SOC 102 Final

Be able to briefly discuss the NFL concussion timeline presented in lecture notes and can be supplemented at PBS

1994: NFL commissioner Paul Tagliabue announces the formation of the Mild Traumatic Brain Injury committee headed by the Jets team doctor who had no experience with brain injuries - Pretend to care about the issue and refer to it as mild December 1994: NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue describes concussions as a "pack journalism issue" during a panel on the future of sports. - Justification of these concussions October 1999: NFL Retirement Board (a group that is independent of both the league and the union) ruled that former player Mike Webster was left "totally and permanently disabled as the result of head injuries he suffered as a football player." This ruling was not known until 2012. December 1999: MTBI announces that there are an average of about 180 concussions per year and the vast majority are minor injuries. - May not be accurate as players were afraid to report injuries to not be reported. October 2002: Mike Webster died in September and the Allegheny County Medical Examiner Bennett Omalu finds evidence of Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) January 2009: Dr. Ann McKee and a team of scientists hold a press conference in Tampa during Super Bowl weekend discussing evidence of former players with CTE. - NFL not interested in what science had to say December 2009: the NFL acknowledges long-term effects of concussions and develops new return-to-play protocols. 2011: Class action lawsuit brought by former player Ray Easterling (later joined by 4,500 others). Dave Duerson suicide by shot in the chest to preserve brain. 2012: 14% increase in concussions - NFL funds youth concussion awareness initiative In August 2013, the NFL settled the lawsuit with retired players by agreeing to pay $765 million. March 2016: For the first time, an NFL official acknowledges a link between football and CTE.

Be familiar with the definition of hegemonic masculinity (lecture)

A framework that reinforces the supremacy of masculine traits, such as toughness and competition, while rendering women subordinate in nature

Know about the Goldman dilemma discussed in the Pisk reading.

A survey was conducted on athletes asking if they would take a magic pill that would cause them to win every competition they ever compete in but it would kill them in 5 years - 52% of athletes answered yes.

Be familiar with the definitions of aggression and violence (lecture-similar to textbook)

Aggression: Verbal or physical actions grounded in an intent to dominate, control, or do harm to another person. Violence: The use of excessive physical force, which causes or has obvious potential to cause harm or destruction.

Be familiar with various current women's professional leagues in North America including when they began and how long in existence. (lecture and textbook)

Baseball (1940s-1950s) Basketball (WNBA 1997-present) Golf (since 1950) Soccer/NWSL: 2001 Softball: 70s, reborn in 1997 Tennis/WTA: since 1973 Ice hockey: 2007 in Canada, 2017 in U.S.

From the lecture, what are the different forms of capital? (Bourdieu and lecture)

Bourdieu and Forms of Capital Economic = money Social = connections and networks Cultural = knowledge, skills, education that provide higher status Embodied, Objectified, Institutionalized

Be familiar with the Harlem Globetrotter's story.

By 1926, the Savoy Dance Hall was looking for a way to stand out from its competition. They thought this relatively new sport of basketball might draw in crowds for dancing after the game so management brought in a local team and named the Savoy Big Five. Only lasted a month before management decided the Big Five wasn't drawing the crowds they had hoped for and Abe Saperstein took over the team and designed a set of uniforms that said NY on the front to draw crowds. Black men were not allowed to play in the NBA and played basketball in a new, funny way to distinguish themselves. Then, asserted themselves as black and renamed themselves after the negro capital of the nation, the Harlem Globetrotters. The Magic circle halftime routine was funny and mesmerizing as well. They then challenged the champs (the Lakers). The Globetrotters dropped their clowning and played straight basketball. They won and showed everyone that they were the best in the country.

Be familiar with any data included in the April 18th lecture about athlete deaths.

CTE and its aftermath Affected athletes since 1920s, very little awareness of this in football Becomes more visible after Andre Waters sustained brain damage from playing football, which led to his depression and ultimate death by suicide Mike Webster did not die by suicide, so did not have as much effect More than 320 former NFL players with CTE At least 24 players died in their 20s and 30s The modern sport with highest number of deaths during competition is boxing with 25 deaths in the ring Suicides among former NFL players are about 6 times the rate of the general public In 2011, suicide accounted for 20% of military deaths 2022 and Recent College Sports Deaths Virginia Football shooting claims lives Four student athletes, all female, died by suicide in first five months of 2022 Young athlete deaths: The Humboldt Broncos

Be familiar with Coakley's discussion of social class ideology and key beliefs in American class ideology found in Chapter 9

Class ideology: interrelated ideas and beliefs that people use to understand and identify economic inequalities and their class position. Key beliefs: The American Dream A hopeful vision of boundless opportunities for individuals to succeed economically and live a happy life based on consumption Meritocracy (rewards go to people who deserve and work hard for them through their achievements) = class ideology

Be familiar with the history of helmets in sports and when different sports mandated their use (lecture)

College football required helmets starting in 1939 and professional football followed in 1943. NHL has put in rules about hits to the head but they have not decreased concussions Helmets in Auto Racing Auto racing- initially cloth or leather with goggles in early 1900s Development of harder metal helmets in 1950s F1 mandates hard helmets in 1950s NASCAR mandates in 2001 after death of dale Earnnhardt Batting helmets in Major League Baseball did not start until 1941, but it was not mandated until 1958. Hockey helmets were not mandatory until 1979 and even then players who were already in the league were not required to wear them.

Know the norms of the sport ethic (Coakley reading and lecture)

Comprised of four norms that guide and evaluate attitudes and actions in high level competitive sports Athletes are dedicated dedicated to the game above all other things Athletes strive for distinction Athletes accept risks and play through pain Athletes accept no obstacles in pursuit of success

Be familiar with the structural strain theory posited by Merton and how it can be applied to sports. (lecture)

Culture provides goals for members of society Structure provides (or fails to provide) the means to attain the goals If goals and means are not in balance, a strain is created → the behavior is viewed as unacceptable or inappropriate by some members of society 5 ways to adapt: conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism, rebellion

Know the sports that have the highest percentage of positive drug tests (lecture)

Cycling Weightlifting Boxing Triathlon Baseball

Be familiar with coaching and leadership trends/general stats for minorities and women

Female Coaches 2008; 43% of women's teams were coached by women 1972; 90% of women's teams were coached by women but there were far fewer teams Present; still under 50% Michigan is currently at 64% female head coaches for female teams—in the Top 10 among Power Five conference teams Rooney Rule (NFL has to interview one minority candidate for head coaching jobs). Prior to rule, 7 minority head coaches since 1920 In 2003 when adopted, 2 minority coaches Now we are back at 3 minority coaches From 2003-2019, a total of 18 minority head coaches have been hired (six hired more than once) By the start of the 2006 season there were seven minority head coaches. Less than 10% are coaches compared to the 70% of black people on the NFL rosters

Be generally familiar with which college sports have relatively high injury rates and the approximate rates of acute versus overuse injuries. (lecture)

Football accounts for the largest number of injuries, but when we account for the number of athletes, men's wrestling and women's gymnastics have more injuries per capita Female athletes are much more likely to suffer overuse injury than male athletes About 30% of injuries are due to overuse Female athletes are much more likely to suffer an overuse injury than male athletes Female athletes are about 5 times more likely to suffer an ACL injury than male athletes

From the lecture, be able to discuss how Foucault's ideas about surveillance and panopticism can be applied to sports and also be familiar with some of the effects of surveillance upon the bodies who are being watched.

Foucault believes that surveillance is a key aspect of modern society - Believes we are always being watched Draws upon Bentham's ideas of panopticism (guard tower in the center of the grounds) that serves as a reminder that someone is always watching - The idea there is that a prisoner never knows whether they're being watched or not so they have to assume they're being watched The norms are actually internalized and become self-policing practice as we become disciplined. We know what is expected of us and monitor ourselves. Bodies are never simply trained but are subjected to normative judgements which may also include an ethical dimension - Who's showing evidence of this thru surveillance by coaches - Get a label early on by recruiters - Drills often under surveillance or self-surveillance

Be generally familiar with the tenets of colorblind racism and some of its tenets and frames (lecture and Bimper)

Four frames or ways of thinking that characterize colorblind racism (Bonilla-Silva) Abstract Liberalism: ideas about equal opportunity for individuals. Some argue that race based remedies may represent preferential treatment or a form of reverse racism. Naturalism: ideas about human behavior deriving from biological, genetic, innate factors lead to a form of self-segregation Cultural Racism: ideas that minority groups may have cultural behaviors that prevent members from being successful in the workplace, school, and other institutions of mainstream culture Minimization of current level of racism: discrimination is less significant than in the past Colorblind Racism (Bimper)- Belief that racism no longer exists and we all have equal opportunities. Treating individuals as equally as possible without regard to race. Colorblindness creates a society that denies their negative racial experiences, rejects their cultural heritage, and invalidates their unique perspectives.

Be able to discuss how fair play and sporting behavior is an ideal associated with social class.

GUTTMAN: Fair play is a class ideal. The ruling class makes the rules and these are relatively unchallenged in cricket, but in baseball there are many instances of cheating. BOURDIEU: Fair play is the way of playing the game characteristic of those who do not get so carried away by the game as to forget that it is a game, those who maintain the 'role distance'.

Be familiar with Lorber's characterization of gender—she specifically says it is three things, she also notes that it is something different at the individual level of analysis when compared to the societal level. Finally, what gives gender systems their power to define behavior?

Gender is a process, a means of stratification, and a structure Social institution of gender depends on limited number of gender statuses and enforcing limited diversity within statuses Socializing agents of schools, family, peers, and mass media - learn gendered norms and expectations "Once established, gendered social arrangements are justified by religion and cultural production and backed by law, but the most powerful means of sustaining the moral hegemony of the dominant gender ideology is that the process is made invisible, any possible alternatives are virtually unthinkable" Gender is "a process that creates the social differences that define 'woman' and 'man'...individuals learn what is expected, see what is expected, act and react in expected ways, and thus simultaneously construct and maintain the gender order"

Be familiar with the injury statistics for youth sport and high school sports (estimated number of injuries, hospitalizations and concussions). (lecture)

High school sports account for an estimated 2M injuries, including 500,000 doctor visits and 30,000 hospitalizations annually. - Over 150,000 visits involved concussions and about half of these were 12-15-year-olds. Youth Sports - About 1.35 million ER visits - A little over 20% of all traumatic brain injuries among children result from sports and recreation activities

In general, are the number of concussions in the NFL rising or falling when we consider the game and practice data?

In 2017, diagnosed concussions had climbed to 281, but as of 2021 there has been a 34% decrease with only 187 being reported. Downward trend continued through 2021 with reported concussions down to 126. 18% increase to 149 in 2022, but NFL cheerily reports that overall number of injuries dropped 5.6%. NFL reports a drop in number of concussions. However, the reality is that they are somewhat increasing and not necessarily accurate, but they try to diminish this by indicating that its number of injuries is decreasing.

Be generally familiar with the data regarding how the arrest rates of NFL players compare with the national average for men 25-29 (lecture and Diamond)

In every case, the NFL arrest rates are lower than the peer groups. The high media coverage makes it seem like NFL players and athletes in general are likely to be involved in delinquent and deviant behavior, but the reality is not that. Domestic violence accounts for almost half of arrests for violent crimes among NFL players which leads to a conclusion that NFL players are 4x more likely to be arrested for domestic abuse than expected

Also be familiar with the recent development regarding how former players are tested for eligibility (race-norming).

It was recently reported that former football players of color were being evaluated for payout eligibility differently leading to a lesser payout and sometimes ruled ineligible based on "race norming" to evaluate dementia tests. The NFL subsequently changed their policy.

Be familiar with great athletes of color of the early part of the 20th century including Johnson, Thorpe, Gibson, Owens (lecture)

Jack Johnson John Arthur "Jack" Johnson, nicknamed the Galveston Giant First African-American heavyweight boxing champion in 1908 Jim Jeffries the white champion refused to fight Johnson and chose to retire instead Next champion also refused to fight Johnson, but Johnson eventually shamed him into a fight Jeffries comes out of retirement. Jeffries is labeled the Great White Hope and the fight was known as the Fight of the Century. Johnson easily defeats Jeffries in Reno Thorpe - He was very controversial James Francis Thorpe was an American athlete and Olympic gold medalist Won two Olympic track and field golds Played baseball, American football and basketball at the highest level A member of the Sac and Fox Nation Thorpe became the first Native American to win a gold medal for the United States Gibson Professional tennis and golf player in the 1950s In early career she was effectively barred from playing in the US Nationals (now US Open) because she could not participate in qualifying tournaments held in whites-only tennis venues The first African American to win a Grand Slam tennis event She captured the singles crown at the French Championships (now the French Open) in 1957 and the US Open In total, Gibson won five Grand Slam singles tournaments Eventually turns to golf and one of the first prominent African American golf player Joe Louis Boxer from early 1930s to later 1940s Generally instructed to be the "anti Jack Johnson" Fights for the heavyweight title in 1937 despite a loss in 1936. Famous fight against Max Schmeling (german) in 1938 Joe Louis was boxing's "Heavyweight Champion of the World" He held that title longer, and defended it more often, than any other boxer in history He was one of the first great African-American idols for a whole generation of Americans - White crowd was pulling for a Black fighter Jesse Owens Jesse Owens' success in track and especially the 1936 Olympics heightened efforts to find racial explanations for athletic success in an age of eugenics He won four gold medals at the 1936 Olympic Games Became the most successful athlete of the 1936 Games Owens also became the first American to win four track and field gold medals at a single Olympics

Be familiar with labeling theory and stigma (lecture)

Labeling Theory No act is inherently deviant. Norms and rules are generally created by those and power and violators of rules and norms may be labeled as such which preserves the structure of relationships. This leads to STIGMA Stigma Once labeled as deviant, the negative view will often continue. Can become part of the identity.

Be familiar with the idea of conspicuous consumption, what it means, and who developed the idea (lecture and textbook)

Leisure class. If you own and display these things you're showing a sign of your social class.especially when publicly displayed goods and services are too expensive for other members of a person's class. Certain sports are more associated with the upper class. Participation in particular sports, how you walk, stand, good form are signs of social class ~ Developed by Thorstein Veblen - golf and tennis as upper class - boxing, soccer, basketball more lower and working class

Be familiar with the concepts of massification and commodification from the Eitzen article on ethical principles. Also know the four ethical principles that Eitzen says are necessary for an ethical sporting environment

Massification: Refers to the transformed social relations in society resulting from a more specialized division of labor, large-scale commodity production and consumption, the widespread use of technology to increase industrial and administrative efficiency, and an increasingly authoritarian state-is a consequence of the increased bureaucratization, rationalization, and routinization found therein. It increases the likelihood of unethical behavior by the participants. Commodification: refers to the social, psychological, and cultural uses of social structures for the commercial needs of advanced monopoly capital. In commodification, human beings are objects, interchangeable parts, in their role as workers in the production process and they are objects to be manipulated in their role as consumers Four ethical principles: 1) Athletes must always be considered ends and not means 2) The competition must be fair 3) Participation, leadership, resources, and rewards must be based on achievement rather than ascribed characteristics 4) The activity must provide for the relative safety of the participants

Be familiar with the themes and topics of the TED Talk videos shown in lecture featuring Matt Roth, David Epstein, Cheryl Cooky, and Victoria Garrick

Matt Roth: Cost of youth sports is ridiculously high and kids are specializing very young, concerned with head injuries and overuse injuries (ligament tears, stress fractures, growth plate issues). Prevent and reduce by not allowing kids to play collision sports until 14 (that's when they are able to withstand those injuries) David Epstein: Innovation in sports, Athletes today have access to better technology → looks like athletes have improved over time. In reality, that is not true. Tech plays a huge role in athletic performance. Gene pool within sports has changed Victoria Garrick: Not a good recruit/walk on but worked hard and she started every game. She was so afraid of making mistakes, and had everything coming at her at once.. Impossible for her to balance her college schedule, she balanced depression for 6 months without even realizing. Cheryl Cooky: The hashtag #covertheathlete is the tagline to stop interviews where women athletes are spoken to differently than the male athletes (degrading, sexist comments towards them)

Be familiar with Moses Fleetwood Walker and his significance in United States sport history (lecture)

Moses Fleetwood Walker was the first black Major Leaguer in 1884. He was a catcher for Toledo. Joined the Toledo Club in 1883, they were not a major league team (were a minor league team) but that same year they ended up winning the minor league. This win gave them the support/opportunity to join the major league. Played in the major league this year but didn't do very well which caused them to drop back down to the minor league.

Be familiar with the beginnings of the ban on black players in Major League baseball-when it happened and what significant baseball figure(s) was/were at least partially responsible for six decades of exclusion

National League forms in 1876 with no prohibitions about race and becomes an exceptionally stable league beginning in 1903 following the merger with the American League Gentleman's Agreement creates segregation in late 1880s Informal agreement between major league owners to not sign black players to their teams. Negro Leagues form (1887 as minor league, 1920 as more organized league) Meant to be an exhibition game between team that Anson was on and the Black Toledo team. Cap Anson was baseball's first superstar. On two occasions he refuses to play against black players and on the second time management relents and sits their black players.

Recognize how Taylorism (scientific management) pertains to sport (lecture)

Originally a way of thinking about the workplace (especially factories/manufacturing)- attempt to promote maximum efficiency through close measurement of production- how can you be the most productive organization. Practice is at least partially about repetition, routine, drills Can promote muscle memory and allow for development of skills (technique under pressure) Environment for training Drills often under surveillance or self-surveillance Fitness and body regulation Benchmarks regarding strength, speed, endurance, weight

Be able to identify at least a couple of significant sport scandals and to relate how these scandals may be an example of overconformity (or underconformity) to the norms of the sport ethic.

Overconformity Coakley would say violence occurs because people fall into the norms of the sport ethics Coach ethic may expect players to use violence Violence often attracts attention Example: Detroit Pistons, when they were very successful they adopted an identity of being The Bad Boys, they would foul and get in other team's heads. They would get extremely physical. They didn't care what people thought of them. Underconformity: Do not abide by any norms Examples of deviant underconformity in sport include breaking official rules, an illegal hit on an opponent, and taking banned performance-enhancing substances Once someone is viewed as deviant, it creates a stigma Example: Tonya Harding/Nancy Kerrigan Kerrigan and Harding were two of the brightest stars in American figure skating when they arrived in Detroit for the US championships in 1994, about six weeks ahead of the Lillehammer Games. Kerrigan was knocked out of the competition when an associate of Harding's ex-husband whacked her on the right knee with a baton.

Be familiar with the Schneider-Eitzen theory about illegitimate violence in sport (lecture)

Schneider and Eitzen believe that illegitimate violence can be predicted by the "structure" of a sport. Specifically: - Lower Scoring leads to more violence - Greater allowable body contact leads to less illegitimate violence - More allowed player retaliation leads to less illegitimate violence - More rewards available in a game leads to less violence

Be able to discuss the significance and some basic facts (including an approximate timeline) of the University of Michigan varsity jacket scandal.

Sheryl Szady fought for 40 years. Women's sports were club sports until 1973. The block M was not automatically awarded to women as men said the value of the M would be minimized. On June 9, 1975, vote passed and women got a different jacket. In the 1990s women began to receive the same jacket

Be familiar with the general themes of Bourdieu's discussion of class and sport. How is sport participation different for people of different social classes?

Social class and class relations influence who plays sports, who watches sports, who consumes information about sports, and the information that is available Generally, the higher the social class, the greater the involvement and influence within the sport Social class inequalities especially in youth sports functionally excludes many from lower class backgrounds - 43% of children in homes earning more than $100,000 were able to play sports compared to 22% of children in homes with incomes less than $25,000 - Average age to start playing sports varies by income (6.3 for higher incomes, 8.1 for lower incomes) Some sports have been historical associated with social class Golf and tennis as upper class Boxing, soccer, basketball more lower and working class Higher education is a marker for social class - More highly educated are more likely to participate in sport and keep participating throughout their lifetime

Be familiar with the general timeline of the desegregation of professional sports as well as the approximate timing of the first black head coaches in pro sports after desegregation (lecture)

Sports began desegregation in advance of the Civil Rights movement GI bill (1944) helped given benefits to returning veterans and expand the middle class but African Americans face barriers in accessing benefits Although different colleges take different approaches to race, some programs didn't desegregate until the 1970s (especially in south) LA rams - Kenny Washington and Woody Strode in 1946 - First two African American athletes in major US sports to participate after the ban Jackie Robinson - 1947 - Major league baseball. Robison's appearance in minor league baseball breaks the line, but historians mark 1947 as the year that Jackie Robinson breaks the color barrier in 1947 NBA - 1950 Early Lloyd (Washington - first player) - Sweetwater Clifton [Member of the Harlem Globetrotters → (NY - first to sign contract) Chuck cooper (Boston - first drafted) Willie O'Ree (NHL) - 1957 - First black player in the NHL

Know some broad facts about segregation and desegregation in US sports (including college) such as when this occurred and why it was different in some sports than others. Also be familiar with unexpected consequences of desegregation. (lecture)

Sports began desegregation in advance of the Civil Rights movement. - GI bill (1944) helped given benefits to returning veterans and expand the middle class but African Americans face barriers in accessing benefits - Although different colleges take different approaches to race, some programs didn't desegregate until the 1970s (especially in south) Football was very popular in college and it was not until the 1920s where we actually started to see a viable league. (NFL formed in the 1920s) - In the 1920s there were nine black players that were actually identified (could have been more). Some names are Fritz Pollard and Paul Robeson. - They played through the 1920s. However in the early 1930s football started to segregate, owners began saying they are not going to invite or play any more black players. But, for football this doesn't last very long. - Football became the first major sport to desegregate (in 1946 with the Rams). Baseball: national league forms in 1876 with no segregation and was thus really stable. In 1903 they decided to merge with the American League instead of competing with them. - Thus, creating the World Series.-> The Gentlemen's Agreement created segregation in the late 1880s.-> In response the first Negro Leagues form (1887, but not until 1920 do we see a more organized negro league).-> Desegregated with Jackie Robinson in 1947 Unexpected consequences of desegregation: - Desegregation of revenue-producing sports - Continued racial exclusion in "social" sports - Position stacking in team sports - Racialized interpretation of achievements - Management barriers for blacks and minorities - Skewed distribution of African Americans in U.S. colleges and universities

Know about the history of performance enhancing substances, including steroids, and some of the side effects presented in lecture and also be familiar with Toradol (ketorolac) which is discussed in Easterbrook.

Steroid History Originally developed in 1958 Destabilizes the body's hormonal system, banned by the IOC in 1967 Possible side effects: - Increase in blood pressure - Stroke and heart attack - Cholesterol heightened - Problems with liver, skin and hair - Aggressive/violent behavior. The use of performance enhancing substances has a long history in high performance sports. - Elixir of life 1889, doping 1910 The use of performance enhancing substances occurs regularly in high performance sports Much substance use can be seen as a form of deviant overconformity Toradol used to numb players before going on the field.

Be familiar with the definition of social stratification as well as functionalist and conflict theory commentary on stratification.

Stratification: structured forms of inequalities that are part of the organization of everyday life These inequalities influence the distribution of rewards (frequently economic, but can be prestige/status, and other societal goods) and power in a society Conflict theory: Exploiting one set of people to benefit people at the top Based on conflict based on economic power and exploitation to sustain inequities. Conflict Theory posits sport as an 'opiate' that distracts attention away from the problems that affect those without economic power. Sport as a reflection of the inequalities in society and that it masks the true nature of the human condition. Functionalist: passed intergenerationally and there is limited mobility through lifetimes Each aspect of society is interdependent and contributes to society's stability and functioning as a whole Examines how sport fits into and maintains the social order, and illustrates important norms in society.

Be familiar with the general trends regarding leadership opportunities in sports for African-Americans including specific information about this year's men's and women's March Madness tournament as well as historically. (lecture)

Sweet 16 coaches - Men's 2021: three black head coaches 2022: five black head coaches 2023: three black head coachesNo more than 2 in the 4 years before that From 2015-2019, (tourney wasn't played in 2020), never more than two Sweet 16 - Women's 2021: three black head coaches and ten women 2022: two black head coaches and nine women 2023: five black head coaches and eleven women Coaching Football Head Coach 11.9% black in D1 (10% in FBS) Student-athletes are 62% POC Men's Basketball Head Coach 25.8% black in D1 Student-athletes are 52.8% POC Women's Basketball Head Coach 24.6% black in D1 (64% women) Student-athletes around 50% POC in D1 (30% across all NCAA Divisions)

What does Hylton mean by "Jack Nicklaus syndrome"?

The benign acceptance of the differences in sport premised upon biology or psychology - The reason African-American golfers playing at the highest level in the sport is because blacks have "different muscles that react in different ways"

Know facts about Title IX including what is included in the text, the three tests/standards to establish compliance, and a few of the efforts mentioned in lecture that have been attempted by universities to circumvent (cheat) the law (mostly lecture and some in textbook.)

Title IX, passed in 1972, fostered major changes in sport participation opportunities available to girls and women. It demonstrated laws and law enforcement do not exist in a social and cultural vacuum. Demonstrated that when laws challenge the ideas and lifestyles of people with power, the legitimacy and enforcement of those laws will be questioned. Includes: accommodation of interest test (programs and teams meet the interests and abilities of the underrepresented sex), proportionality test (a five percentage point deviation has been okay), history of progress test (judged by actions and progress over past 3 years) Circumvention Many schools try to find loopholes Examples: Claim an indoor track team despite never competing indoor (UCI) Undercounting male athletes while also overcounting female athletes (Oregon State Track) Counting non-existent female athletes on women's crew (U-washington, USC) Providing less equipment and lower quality facilities to women's teams (University of New Mexico) The reluctance to offer U of M women varsity letter winners a letter jacket and then providing a cheap knock-off

Be familiar with the "Identity Theft" discussion in Coakley Chapter 8

Using stereotypes of Native Americans as a basis for team names, logos, & mascots is a form of bigotry and identity theft, regardless of the intentions of those who do it. Recent changes - guardians and commanders - Claiming ownership of images and names - Don't even realize they're doing it - Lack of respect for culture and history

Know about the general features of the "death boost" in Parsons and Stern

You have a higher chance to make the Hall of Fame after their death, only after the first year though. - "When a player dies that draws attention to him and also sympathy" - "These results suggest that changes to the baseball writers' collective memory of a player directly resulting from his death serve to augment his career achievements to boost his chances for consecration as a baseball legend"

Be generally familiar with data and statistics on female sport participation provided mostly in lectures (youth, high school, college, Olympic, professional playing opportunities, various rare opportunities in "men's" sport.)

Youth: almost 70% of girls age 8-17 had participated in an organized sport during the previous year (2012) High School: (2017) 3.4 million girls versus about 4.5 million boys Reflects an increase in nearly 1000% since mid 70s College (NCAA): (2018) 216,000 women versus 284,000 men Reflects an increase in over 500% since mid 70s Olympic: As of 2012 women accounted for about 45% of all athletes 2012 London Games were the first time that every participating team had at least one female athlete and the US team was majority female