increase in overuse injuries in children At younger and younger ages, these sports injuries have become more acceptable With current youth sport environment, we are putting our kids at risk for burnout, breakdown, and even brain damage Something needs to be done to reverse this epidemic

Jewell

a brief history of violence and aggression in spectator sports (nhl, ancient sports, fan's role)

Parsons and Stern

cultural alorization, collective memory and induction into the baseball hall of fame

Eitzen

ethical problems in american sport

Cosh

accountability, monitoring and surveillance: body regulation in elite sport (interactions during skinfold test)

Cole

american jordan (gangs and african american)

Easterbrook

athletes abusing painkillers/is human enhancement cheating?

Smith

scandals in college sports is worth it Colleges and universities suffer little economic or reputational damage when their athletic programs are penalized for violating Association rules

Pisk

search for immortality in ancient and modern sport

Guttmann

the destruction of the body