Soc Exam 3

Grutter v. Bollinger: Brief of Center for Individual Freedom

*AGAINST AFFIRMATIVE ACTION* This article argues that University of Michigan must be struck down as both unlawful and unconstitutional in their use of affirmative action. Martin Luther King famously argued that people should "not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their words" This statement has still proved to be untrue because of affirmative action, specifically at Michigan. The excuse that Michigan gives for judging students by the color of their skin is that it promotes diversity and furthers the educational mission, but there is a lot of evidence that shows generating diverse student bodies do not depend on assumptions about the worth of students based on their race. The university does not disclose the percentages of representation used to determine whether a minority group is under represented, and they only use something classified as a "critical mass". This "critical mass" is based on how comfortable minority students will be among their peers. A college applicant's score is ranked on a 150 point scale, and underrepresented minorities receive 20 extra points based upon their membership in one of the groups. 20 points is more than the amount of points given for a perfect test score. It was also argued that equal protection was not being carried out during Michigan's admission process. The main point of constitutional equal protection (14th amendment) is to prevent purposeful discrimination between indiviuals based on race. Equal protection, however, cannot mean one thing to one race and another to another. Overall, Courts should not recognize diversity as a compelling interest because modern equal protection only remedies the effects of racial discirmination and is too unrelated to any legitimate basis for employing racial classifications.

Holistic Approach to College Applications

*Academic Performance* Only? - Grades and test scores - Do these accurately measure academic potential or performance - Should these factors be the ONLY factors for getting into a university? *Holistic Approach?* - Academics - Extracurricular - Personal attributes - Sports - Legacy/child of professor or staff - Historically disadvantaged group (Hispanic, African-American, Native American)

Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) case overview

*Affirmative action proponents vs opponents:* - Proponents justify the use of AA by arguing that the government should utilize race-conscious programs both to redress the continuing effects of past racial discrimination and to achieve more racially diverse educational and work environments - Opponents argue AA is unnecessary and unfair -- it is reverse discrimination and a violation of equal protection clause -- also they argue that it stigmatizes the beneficiaries, marking them unable to succeed on their own merits - The policy of the University of Michigan does not define diversity solely in terms of racial and ethnic status however the policy of wanting a critical mass of diversity does reaffirm their commitment to a particular type of diversity -- race and ethnicity - Michigan, and the Supreme Court justices who sided with the school, argue that this policy is not discriminatory and a violation of the constitution as it is contributing to the overall learning environment and thus is a factor that schools can consider since it is in their interest - Remedying past racial discrimination is not the only reason that can inspire government action on race-based issues - Educational autonomy is important -- institutions should have the discretion to determine how they admit students and what criteria they use - Umich did not use a quota they are just using a standard to achieve their goal of assembling a class of exceptionally academically qualified and broadly diverse students through a holistic approach -- the benefits of this method are substantial (cross-cultural understanding crucial for working in a diverse, globalized world) -- businesses are advocating for this because they understand the real benefits that come from it

Grutter v. Bollinger: Brief of Leading American Businesses

*FOR AFFIRMATIVE ACTION* These 65 businesses believe that It is essential to be educated in an environment exposed to diverse people, ideas, perspectives and interactions. The increasing diversity diversity of the American population demands a cross-cultural experience and understanding which can be gained through education. They argue that a diverse student body equips all of its students to succeed in any profession, teaching them to work with people from different backgrounds and cultures. Not only is it a positive for undergraduate education, but law schools can benefit from diversity because they would not be effective in isolation from groups that the law interacts with. The skills and training needed to succeed in business demand exposure to widely diverse people and ideas. Employees must be able to work with people of all different backgrounds who are different from themselves. Businesses are increasingly becoming international. They operate and compete in a global environment, and being exposed to these global cultures early on is extremely important Minority groups together will make up 47% of the US by 2050, so this percentage should be evident in higher education For example, companies like Microsoft have been increasing their minority population to better match the percentages of the entire population. Universities should do this as well to prepare their students for the workforce. Overall, these 65 businesses are arguing that the Court should find affirmative action a compelling state interest due to the necessity for a diverse student body in higher education.

Institutional Discrimination and Health Disparities

*Living in segregated, impoverished areas significantly increases stressors associated with greater health risks* - Poverty and employment, less-quality schools - Substandard housing, neighborhood violence - Less access to healthy foods - Exposure to chemicals - Less knowledge for accessing health care *Treatment by health-care providers* - Physicians, clinics, hospitals - Less time/concern for minority patients - Implicit biases of physicians - Fewer procedures ordered compared to white patients

Minority Groups and Health Risks

*Members of race/ethnic minority groups are more susceptible to* - Chronic diseases (heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, etc) - Childhood health problems - Higher infant mortality - Lower life expectancy *Racism and discrimination contribute to health disparities* - Institutional level - Cultural level - Environmental racism

Are Quotas Legal?

*UC DAVIS V. BAKKE* - UC Davis set aside 10% of spots for minority students into its medical school - Designed to remedy past and current "societal" discrimination against minority groups - Supreme Court ruled that QUOTAS were unconstitutional under the 14th amendment - Compensating for historical or societal wide discrimination is NOT a "compelling government objective" justifying admission based on one's race/ethnicity - However, the Court hinted that race/ethnic considerations in admissions might be legal if they were not the ONLY consideration AND... - Used to promote the "educational benefits that come from a diverse student body

Quick facts on Multi-Racial Identity

*see graphs* - Percentage of multi-racial individuals - Identities of multi=racial individuals - Feelings and experiences of multi-racial individuals

Desmond and Embirayer: Race in America

*see kaya's notes*

Ping v. US

- 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act banned Chinese immigration and denied reentry to previous immigrants - Driven largely by economic competition between Chinese and White laborers - A time of rising xenophobia against the Chinese - Supreme Court ruled that Congress had the power to set immigration policy, and could legally ban immigration from an entire country if it chose to do so

Dredd Scott v. Stanford (1857)

- African-Americans (slave OR free) were not, nor could ever be, citizens of the United States - Ruling accelerated the drive towards the American Civil War

Major Factor 4: Cold War

- American's "race" problem weakened its position in the Cold War with the Soviet Union - Claims of American freedom, liberty and democracy as a model for the rest of the world was undetermined by it tolerance of racism and segregation - Such hypocrisy was an international embarrassment - American officials thus pressured to dismantle white supremacy

Reverse Discrimination As a False Equivalency

- Are whites harmed by affirmative action the way minority groups are harmed by traditional forms of racism/discrimination? - Is it equally wrong to consider one's race/ethnicity to HELP disadvantaged minority groups? - Are whites statistically underrepresented in employment or education? - Do whites have a hard time getting jobs or accepted into college generally speaking? - Are whites' accomplishments SOLELY because of qualifications/merit? - Do whites ever get "preferential" treatment (Recall white privilege)

Wong: Asian Americans and Affirmative Action

- Asian applicants for college admissions are advised to reduce their Asianness in their resumes or application essays -- Asian applicants experience rampant racism as they can be an overrepresented population at secretive colleges - The argument is that affirmative action enables colleges and universities to discriminate against Asian applicants simply because there are so many of them on campus already - Traditionally one of affirmative actions biggest beneficiaries -- the practice contributed to their reputation as the model minority -- Asian Americans started to turn against it once they were no longer considered underrepresented -- they since been inundated with stories about accomplished Asians being rejected from top schools -- they have kind of become the face of the anti-affirmative action movement - It's far from clear that race-conscious admissions policies actually out the so-called model minority at a disadvantage nor is it clear that Asians and affirmative action are the does that the headlines and lawsuits and petitions make them out to be Very selective schools, particularly ivy league schools, institute something similar to a quota Asian Americans believe as the numbers for there demographic at the schools have been stagnant for decades - Certain Asian demographics like Cambodians, Laotians, and Hmong are very underrepresented but they are clumped in the general category of Asian -- these groups are helped by AA -- what Asian Americans like Chinese are opposed to are quotas and discrimination which are already illegal - Since colleges no longer admit students based solely on academic merit and instead on a holistic approach this might hurt Asian Americans - It's possible that the sentiments embodied in the complaints and calls to action reflect just a vocal minority of the country's Asian American communities -- in 2012, three in four Asian Americans supported affirmative action - Little evidence that elite colleges are indeed using racial quotas -- not enough proof

Plessy v. Ferguson (1869)

- Does the 14th Amendment's equal protection clause prohibit prohibit legal segregation - A challenge to the entire southern Jim Crow System - Separate but equal doctrine (long description on slide) - Justice Harlan's dissent: (long description on slide)

When Racial Capital Was Deployed

- For whites: reduces stereotypes of blacks being unintelligent, dangerous, inferior, etc. - For blacks: reduces stereotypes of whites being mistrustful, privileged and uncomfortable around blacks

Gender & Stereotype Threat

- GENDER STEREOTYPE: Females aren't as good at math as males - Stereotype threat hypothesis: - Females directly exposed to/reminded of the stereotype should perform worse than females who are not - In the absence of stereotype threat, females should do about as well as males - Experiments involving difficult math problems routinely support the threat hypothesis

Experimental Finding on Race and Stereotype Threat

- High achieving African-American undergraduates are more likely to struggle with grades than high achieving whites - Stereotype: African Americans have less academic ability than other groups - When told that a difficult test is designed to measure intelligence and academic ability, African Americans perform worse - But do about as well as whites (and in some studies better) in the absence of the stereotype threat - When African American students take exams in a room of mostly white students, they perform worse

Identity Contingencies and Identity Threats

- Identity contingencies: conditions/realities one must deal with in social situations that relate directly to one's social identity - Identity threat: real or imagined difficulties/problems that might result from one's identity in a given social situation - Depending on the situation, different identities may be more or less salient (Age, gender, sexual identity, race and ethnic identity)

The Harvard Affirmative Action Case

- In the 1920s, Harvard admission was based solely on academic merit - Changed to a "holistic" application process as a way to limit the number of Jewish students - Some groups claim that Harvard today is doing something similar with Asian-American applicants today *SFFA c. Harvard (2019)* - Lawsuit alleging that Harvard INTENTIONALLY discriminates by imposing an implicit quota on Asian-Americans - Claims that equally (or more) qualified Asian-American are admitted at a significantly lower rate than other racial/ethnic groups, INCLUDING WHITES

Goffman's "Interaction Order"

- Interaction order: the nonstop process of impression management during social activities/encounters - Verbal and non-verbal cues act as "signals" through which we define and interpret social situations - Social life is a series of stage performances that vary by social context - KEY TAKEAWAY: nonwhites must be more consciously aware and vigilant of their race/ethnic identities while "onstage" - Carry the extra burden of a "double consciousness" - Identity as an individual AND as a person of color - "Need two chairs at the table": one for you, one for your race/ethnicity - Thus, the ability to "code switch" is especially important (and burdensome) for people of color

Stereotype Threat Beyond Academic Performance

- Job interviews? Job performance? - Interactions with the police?

Stereotype Threat Limited to Disadvantaged Groups?

- Not limited to just disadvantaged groups - Any group with which one identifies can be subject to stereotype threat - Race and athletic performance (Golf example *get more on this*) - White students in predominantly minority classrooms

Experiences From Biracial Individuals

- People generally try to avoid focusing on ethnicity in knowledge. If someone notices that they are being judged completely by the color of their skin, they bring up topics such as European literature or history - Vanessa can use her biracial identity (and from growing up in a city) to act tough or work well with black people - Rudy is meeting his boyfriend's parents and is talking about his family history. When the father says "oh, you're black", he responds with "im also white". When they ask who is white in his family, Rudy is able to talk for hours to the parents about his mom's side and her background - Gabriella is able to change the way she speaks based on who she's around ("he's handsome" to whites and "he fine as hell" to blacks)

Civil Rights Era and Its Major Factors

- Significant legal, political, economic, and cultural reforms for greater race/ethnic equality - How was this possible given the all encompassing oppression faced by African American (particularly in the Jim Crow South) *Several major factors* - Economic restructuring and demographic changes - Political party realignments - Legal reforms - Cold War politics - THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

Social Distance and Racial Capital

- Social Distance: the cultural, interactional, and/or effectual (amount of empathy or sympathy) distance between different race/ethnic groups - Greater social distance often leads to greater prejudice and mistrust among people from different groups - Multi-racial/ethnic individuals often possess "racial capital" than can help reduce that distance

Recent Affirmative Action Case: Community Schools v. Seattle (2007)

- Students are allowed to apply to any school in the district - "Oversubscribed" schools then used a tie-breaker system: - Race/ethnicity was the second most important tie breaker - Whites or nonwhites would be admitted based on maintaining a base level of diversity in the schools (41/49 white/nonwhite ratio) - Supreme Court struck down the plan (too rigid, too mechanical of a use of race)

Important Data of the Harvard Affirmative Action Case

- The percentage of Asian-Americans admitted to Harvard's freshman class is consistently around 20% - If admission were based on academic factors ALONE (About 43% of the freshman class would be Asian American, About 38% would be white) - Taking into account ATHLETE and LEGACY preferences: (Incoming class would be about 48% vs 31% Asian-American) - Asian-American applicants get consistently lower scores on the "personal" component of the holistic application than all other race/ethnic groups - Asian-Americans do not benefit as a minority group because: (They are not underrepresented at Harvard, they are not considered a DISADVANTAGED minority group)

Recent Affirmative Action Case: Fischer v. Texas (2016)

- The state of Texas has a 10% rule: anyone who finishes in the top 10 percent of their high school class is automatically admitted - Others can still be admitted based on other holistic factors including one's race/ethnic status *Abigail Fischer* - Finished in the top 12% of her class; 3.59 GPA; 1180 SAT score - Claimed that the University of Texas did not meet the narrow tailoring requirement from Grutter v. Bollinger - Supreme Court upheld Texas's use of affirmative action as consistent with Grutter v. Bollinger

Korematsu v. US

- US government put all Japanese-Americans in internment camps during WWII - A clear violation of the 14th Amendment's equal protection clause - Did we intern German or Italian Americans - Supreme court ruled that national security concerns justified the internment

Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)

- University of Michigan Law School considered an applicant's race/ethnicity as ONE factor in a "holistic" application process (Grades, test scores, personal essay, extracurriculars, sports, reference letters, etc) - Are admissions based solely on academic qualifications? - Goal was to seek a "critical mass" of those from minority to promote student diversity - Supreme Court ruled that this was an ACCEPTABLE use of affirmative action that DID not violate the 14th amendment - Goal of student diversity was a "compelling government objective"

Civil Rights Movement

- Used a variety of "institutionalized" tactics (voting, lawsuits, lobbying Congress) - But also used a variety of disruptive, non-institutionalized tactics known as NON-VIOLENT DIRECT ACTION *Key protest events of the Civil Rights Movement* - Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955) - Student Sit-ins (1960) - Freedom Rides (1961) - Have an interracial group ride to the south - Blacks in front and whites in back - Rode through the deep south and stopped in DC -- only encountered minor resistance - 13 participants - 7 white 6 Black - Bus bombed and 12 riders hospitalized -- attacked by KKK and oppositionists - Birmingham campaign (1963) - March on Washington (1963) - March on Selma (1965) *find information on each of these* ^

14th Amendment Equal Protection Clause

- Used to strike down segregated schools in Brown v BOE *Racial classifications are presumed unconstitutional* - Any official use of race/ethnicity must meet the STRICT SCRUTINY TEST: - The explicit use of race/ethnicity must be "narrowly tailored" to a COMPELLING government objective - NARROW TAILORING: no hard and fast quotas, no rigid or mechanical use of race in admissions, find a race/ethnically neutral alternative if one is available - What if racial classifications are used to remedy past discrimination or to promote diversity rather than to oppress or segregate? - Are these legally equivalent situations?

Racial/Ethnic Capital

- a collection of resources used to negotiate racial boundaries in a multi-racial/ethnic society - A combination of social capital (who you know) and cultural capital (what you know) - WHO you know racially + WHAT you know racially - Knowledge, experiences, meanings and language - Acquired through intimate access to two racial worlds as an insider

Steele: A Mysterious Link Between Identity and Intellectual Performance

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The Case Against Affirmative Action

Affirmative action is a form of intentional discrimination against whites ("reverse discrimination") - It explicitly considers an individual's race/ethnicity - ALL forms of racial preference are wrong and unfair - Our laws and Constitution prohibit racial preferences - Holds whites accountable today for history and practices they played no active part in - Grants opportunities/benefits on the basis of race/ethnic identity rather than qualifications and merit

Major Factor 2: Political Realignment

By mid 1960s, the two major parties were aligned in the following way: - The South was a one-party region (Democratic party) - Southern democrats (very conservative) and Northern Democrats (liberal) formed an "uneasy alliance" - Northern Democrats agreed to not push for civil rights reforms - Republicans had a substantial moderate-liberal wing increasingly open to civil rights reforms By the 1960s, the parties were realigning: - As more African-Americans migrated north, their political power grew substantially - Many African American voters still preferred Republicans (the party of Lincoln) - Northern Democrats' fortunes now rested on winning large majorities of the black vote - This forces the Democratic Party to push for more aggressive racial reforms

Environmental Racism

Communities of color are significantly more likely to be exposed to environmental pollution, toxic chemicals, waste sites, etc - Contributes significantly to health disparities between minority and non minority groups - Driven by structural inequalities in wealth and power - The dominant race/ethnic group has greater access to NIMBY (not in my backyard) influence - Environmental dumping is colorblind (no proof of intentional discrimination)

Court Decision for Harvard Case

Court ruled that Harvard did not unlawfully discriminate against Asian American applicants (No rigid quota for any group, nor was it proven that Harvard uses an "implicit quota") - No evidence that Harvard intentionally/explicitly discriminates against Asian Americans (However, could there be "implicit" bias among admissions officers?) - Harvard uses race/ethnic considerations in ways consistent with Grutter v. Bollinger - No legal requirement that academic merit be the ONLY consideration in admissions

Major Factor 1: Economics and Demographics

Economic and technological changes fundamentally changed the nature of work - Significant reduction in demand for rural labor - Significant increase in manufacturing industries The "Great Migration" followed these changes: - Movement from rural to urban areas in the South - Moment form the South to Northern cities Both of these changes fundamentally shifted the nation's racial/ethnic demographics

Ocampo: Are Second-Generation Filipinos "Becoming" Asian American or Latino?

Filipinos have links to both Latinos and Asians. It is often questioned how second-generation Fillipinos understand their panethnic identity, as they are connected to two of the largest groups. Panethnic identification highlighted the social, economic and political advantages of identifying with a racial group, but also show the possibility of identifying with multiple. Assimilation and identity formation of immigrant groups is heavily influenced by US economic or military presence in the home country, international media, and migration rates. The resulting economic development from the exploitation by colonial regimes causes migration. Also, colonial relationships influence policies that create economic selectivity of the individuals who migrate. Cultural influences of colonial regimes prepare members of the colonized country to migrate. Although there is information on how colonialism affect the immigrant generation, there isn't much on the second-generation. FIlipino children of immigrants negotiate their colonial history when exploring their ethnicity with other ethnic groups Historically, the Philippines has been a part of both Asian and Latino empires. The philippines became a part of the Spanish empire in the early 16th century. Spain established the Acapulco-Manila galleon tribe which caused cultural exchanges between Filipinos and Mexicans. The Spanish period ended in 1899 but left influence on modern Philippine society. The Spanish language has a strong influence on the Filipino language (Taga). The Philippeans also have remained a predominantly Catholic society. The Philippines were taken by the US after the Spanish-American war, and they used cultural imperialism to take over the native population. This created US-style schools and English as a language of influence. Many Filipinos migrated to the US when they opened up their borders, becoming socialized in their US-style schools. Although many people moved to the US, the Philippines remained underdeveloped with very high unemployment rates. All of this explains why Filipinos are more linguistically and residentially assimilated than other Asian countries. The history of SPanish colonialism give the possibility for Filipinos to build alliances with Latinos, but can still be associated with pan-Asian organizations. Filipinos identify with an ethnicity based on culture. To decide what group Filipinos associate themselves with, they must know what culture they are most similar to. Many Filipinos are reluctant to identify as Asian, because it would seem to erase their Spanish roots. They also find that they don't feel connected to many other Asian groups besides in areas such as food and geography. They believe that the face of Asian-Americans is east asian. When people think of Asians, they automatically turn to China, Japan or Korea, because they have the "power" in Asia. Many people more closely associated Filipinos with Mexicans and other Latinos because of their shared history of Spanish colonialism. It is seen that similarities between FIlipinos and Latinos are far greater than with Asians. Some feel that Filipinos must have Spanish blood within them somewhere because Latinos commonly mistook them as Mexican due to what they looked like or their last name. Many Filipinos were spoken to in Spanish by Latinos, and some were mistaken for Latino by other Filipinos. Overall, due to colonization in Spain, Filipinos have struggled to identify themselves with one culture/ethnicity. Although they are located in Asia, much of their cultural history is deeply rooted in Latino culture.

Cultural Racism and Health Risks

Frequent experiences with negative stereotypes and discrimination can increase physical and psychological stressors - Sense of being stigmatized - Internalization of harmful stereotypes - Lower self-esteem - Frequent feelings of fear, anxiety, economic insecurity, anger, resentment, injustice

What Is Affirmative Action?

Official policies or practices that consider (at least in part) an individual's minority race/ethnic status for access to certain opportunities and resources - Originally focused on employment opportunities - Today it is mostly focused on EDUCATION (School integration plans, University admissions)

Williams and Mohammed: Institutional Racism and Health

Poorer health of racially discriminated populations creates higher rates of mortality and earlier development of disease. Disadvantaged populations tend to have lower access to medical care and receive care that's poor quality. Although the health disparities between advantaged and disadvantaged populations has declined, it is still extremely evident at every level of income and education Racism can be seen in plain sight and look intentional, but it is also evident institutionally without the presence of racial prejudice at the individual level. Data shows that white are becoming more in favor of the principle of racial equality, but aren't as in favor of actual laws and policies to increase equality. Institutional racism in housing is very high. Residential segregation was at its lowest in 2010, but the declines in segregation were driven by just a few blacks moving to formerly all-white neighborhoods. The government was able to count this as integration, not counting for the many other issues of isolation. These issues of institutional racism is deeply rooted in American culture. Black inferiority vs white superiority is historically embedded in much of American culture. Media and television affects this culture. Whites are represented much more in TV, and negative behavior is seen more towards blacks than whites. Blacks are also sometimes viewed as "apelike". Black felons are much more often referred to as "beasts" or "monsters". Many people associate Black people with being poor, violent, lazy, religious, charming and musical. Although they are not all bad, the words that come up from whites to whites is far more positive. Institutional racism can affect health through stigma, stereotypes, prejudice and racial discrimination. The results of racism cause people to gain a lower socioeconomic status and have less access to societal resources. Racism creates a lot of stress through issues of discrimination, unemployment, neighborhood violence or even chemical ecposures in less wealthy residential environments. Residential segregation is an institutional form of racism that triggers many of the health issues in minorities. This form of segregation restricts socioeconomic mobility because it limits access to schools and employment opportunities. Segregated schools are extremely unequal because of teacher quality, resources, crime and poverty. This form of segregation also reduces access to employment opportunities because many people are discriminated based on where they live, only being hired for low-pay jobs. The concentration of poverty in segregated areas can lead to elevated levels of stress, affecting health. Segregation also leads minorities to have a higher risk of chemical exposure, and gives them lower access and poor quality of health care. Segregation is blamed for higher rates of crime and homicide for African Americans. Cultural racism also affects the health of minorities. It contributes to negative racial stereotypes and stigmatization that shapes policy preferences for the rest of society. It causes a lack of political will for the majority to address issues like health for minorities. The absence of positive emotions is identified as an important factor of prejudice. Internalized racism was positively associated with greater alcohol consumption, psychological distress, obesity, high blood pressure, etc. Although these are huge health consequences, they haven't received much research attention. The psychological stress created by a stereotype can lead to issues such as increased blood pressure and anxiety. Stereotypes can also affect the patient-provider relationship. Cultural racism triggers unconscious biases that lead to unequal access to health opportunities, and cause stress. Overall, this article explains the reason for more intense and greater amounts of health issues in minorities due to institutional and cultural racism.

Problems Associated With Multi-Racial Identity

Sometimes face criticism for black racial/ethnic "authenticity" - Not a "true" Native American, not a "true" African-America, not truly "white", etc - Can reduce one's sense of belonging, increase feelings of isolation - Can have a negative impact on mental health - Not being readily "classifiable" can increase mental distress - Naive American study found that those who were inconsistently identified as Native American or White were at significantly higher risk for depression and suicidal thoughts

Stereotype Lift and Boost

Stereotype lift: performance can be increased when exposed to negative stereotypes of another group - Enhances one's sense of confidence and ability by comparing themselves to "lower achieving" groups Stereotype boost: exposure to positive stereotypes can enhance performance

Stereotype Threat

Stereotype threat: a situation in which an individual feels at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their social group - Particular type of identity threat - Typically activated when one's performance is being evaluated (academic, athletics, behavior in social settings, etc) - Often leads to decreased performance because of the "threatening" situation - Can create a cycle of poor performance, decrease in performance, and loss of interest in the activity Conditions or cues that can intensify stereotype threat: - Lack of a "critical mass" of one's group - Basic features of a social setting that suggest a lack of inclusiveness How/why does stereotype threat lead to worse performance? - Increases anxiety - Interferes with cognitive functioning

Major Factor 3: Legal Reform

Supreme Court pre-1954 - Slowly increasing Constitutional protections for racial minorities 1954: Brown v. Board of Education - Ruled unanimously that school segregation was unconstitutional - Overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine established in 1896 Signaled that more reforms and protections were to come Provided a major dose of optimism and a powerful new resource for those committed to racial equality

The Alt-Right Comes to Washington

The "alt-right" is a movement that encompasses a range of right-wing people (mostly young and on the internet). Many are also economic nationalists and "Western chauvinists" who want to purge Islam from the US. There are also overt white nationalists who are committed fascists. These people aim to produce movies that make anti-immigrant conservatism look cool, and advocacy arms that resemble BuzzFeed but show their views. They want internet memes to replace white papers, they want 24/7 video streaming of candidates and have created a fraternal organization called the Proud Boys that wants to serve as a security force at political events. Although they have a good base and ideas to get them moving, they need to re-brand. Their movement is becoming associated with white supremacy which is definitely not helping their movement. People may agree with their policies, but because the "alt-right" label is becoming more and more associated with supremacy, they are not gaining supporters. They continued to scare off moderate right-wingers because of how territorial they became. Charles C. Johnson, a self-described journalist, has made a name for himself through many controversies and a purveyor of false stories. He contributed to the Daily Caller's since-debunked story alleging that New Jersey Senator Bob Menendez concerted with prostitutes, mistaking a spoof source article for a genuine one. Johnson was banned from twitter among many other alt-righters because he solicited for donations to kill a Black Lives Matter activist. He is concerned with making sure Trump's government is stocked with Trumpists and not typical Republicans. Johnson believes that trolling is a tactic that allows a weaker party to force a stronger party to act The alt-right clearly isn't shy. There is a noisy online white natioanlist alt-right core that amplifies its voice by posting on Twitter, Reddit and 4Chan. They use multiple accounts to inflate its perceived size. In July, a "gays for Trump" party was hosted at the Republican National COnvention. This is a very small demographic I'm sure, considering most gays are either liberal, or just do not support Trump. This alt-right movement definitely has some growing up to do. They need to evolve beyond trolling, used with certain parameters, constructively, and ethically. Overall, it is clear that this radical alt-right organization must mature and change if they want to grow their support in Washington.

The Case For Affirmative Action

Two general rationales for AA 1. As a REMEDY for past and current race/ethnic discrimination (not the driving rationale for today) - Historical forms of intentional racism/discrimination created systematic disadvantages for minority groups - Current "color blind" practices are not enough to undo those fundamental disadvantages - SOME degree of race/ethnic considerations are therefore necessary to level the playing field 2. To promote CULTURAL DIVERSITY - A race/ethnically diverse society benefits EVERYONE - Our major institutions increasingly see the value in diversity (Universities, military, corporations, etc)

Yamahtta-Taylor: What's the Point of Black Lives Matter

When Mike Brown was shot by a white police officer in Ferguson, Missouri, the police left his body to bake in the hot sun for 4.5 hours before killing him, They wouldn't let his parents see him or identify the body. From this, hundreds of protests have erupted. These police brutalities have been going on since the late 90s, but no one did anything about it until now. After Brown's death, people created a small memorial where Brown was left in the street, and the officers let their dog urinate on it. Each time someone tried to lay down another memorial, a police car would drive over it. Even more intense protests began, and just like the memorials, every time the police tried to shut them down, they came back to fight again. In late August 2014, the #blacklivesmatter founders organized a "freedom ride" to bring people from all around the country to Furguson to help fight Most black murder cases that do end up surfacing involve black men or boys. However, black women who are close to black men (wives, sisters, etc) suffer the effects of violence against those men. Ex-convict status increases rates of poverty and unemployment, and these convicts are banned from federal programs. Not only are women affected if a man in their life is subject to this violence, but they are affected as a part of this violence. Rekia Boyd, Shelly Frey, Miriam Carey and so many more women are much less familiar than the black men who have been killed, but their killings were motivated by all of the same factors. Women are more likely to be brutalized because police view them as less valuable. Women were targeted because of their "lower social status" when 13 of them were raped by a police officer while on duty. It was thought that they were less likely to be believed. Even if women come out with their stories, men are still usually the most visible face (like Al Sharpton, a civil rights leader). Today, the face of the black lives matter movement is mostly queer and female. On Novmeber 24, 2014, a Furguson grand jury decided not to punish Darren Wilson for Mike Brown's murder. Many protests began again, fighting against the now legal form of lynching. Obama rounded up some of the most memorable protestors to discuss the issues of police violence. T-shirts were created and worn claiming "I can't breathe" on the front. Athletes and high school and college students wore them to show their passion for the issue. Overall, it is clear that all of these protests, while compassionate and important, cannot alone end police abuse. For it to become more effective, there must be more organization and coordination into the move from protest to movement.

Stereotype Threat Is a Vicious Cycle

those who experience negative stereotype threats on a more frequent basis: - More likely to grow frustrated, lose confidence, and lower their goals/expectations - Reaffirms the stereotype and creates a "vicious cycle" - Can contribute to ongoing racial disparities in society (Economic, educational, etc) Frequent exposure to negative stereotypes is often experienced as prejudice and discrimination on a persistent basis - Can have negative impacts of HEALTH (physical and psychological)