SOCI 1301 Ch 9 - 12 Study Guide

Wasting time online costs U.S. businesses more than _____ annually. a. $385 billion b. $285 billion c. $185 billion d. $85 billion

$85 billion

intra and inter-generational mobility

- Intragenerational social mobility - is a change in social position occurring during a person's lifetime. One recent study of intergenerational mobility shows that about 32 percent of U.S. men had the same type of work as their fathers, 37 percent were upwardly mobile (for example, a son born to a father with a blue-collar (low prestige job mostly manual labor) job ends up doing white-collar work (high prestige job mostly mental activity), and 32 percent were downwardly mobile (for example, the father has a white-collar job and the son does blue-collar work). Among women, 46 percent were upwardly mobile, 28 percent were downwardly mobile, and 27 percent showed no change compared to their fathers. intergenerational social mobility - upward or downward social mobility of children in relation to their parents, is important because it reveals long-term changes in society that affect everyone.

Structural-funcional, social-conflict, symbolic-interaction theories on stratification

- Structural-functional theory points to ways social stratification helps society operate. - The Davis-Moore thesis states that social stratification is universal because of its functional consequences. - In caste systems, people are rewarded for performing the duties of their position at birth. - In class systems, unequal rewards attract the ablest people to the most important jobs and encourage effort. - Social-conflict theory claims that stratification divides societies in classes, benefiting some categories of people at the expense of others and causing social conflict. - Karl Marx claimed that capitalism places economic production under the ownership of capitalists, who exploit the proletarians, who sell their labor for wages. - Max Weber identified three distinct dimensions of social stratification: economic class, social status or prestige, and power. Conflict exists between people at various positions on a multidimensional hierarchy of socioeconomic status (SES) - Symbolic-interaction theory, a micro-level analysis that explores how inequality shapes everyday life, explains that we size people up by looking for clues to their social standing. Conspicuous consumptionrefers to buying and displaying products that make a "statement" about social class. Most people tend to socialize with others whose social standing is similar to their own.

institutional prejudice and discrimination

- discrimination Closely related to prejudice is discrimination, unequal treatment of various categories of people. Prejudice refers to attitudes, but discrimination is a matter of action. Like prejudice, discrimination can be either positive (providing special advantages) or negative (creating obstacles) and ranges from subtle to extreme. - Institutional Prejudice and Discrimination We typically think of prejudice and discrimination as the hateful ideas or actions of specific people. But Stokely Carmichael and Charles Hamilton (1967) pointed out that far greater harm results from institutional prejudice and discrimination, bias built into the operation of society's institutions, including schools, hospitals, the police, and the workplace. For example, researchers have found that banks reject home mortgage applications from minorities at a higher rate than those from white people, even when income and quality of neighborhood are held constant. Recent concern about institutional prejudice and discrimination centers on police directing the use of deadly violence toward African American men. Survey research shows that African Americans are more likely than whites to point to this type of institutional bias. In the 2014 case of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, about one-third of whites and two-thirds of African Americans said race played some part in the deadly shooting. According to Carmichael and Hamilton, people are slow to condemn or even recognize institutional prejudice and discrimination because it often involves respected public officials and long-established traditions. A case in point is Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, the 1954 Supreme Court decision that ended the legal segregation of schools. The principle of "separate but equal" schooling had been the law of the land, supporting racial inequality by allowing school segregation. Despite this change in the law, half a century later, most U.S. students still attend schools in which one race overwhelmingly predominates. In 1991, the courts pointed out that neighborhood schools will never provide equal education as long as our population is segregated, with most African Americans living in central cities and most white people and Asian Americans living in suburbs.

The Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) was passed by Congress in October 1998. This act, directed at Web sites catering to children, requires site owners to post comprehensive privacy policies and to obtain parental consent before they collect any personal information from children under _______ years of age. a. 10 b. 13 c. 18 d. 21

13

gender difference in education

A century ago, college was considered appropriate only for (well-to-do) men. By 1980, however, women earned a majority of all associate and bachelor's degrees. In 2017, women were a majority (58 percent) of the students on college and university campuses across the United States, earning 57 percent of all bachelor's degrees. According to recent research, women have a more positive view of the value of a college degree compared to men. This is a gender-linked difference that holds among all major racial and ethnic categories. As a result, among U.S. adults between the ages of twenty-five and twenty-nine, 39 percent of women have completed a four-year college degree, compared to just 32 percent of men. As college doors have opened wider to women in recent decades, differences in men's and women's majors have become smaller. In 1970, for example, women accounted for just 17 percent of bachelor's degrees in the natural sciences, computer science, and engineering; by 2015, the proportion had more than doubled to 36 percent. In 1992, for the first time, women earned a majority of postgraduate degrees, which are often a springboard to high-prestige jobs. In all areas of study in 2014, women earned 60 percent of all master's degrees and 52 percent of all doctorates (including 60 percent of all Ph.D. degrees in sociology). Women have also broken into many graduate fields that used to be almost all male. For example, in 1970, only a few hundred women received a master of business administration (M.B.A.) degree, compared to nearly 87,000 women in 2015 (47 percent of all such degrees). Despite this progress, men still predominate in some professional fields. In 2014, men received 53 percent of law degrees (LL.B. and J.D.), 52 percent of medical degrees (M.D.), and 52 percent of dental degrees (D.D.S. and D.M.D.). Many people in our society may still define high-paying professions (and the drive and competitiveness needed to succeed in them) as masculine. But the share of women in all these professions has risen and is now close to half. Among lawyers, gender equality is likely to come soon: the American Bar Association (2017) reports that in 2016, women accounted for 51.3 percent of law school students across the United States. Based on the educational gains women have made, some analysts suggest that education is the one social institution where women rather than men predominate. More broadly, women's relative advantages in school performance have prompted a national debate about whether men are in danger of being left behind.

The feminization of poverty

A feminization of poverty, is defined as the trend of women making up an increasing proportion of the poor. In 1960, only 25 percent of all poor households were headed by women; the majority of poor families had both wives and husbands in the home. By 2015, however, the proportion of poor families headed by single women had more than doubled to 51 percent. The feminization of poverty is one result of a larger trend: the rapidly increasing number of households at all class levels headed by single women. This trend, coupled with the fact that households headed by women are at high risk of poverty, helps explain why women and their children make up an increasing share of the U.S. poor. In 2013, the poverty rate for households headed by a single woman was 30.6 percent. By contrast, for married couple families, the poverty rate was just 5.8 percent.

race as a socially constructed category

A race is a socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important. People may classify one another racially based on physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, hair texture, and body shape. Racial diversity appeared among our human ancestors as the result of living in different geographic regions of the world. In regions of intense heat, for example, humans developed darker skin (from the natural pigment melanin) as protection from the sun; in regions with moderate climates, people have lighter skin. Such differences are literally only skin deep because human beings the world over are members of a single biological species. The striking variety of physical traits found today is also the product of migration; genetic characteristics once common to a single place (such as light skin or curly hair) are now found in many lands. Especially pronounced is the racial mix in the Middle East (that is, western Asia), historically a crossroads of migration. Greater physical uniformity characterizes more isolated people, such as the island-dwelling Japanese. But every population has some genetic mixture, and increasing contact among the world's people ensures even more blending of physical characteristics in the future. Although we think of race in terms of biological elements, race is a socially constructed concept. It is true that human beings differ in any number of ways involving physical traits, but a "race" comes into being only when the members of a society decide that some physical trait (such as skin color or eye shape) actually matters. Because race involves social definitions, it is a highly variable concept. For example, the members of U.S. society consider racial differences more important than people of many other countries. We also tend to "see" three racial categories—typically, black, white, and Asian—while people in other societies identify many more categories. People in Brazil, for example, distinguish between branca (white), parda (brown), morena (brunette), mulata (mulatto), preta (black), and amarela (yellow). Osagie Obasogie (2013) interviewed people who have been blind since birth. He concluded that they have the same attitudes about race as sighted people. This finding suggests that, rather than "seeing" race with our eyes, we learn what to think about race from our surrounding society. In addition, race may be defined somewhat differently by various categories of people within a society's population. In the United States, for example, research shows that white people "see" black people as having darker skin than black people do. The meanings and importance of race not only differ from place to place but also change over time. Back in 1900, for example, it was common in the United States to consider people of Irish, Italian, or Jewish ancestry as "nonwhite." By 1950, however, this was no longer the case, and such people today are considered part of the "white" category . Today, the Census Bureau allows people to describe themselves using more than one racial category (offering six single-race options and fifty-seven multiracial options). Our society officially recognizes a wide range of multiracial people

U.S. rank in United Nations Gender Inequality Index

According to the United Nations' Gender Inequality Index, Switzerland, Denmark, and the Netherlands give women the highest social standing relative to that of men; by contrast, women in Mali, Chad, Niger, and Yemen have the lowest social standing compared with men. Of the world's 194 nations, the United States was ranked forty-third in terms of gender equality. Women's social standing in relation to men's varies around the world. In general, women live better in rich countries than in poor countries. Even so, some nations stand out: In Switzerland, Denmark, and the Netherlands, women come closest to social equality with men.

Feminism 5 general principles

Although feminists disagree about many things, most support five general principles: 1. Taking action to increase equality. Feminist thinking is political; it links ideas to action. Feminism is critical of the status quo, pushing for change toward social equality for women and men. Many feminists are also guided by intersection theory to seek equality based on race and class as well as gender. 2. Expanding human choice. Feminists argue that cultural ideas about gender divide the full range of human qualities into two opposing and limiting spheres: the female world of emotion and cooperation and the male world of rationality and competition. As an alternative, feminists propose a "reintegration of humanity" by which all individuals develop all human traits. 3. Eliminating gender stratification throughout society. Feminism opposes laws and cultural norms that limit the education, income, and job opportunities of women. For this reason, feminists have long supported passage of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) to the U.S. Constitution, which states, in its entirety, "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account of sex." The ERA was first proposed in Congress in 1923. Congress passed the ERA in 1972, but during the following decade, the measure did not win approval by enough states to become the law of the land. Supporters continue to advance this cause—in 2017 Nevada ratified the Equal Rights Amendment. 4. Ending sexual violence. Today's women's movement seeks to eliminate sexual violence. Feminists argue that patriarchy distorts the relationships between women and men, encouraging violence against women in the form of rape, domestic abuse, sexual harassment, and pornography. 5. Promoting sexual freedom. Finally, feminism advocates women having control over their sexuality and reproduction. Feminists support the free availability of birth control information. As Figure 11-3 shows, about two-thirds of married women of childbearing age in the United States use contraception; the use of contraceptives is far less common in many lower-income nations. Most feminists also support a woman's right to choose whether to have children or to end a pregnancy, rather than allowing men—as husbands, physicians, and legislators—to control their reproduction. Many feminists also support gay people's efforts to end prejudice and discrimination in a largely heterosexual culture.

Arab Americans origins

Arab Americans Arab Americans are another U.S. minority that is increasing in size. Like Hispanic Americans, these are people whose ancestors lived in a variety of countries. What is sometimes called "the Arab world" includes twenty-two nations and stretches across northern Africa, from Mauritania and Morocco on Africa's west coast to Egypt and Sudan on Africa's east coast, and extends into the Middle East (western Asia), including Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Not all the people who live in these nations are Arabs, however; for example, the Berber people in Morocco and the Kurds of Iraq are not Arabs. Arab cultures differ from society to society, but they share widespread use of the Arabic alphabet and language and have Islam as their dominant religion. But keep in mind that "Arab" (an ethnic category) is not the same as "Muslim" (a follower of Islam). A majority of the people living in most Arab countries are Muslims, but some Arabs are Christians or followers of other religions. In addition, most of the world's Muslims do not live in Africa or the Middle East and are not Arabs. Because many of the world's nations have large Arab populations, immigration to the United States has created a culturally diverse population of Arab Americans. Some Arab Americans are Muslims, and some are not; some speak Arabic, and some do not; some maintain the traditions of their homeland, and some do not. As is the case with Hispanic Americans and Asian Americans, some are recent immigrants, and some have lived in this country for decades or even for generations. As noted in Table 12-1, the government gives the official number of Arab Americans as 1.96 million, but because people may not wish to declare their ethnic background, the actual number may be twice as high.6 The largest populations of Arab Americans have ancestral ties to Lebanon (26 percent of all Arab Americans), Egypt (13 percent), and Syria (9 percent). Most Arab Americans (69 percent) report ancestral ties to one nation, but 31 percent report both Arab and non-Arab ancestry (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). A look at National Map 12-3 shows the Arab American population is distributed throughout the United States.

Compare lower-upper and upper-upper classes

As a general rule, the more a family's income exceeds $239,000 a year, the stronger their claim is to being upper class. But more than the size of income is involved. Also important is the source of income. The larger the share of income that comes from inherited wealth in the form of stocks and bonds, real estate, and other investments, the stronger a family's claim to being upper class. The distinction between earning money and inheriting money brings us to the difference between "upper-uppers" and "lower-uppers." - Uppers-Uppers - sometimes called the "old upper class," "blue bloods," or simply "society," includes less than 1 percent of the U.S. population Membership is almost always the result of birth. To become an upper-upper is to be born one. Most of these families possess enormous wealth that is primarily inherited. For this reason, members of the upper-upper class are said to have "old money." They live in exclusive neighborhoods. Women of the upper-upper class often do volunteer work for charitable organizations. Such activities serve a dual purpose: They help the larger community, and they build networks that broaden this elite's power. - Lower-Uppers - Most upper-class people actually fall into the lower-upper class, sometimes called the "new upper class." And lower-uppers include some of the richest people in the world. The queen of England is in the upper-upper class based not only on her fortune of $500 million but also on her very long aristocratic family tree. J. K. Rowling, author of the Harry Potter books, is worth almost twice as much—more than $1 billion—but this self-made woman (who was once on welfare) stands at the top of the lower-upper class. The major difference, in other words, is that members of the lower-upper class are the "working rich" who get their money mostly by earning it rather than inheriting it from their ancestors as "old money" people did. "New upper-class" families—who make up 3 to 4 percent of the U.S. population—generally live in large homes in expensive neighborhoods, own vacation homes near the water or in the mountains, and send their children to private schools and good colleges. Yet most do not gain entry into the exclusive clubs and associations of "old money" families.

minorities

As defined in Chapter 11 ("Gender Stratification"), a minority is any category of people distinguished by physical or cultural difference that a society sets apart and subordinates. Minority standing can be based on race, ethnicity, or both. As shown in Table 12-1, non-Hispanic white people (61.6 percent of the total) are still a majority of the U.S. population. But that share is declining and the share of minorities is increasing. Today, minorities are a majority in four states (California, New Mexico, Texas, and Hawaii) and also in sixty-one of the country's 100 largest cities. By 2011, a majority of the births in the United States as a whole were racial and ethnic minorities. This fact—coupled to the effects of immigration—means that the minority share of the population will steadily increase. By 2044, according the U.S. Census Bureau (2015), minorities are likely to form a majority of the entire U.S. population. Figure 12-1 shows how this trend is projected to unfold over time. National Map 12-1 shows where a minority majority already exists. According to projections from the Census Bureau, the United States will have a minority majority in the year 2044, less than thirty years from now. By that time, as the figure shows, the white, non-Hispanic population will actually decline, as the number of Asian Americans, African Americans, and especially Hispanic Americans increases. Minorities have two important characteristics. First, they share a distinctive identity, which may be based on physical or cultural traits. Second, minorities experience subordination. As the rest of this chapter shows, U.S. minorities typically have lower income, lower occupational prestige, and limited schooling. These facts mean that class, race, and ethnicity, as well as gender, are overlapping and reinforcing dimensions of social stratification. The Thinking About Diversity box profiles the struggles of recent Latin American immigrants. Of course, not all members of any minority category are disadvantaged. Some Latinos are quite wealthy, certain Chinese Americans are celebrated business leaders, and African Americans are among our nation's political leaders. But even job success rarely allows individuals to escape their minority standing. As described in Chapter 4 ("Social Interaction in Everyday Life"), race or ethnicity often serves as a master status that overshadows personal accomplishments. Minorities usually make up a small proportion of a society's population, but this is not always the case. Black South Africans are disadvantaged even though they are a numerical majority in their country. In the United States, women represent slightly more than half the population but are still struggling for all the opportunities and privileges enjoyed by men.

largest Hispanic category

As the Power of Society figure that opened this chapter suggests, the growing minority population of the United States will bring changes to this country. In 2012, the political support of African Americans and Hispanics was key to President Obama's reelection. The eyes of both major political parties are now on the country's Hispanic population. Not only is the Hispanic community now the largest minority category, but the size of the Hispanic electorate is projected to double by 2030 as well. Mexican Americans Some Mexican Americans are descendants of people who lived in a part of Mexico annexed by the United States after the Mexican American War (1846-48). Most, however, are more recent immigrants. Currently, more immigrants come to the United States from Mexico (15.1 percent of the total) than from any other country. Hispanic Americans, the largest racial or ethnic minority in the United States, commonly form multigenerational homes. As the country moves toward a minority majority, housing construction is likely to shift in response to the attitudes and desires of the evolving population.

first Asian Americans to come to the United States and largest Asian American category

Asian Americans Although Asian Americans share some racial traits, enormous cultural diversity characterizes this category of people with ancestors from dozens of nations. In 2015, the total number of Asian Americans was almost 18 million, or about 5.6 percent of the U.S. population. Asian Americans represent the largest number and share of immigrants to the United States (406,000 immigrants in 2015 or 39 percent of the total), even compared to Hispanics (274,000 immigrants or 26 percent) (Department of Homeland Security, 2017). National Map 12-3 shows the distribution of the Asian American, as well as the Hispanic American, African American, and Arab American populations across the United States. In 2015, Asian Americans represented 5.6 percent of the U.S. population, compared with 17.6 percent Hispanic Americans, 12.4 percent African Americans, and 0.6 percent Arab Americans. These maps show the geographic distribution of these categories of the U.S. population. Comparing them we see that the southern half of the United States is home to far more minorities than the northern half.

Assimilation and forced assimilation

Assimilation Many people think of the United States as a "melting pot" in which different nationalities blend together. But rather than everyone "melting" into some new cultural pattern, most minorities have adopted the dominant culture established by our earliest settlers. Why? Because doing so is both the path to upward social mobility and a way to escape the prejudice and discrimination directed at more visible foreigners. Sociologists use the term assimilation to describe the process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture. Assimilation can involve changing modes of dress, values, religion, language, and friends. The amount of assimilation varies by category. For example, Canadians have "melted" more than Cubans, the Dutch more than Dominicans, Germans more than the Japanese. Multiculturalists oppose making assimilation a goal because it suggests that minorities are a problem and the ones who need to do all the changing. The amount of assimilation varies by category. For example, Canadians have "melted" more than Cubans, the Dutch more than Dominicans, Germans more than the Japanese. Multiculturalists oppose making assimilation a goal because it suggests that minorities are a problem and the ones who need to do all the changing. Note that assimilation involves changes in ethnicity but not in race. For example, many descendants of Japanese immigrants discard their ethnic traditions but retain their racial identity. For racial traits to diminish over generations, miscegenation, or biological reproduction by partners of different racial categories, must occur. Although interracial marriage is becoming more common, it still amounts to only 8.7 percent of all U.S. marriages. After the Revolutionary War, the new U.S. government took a pluralistic approach to Native American societies, seeking to gain more land through treaties. Payment for the land was far from fair, however, and when Native Americans resisted the surrender of their homelands, the U.S. government simply used its superior military power to evict them. By the early 1800s, few Native Americans remained east of the Mississippi River. In 1871, the United States declared Native Americans wards of the government and adopted a strategy of forced assimilation. Relocated to specific territories designated as "reservations," Native Americans continued to lose their land and were well on their way to losing their culture as well. Reservation life encouraged dependency, replacing ancestral languages with English and traditional religion with Christianity. Officials of the Bureau of Indian Affairs took children from their parents and put them in boarding schools, where they were resocialized as "Americans." Authorities gave local control of reservation life to the few Native Americans who supported government policies, and they distributed reservation land, traditionally held collectively, as private property to individual families.

Comparison of performance of female and male athletes over time

Athletic performance. In 1925, most people—both women and men—believed that the best women runners could never compete with men in a marathon. The gender gap has greatly narrowed, and the best women runners routinely post better times than the fastest men of decades past. Here again, most of the differences between men and women turn out to be socially created. Early in the twentieth century, men outpaced women by more than an hour in marathon races. But as opportunities for women in athletics have increased, women have been closing the performance gap. Only twelve and one-half minutes separate the current world marathon records for women (set in 2003) and for men (set in 2014).

theories on prejudice - Authoritarian personality

Authoritarian Personality Theory Theodor Adorno and colleagues (1950) considered extreme prejudice a personality trait of certain individuals. This conclusion is supported by research showing that people who show strong prejudice toward one minority are usually intolerant of all minorities. These authoritarian personalities rigidly conform to conventional cultural values and see moral issues as clear-cut matters of right and wrong. People with authoritarian personalities also view society as naturally competitive and hierarchical, with "better" people (like themselves) inevitably dominating those who are weaker (all minorities). Adorno and his colleagues also found the opposite pattern to be true: People who express tolerance toward one minority are likely to be accepting of all. They tend to be more flexible in their moral judgments and treat all people as equals. Adorno thought that people with little schooling and those raised by cold and demanding parents tend to develop authoritarian personalities. Filled with anger and anxiety as children, they grow into hostile, aggressive adults who seek out scapegoats.

The ______ recommends that an organization's privacy notice include elements like: policy, choice, access, security, redress, and updates.

BBB Code of Business Practices

_______ is is an inflammation of the nerve that connects the forearm to the palm of the wrist. a. Seated immobility thromboembolism (SIT) b. Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) c. Behcet's syndrome d. Chronic idiopathic mylofibrosis

Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS)

Caste and Class Systems

Caste and Class systems a. caste system - is social stratification based on ascription, or birth. A pure caste system is closed (allow little change in social position) because birth alone determines a person's entire future, with little or no social mobility based on individual effort. People live out their lives in the rigid categories into which they were born, without the possibility for change for the better or worse. Caste systems clearly assign everyone a "place" in society and a general type of work, they are very stable and orderly. b. class system - social stratification based on both birth and individual achievement. Class systems are more open than caste systems, so people who gain schooling and skills may experience social mobility. As a result, class distinctions become blurred, and even blood relatives may have different social standings. Greater individuality also translates into more freedom in selecting a marriage partner. Class systems in industrial societies move toward meritocracy to promote productivity and efficiency, but at the same time, they keep caste elements, such as family, to maintain order and social unity. c. meritocracy - refers to social stratification based on personal merit. Because industrial societies need to develop a broad range of abilities beyond farming, stratification is based not just on the accident of birth but also on merit (from a Latin word meaning "earned"), which includes a person's knowledge, abilities, and effort. A rough measure of merit is the importance of a person's job and how well it is done. Such a system would have ongoing social mobility, blurring social categories as individuals continuously move up or down in the system, depending on their latest performance.

The ______ Act doesn't allow schools to receive discounts offered by the E-Rate program (libraries support to purchase Internet access and computers) unless they certify that they have certain Internet safety measures in place to block or filter "visual depictions that are obscene, child pornography, or are harmful to minors."

Children's Internet Protection Act (CIPA)

The ____ Act was passed by congress directed at Web sites catering for children requiring site owners to post comprehensive privacy policies and to obtain parental consent before they collect any personal information form children under 13 year of age.

Children's Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA)

_____ states the principles and core values that are essential to a set of people and that, therefore, govern these people's behavior. a. Code of civil procedure b. Code of criminal procedure c. Code of conduct d. Code of ethics

Code of ethics

_______ are major causes of computer problems, contributing to unnecessarily high costs and lost profits.

Computer-related waste and mistakes

theories on prejudice - Conflict theory

Conflict Theory A fourth explanation proposes that prejudice is used as a tool by powerful people to oppress others. Anglos who look down on Latino immigrants in the Southwest, for example, can get away with paying the immigrants low wages for long hours of hard work. Similarly, all elites benefit when prejudice divides the labor force along racial and ethnic lines and discourages them from working together to advance their common interests. According to another conflict-based argument, made by Shelby Steele (1990), minorities themselves encourage race consciousness to win greater power and privileges. Because of their historical disadvantage, minorities claim that they are victims entitled to special consideration based on their race. This strategy may bring short-term gains, but Steele cautions that such thinking often sparks a backlash from whites or others who oppose "special treatment" on the basis of race or ethnicity.

Conspicuous consumption

Conspicuous consumption refers to buying and using products because of the "statement" they make about social position. Ignoring the water fountain in favor of paying for bottled water tells people that you have extra money to spend. And no one needs a $100,000 automobile to get around, of course, but driving up in such a vehicle says "I have arrived" in more ways than one.

theories on prejudice - Culture theory

Culture Theory A third theory claims that although extreme prejudice may be found in some people, some prejudice is found in everyone. Why? Because prejudice is part of the culture in which we all live and learn. The Bogardus social distance studies help prove the point. Bogardus found that students across the country had much the same attitudes toward specific racial and ethnic categories, feeling closer to some and more distant from others. More evidence that prejudice is rooted in culture is the fact that minorities express the same attitudes as white people toward categories other than their own. Such patterns suggest that individuals hold prejudices because we live in a "culture of prejudice" that has taught us all to view certain categories of people as "better" or "worse" than others.

_______ refers to wasting time online

Cyberloafing

Social class and Political attitudes

Defining classes in the United States is difficult because of the relatively low level of status consistency. Social classes - Upper class - Families in the upper class—the top 5 percent of the U.S. population—earn at least $239,000 a year, and some earn ten times that much or more. In 2016, Forbes magazine profiled the richest 400 people in the United States, who were worth at least $1.7 billion (and as much as $81 billion). Taken together, these 400 people had a net worth of $2.4 trillion. These people form the core of the upper class, or Karl Marx's "capitalists"—the owners of the means of production and thus of most of the nation's private wealth. Many of these people spend much of their time managing their own wealth. Many upper-class people with smaller fortunes are business owners, top executives in large corporations, or senior government officials. - Political attitudes follow class lines. With high-income people leaning toward Republican candidates and low-income people favoring Democrats. But a close look shows that the pattern is complex. A desire to protect their wealth prompts well-off people to take a more conservative approach to economic issues, favoring, for example, lower taxes. But on social matters such as abortion and gay rights, highly educated, more affluent people are more liberal. People of lower social standing, by contrast, tend to be economic liberals, favoring government social programs that benefit them, but typically hold more conservative views on social issues. Another important pattern is that people who are well-off financially are more involved in politics. Recent survey research found that more than 90 percent of the well-off people were registered to vote. In the 2016 presidential election, 80 percent of these people actually voted. A very different pattern appears among less well-off people who tend to opt out of politics. Barely half of low-income people reported being registered to vote, and just one-fourth of them said that they turned out to vote (2015).

male and female differences in life expectancy

Differences in physical ability between the sexes do exist. On average, males are 10 percent taller than females, 16 percent heavier, and 30 percent stronger, especially in the upper body. On the other hand, women outperform men in the ultimate game of life itself: Life expectancy for men is 76.3 years, and women can expect to live 81.2 years

________ conforms to generally accepted social norms, many of which are universally accepted.

Ethical behavior

______ describes standards or codes of behavior expected of an individual by a group (nation, organization, and profession) who which an individual belong.

Ethics

what factors explain the income differences between men and women?

Factors that have contributed to change in the U.S. labor force include the decline of farming, the growth of cities, shrinking family size, and a rising divorce rate. In the United States, along with most other nations of the world, women in the labor force working for income is now the rule rather than the exception. Women make up almost half the U.S. paid labor force, and 51 percent of U.S. married couples depend on two incomes. In the past, many younger women in the labor force were childless. But today, 60 percent of married women with children under age six are in the labor force, as are 70 percent of married women with children between six and seventeen years of age. For families maintained by a woman (including single, widowed, divorced, or separated women with children), the comparable figures are 65 percent of women with younger children and 75 percent of women with older children. In 2015, the median earnings for women working full time were $40,742, and men working full-time earned $51,212. This means that for every dollar earned by men, women earned about 80 cents. These earnings differences are greatest among older workers because older working women typically have less education and seniority than older working men. Earning differences are smaller among younger workers because younger men and women tend to have similar schooling and work experience. The gender gap also varies according to occupation. Among pharmacists, for example, the gender gap is relatively small, with women earning 95 percent as much as men. Among corporate CEOs, however, the gap is much greater, with women earning just 69 percent as much as men. In recent decades, supporters of gender equality have proposed a policy of "comparable worth," paying people not according to the historical double standard but according to the level of skill and responsibility involved in the work. Several nations, including Great Britain and Australia, have adopted comparable worth policies, but these policies have found limited acceptance in the United States. As a result, women in this country lose as much as $1 billion in income annually. A second cause of gender-based income disparity has to do with society's view of the family. Both men and women have children, of course, but our culture gives more of the responsibility of parenting to women. Pregnancy and raising small children keep many younger women out of the labor force at a time when their male peers are making significant career advancements. When women workers return to the labor force, they have less job experience and seniority than their male counterparts. These facts help explain a pattern documented by researchers: Women who live in states with greater access to oral contraceptives earn more over their careers than women who live in states that provide less access to contraception. In addition, our society demands that many workers spend long hours at the office. Women who choose to have children may be unable or unwilling to take on fast-paced jobs that tie up their evenings and weekends. To avoid role conflict, they may take jobs that offer shorter commuting distances, more flexible hours, and employer-provided child care services. Women pursuing both a career and a family are torn between their dual responsibilities in ways that men are not. One study found that more than half of women in competitive jobs took time off to have children, compared to about 12 percent of men. Similarly, later in life, women are more likely than men to take time off from work to care for aging parents. Role conflict is also experienced by women on campus: One recent study found that, among tenured college and university faculty, 70 percent of men were married with children compared to 44 percent of women. The two factors noted so far—type of work and family responsibilities—account for about two-thirds of the earnings difference between women and men. A third factor—discrimination against women—accounts for most of the remainder. For all these reasons, women earn less than men in all major occupational categories. Even so, many people think that women own most of the country's wealth, perhaps because women typically outlive men. Government statistics tell a different story: Fifty-eight percent of people with $2 million or more in assets are men, although older widows are highly represented in this elite club. Just 13 percent of the people identified by Forbes magazine as the richest people in the United States in 2016 were women

Amy is doing some online research for a term paper. She'd like to access some information on a particular website, but the website is asking her to put in her email address before allowing her to view the information. She wonders what the website owner will do with that information, but there is never any way for her to know how data collected via a website will be used. a. True b. False

False

Few companies have found it necessary to limit employee access to non-work-related Web sites. a. True b. False

False

Founded in 1977, the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) is the oldest computing society and boasts more than 200,000 members in more than 120 countries. a. True b. False

False

Some companies offer health and wellness programs that require employee participants to share personal data. This data is protected under the same HIPAA privacy regulations as data shared with health insurance companies and doctors. a. True b. False

False

The Fair Credit Reporting Act of 1970, the Family Educations Privacy Act of 1974, the Tax Reform Act of 1976, the Right to Financial Privacy Act of 1978 and other Laws are part of ______

Federal Privacy Laws

feminism definition

Feminism is support of social equality for women and men, in opposition to patriarchy and sexism. The first wave of feminism in the United States began in the 1840s as women opposed to slavery, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, drew parallels between the oppression of African Americans and the oppression of women. Their main objective was obtaining the right to vote, which was finally achieved in 1920. But other disadvantages persisted, causing a second wave of feminism to arise in the 1960s that continues today. Feminism views the everyday lives of women and men through the lens of gender. How we think of ourselves (gender identity), how we act (gender roles), and our social standing as women or men (gender stratification) are all rooted in the operation of society.

_______ software that some companies provide to help protect personal data and screens Internet content. Prevents children from broadcasting their name, address, phone number or other personal information.

Filtering

social-conflict theory on gender

From a social-conflict point of view, gender involves much more than differences in behavior—gender is a structural system of power that provides privilege to some and disadvantage to others. Consider the striking similarity between the way traditional ideas about gender benefit men and harm women and the way ideas about race benefit men and disadvantage racial and ethnic minorities. Conventional ideas about gender do not make society operate smoothly, as a structural-functional analysis suggests. On the contrary, gender is a societal structure that creates division and tension, with men seeking to protect their privileges as women challenge the status quo. The social-conflict approach draws heavily on the ideas of Karl Marx. Yet as far as gender is concerned, Marx was a product of his times, and his writings focused almost entirely on men. However, his friend and collaborator Friedrich Engels did develop a theory of gender stratification. Looking back through history, Engels saw that in hunting and gathering societies, the activities of women and men, though different, had equal importance. A successful hunt brought men great prestige, but the vegetation gathered by women provided most of a group's food supply. As technological advances led to a productive surplus, social equality and communal sharing gave way to private property and ultimately a class hierarchy, and men gained significant power over women. With surplus wealth to pass on to heirs, upper-class men needed to be sure that their sons were their own, which led them to control the sexuality of women. The desire to control both women's sexuality and private property brought about monogamous marriage and the family. Women were taught to remain virgins until marriage, to remain faithful to their husbands thereafter, and to build their lives around bearing and raising one man's children. Family law ensures that property is transmitted within families from one generation to the next, keeping the class system intact. According to Engels, the rise of capitalism makes male domination even stronger. First, capitalism uses trade and industrial production to create more wealth, which gives greater power to men as income earners and owners of property. Second, an expanding capitalist economy depends on turning people, especially women, into consumers who seek personal fulfillment by buying and using products. Third, society assigns women the task of maintaining the home to free men to work in factories. The double exploitation of capitalism, as Engels saw it, lies in paying low wages for male labor and paying women no wages at all. Social-conflict analysis is strongly critical of conventional ideas about gender, claiming that society would be better off if we minimized or even did away with this dimension of social structure. That is, this approach regards conventional families, which traditionalists consider personally and socially positive, as a social evil. A problem with social-conflict analysis, then, is that it minimizes the extent to which women and men live together cooperatively and often happily in families. A second problem lies in the assertion that capitalism is the basis of gender stratification. In fact, agrarian societies are typically more patriarchal than industrial-capitalist societies. In addition, although socialist nations, including the People's Republic of China and the former Soviet Union, did move women into the labor force, by and large they provided women with very low pay in sex-segregated jobs.

gender roles

From birth until death, gender shapes human feelings, thoughts, and actions. Children quickly learn that their society considers females and males different kinds of people; by about age three, they begin to think of themselves in these terms. In the past, many people in the United States traditionally described women using terms such as "emotional," "passive," and "cooperative." By contrast, men were described as "rational," "active," and "competitive." It is curious that we were taught for so long to think of gender in terms of one sex being opposite to the other, especially because women and men have so much in common and also because research suggests that most people develop personalities that are a mix of feminine and masculine traits. Just as gender affects how we think of ourselves, so it teaches us how to behave. Gender roles (also known as sex roles) are attitudes and activities that a society links to each sex. A culture that defines males as ambitious and competitive encourages them to seek out positions of leadership and play team sports. To the extent that females are defined as deferential and emotional, they are expected to be supportive helpers and quick to show their feelings.

gender

Gender refers to the personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being female or male. Gender, then, is a dimension of social organization, shaping how we interact with others and even how we think about ourselves. More important, gender also involves hierarchy, placing men and women in different positions in terms of power, wealth, and other resources. Gender stratification, the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and privilege between men and women. In short, gender affects the opportunities and constraints we face throughout our lives.

Genocide

Genocide Genocide is the systematic killing of one category of people by another. This deadly form of racism and ethnocentrism violates nearly every recognized moral standard, yet it has occurred time and again in human history. Genocide was common in the history of contact between Europeans and the original inhabitants of the Americas. From the sixteenth century on, the Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, and Dutch forcibly colonized vast empires. Although most native people died from diseases brought by Europeans, against which they had no natural defenses, many who opposed the colonizers were killed deliberately. Genocide also occurred during the twentieth century. During World War I, at least 1 million Armenians in Eastern Europe perished under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. Soon after that, European Jews experienced a reign of terror known as the Holocaust during Adolf Hitler's rule in Germany. From about 1935 to 1945, the Nazis murdered more than 6 million Jewish men, women, and children, and another 5 million people including gay people, Gypsies, and people with handicaps. During the same period, the Soviet dictator Josef Stalin murdered on an even greater scale, killing perhaps 30 million real and imagined enemies during decades of violent rule. Between 1975 and 1980, Pol Pot's Communist regime in Cambodia butchered all "capitalists," a category that included anyone able to speak a Western language. In all, some 2 million people (one-fourth of the population) perished in the Cambodian "killing fields." Tragically, genocide continues in the modern world. Recent examples include Hutus killing Tutsis in the African nation of Rwanda, Serbs killing Bosnians in the Balkans of Eastern Europe, and the killing of hundreds of thousands of people in the Darfur region of Sudan in Africa. In 2015, the United Nations claimed that the Islamic State (ISIS) had engaged in genocide against the Yazidi minority population in Iraq. These four patterns of minority-majority interaction have all been played out in the United States. Although many people proudly point to patterns of pluralism and assimilation, it is also important to recognize the degree to which U.S. society has been built on segregation (of African Americans) and genocide (of Native Americans). The remainder of this chapter examines how these four patterns have shaped the history and present social standing of major racial and ethnic categories in the United States.

The _____ requires all financial institutions to protect and secure customers' nonpublic data from unauthorized access or use. a. E-Government Act of 2002 b. USA Patriot Act of 2001 c. Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999 d. Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002

Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999

Although Roberta had signed a form preventing her doctor from sharing her personal medical records with the company she worked for, she later discovered that the doctor's office had, in fact, shared her data with her health insurance provider and her employer, which caused her to be terminated. Because the doctor's practice violated its own privacy policy, she was able to file a lawsuit under the ________. a. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act b. Health and Medical Records Privacy Act c. Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act d. none of these answers

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act

Risks of being low income (health, life expectancy)

Health is closely related to social standing. Children born into poor families are twice as likely to die from disease, neglect, accidents, or violence during their first year of life as children born into privileged families. Among adults, people with above-average incomes are almost twice as likely as low-income people to describe their health as excellent. The long-term consequence of not getting medical attention, typically coupled to a lower level of nutrition and living in a more stressful environment, is easy to guess: Average life expectancy for people in the bottom 1 percent in terms of income is about fifteen years less than it is for people in the top 1 percent. As economic inequality increases, so does this gap in life expectancy.

As World War II was about to begin and Jews fled the Nazis seeking asylum, what was U.S. attitudes about immigration?

High rates of emigration from Europe during the nineteenth century first brought Germans and Irish and then Italians and Jews to our shores. Despite cultural differences, all shared the hope that the United States would offer greater political freedom and economic opportunity than their homelands. Most did live better in this country, but the belief that "the streets of America were paved with gold" turned out to be a far cry from reality. Most immigrants found only hard labor for low wages. White ethnics also endured their share of prejudice and discrimination. Many employers shut their doors to immigrants, posting signs that warned, "None need apply but Americans". In 1921, Congress enacted a quota system that greatly limited immigration, especially by southern and eastern Europeans, who were likely to have darker skin and different cultural backgrounds than the dominant WASPs. This quota system continued until 1968. In response to prejudice and discrimination, many white ethnics formed supportive residential enclaves. Some also established footholds in certain businesses and trades: Italian Americans entered the construction industry; the Irish worked in construction and in civil service jobs; Jews predominated in the garment industry; many Greeks (like the Chinese) worked in the retail food business. Many working-class people still live in traditional neighborhoods, although those who prospered have gradually assimilated. Most descendants of immigrants who labored in sweatshops and lived in crowded tenements now lead more comfortable lives. As a result, their ethnic heritage has become a source of pride. Another wave of immigration began after World War II and swelled as the government relaxed immigration laws in the 1960s. Today, more than 1 million people come to the United States each year—the large majority of them enter the country legally. Today's immigrants come not from Europe but from Latin America and Asia, with Mexicans, Chinese, Indians, Filipinos, and Cubans arriving in the largest numbers

What has replaced manufacturing jobs?

High-paying jobs in manufacturing, held by 28 percent of the U.S. labor force in 1960, support just 9 percent of workers today (U.S. Department of Labor, 2017). In their place, the economy offers service work, which pays far less. Traditionally high-paying corporations such as USX (formerly United States Steel) now employ fewer people than the expanding McDonald's chain, and fast-food clerks make only a fraction of what steelworkers earn.

second shif

Housework: Women's "Second Shift" In the United States, housework has always presented a cultural contradiction: We claim that keeping a home is essential for family life, but people get little reward for doing it. Here, as around the world, taking care of the home and children has been considered "women's work". As women have entered the labor force, the amount of housework women do has gone down, but the share done by women has stayed the same. Figure 11-2 shows that overall women average 16.2 hours a week of housework, compared to 9.4 hours for men. As the figure shows, women in all categories do significantly more housework than men. This difference also means that women have significantly less leisure time than men do—which is often a source of marital stress, especially among women who work for pay and also do most of the housework. Men do support the idea of women entering the paid labor force, and most count on the money women earn. But many men resist taking on an equal share of household duties.

compare full time pay of women and men

In 1900, just 20 percent of women but 80 percent of men were in the U.S. labor force. By 2016, the share of women had almost tripled, to 57 percent, while the share of men had fallen to 69 percent. As the Power of Society figure at the beginning of this chapter points out, our society continues to encourage men more than women to work for income. Among people in the labor force in 2016, 73 percent of women and 85 percent of men worked full-time. From another angle, 47 percent of all U.S. jobs were held by women, and 53 percent were held by men. Men may still dominate the labor force, but the once common view that earning income is a man's role no longer holds true. Among all full-time workers regardless of age, 19 percent of women earned less than $25,000 in 2015, compared with 13 percent of comparable men. At the upper end of the income scale, men were twice as likely as women (18 percent versus 9 percent) to earn more than $100,000 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). The main reason women earn less is the type of work they do: largely clerical and service jobs. In effect, jobs and gender interact. People still perceive jobs with less clout as "women's work," just as people devalue certain work simply because it is performed by women.

Attitudes about 1996 welfare reform

In 1996, hoping to free people from what some saw as a culture of poverty in the United States, Congress changed the welfare system, which had provided a federal guarantee of financial assistance to poor people since 1935. The federal government continues to send money to the states to distribute to needy people, but benefits carry strict time limits—in most cases, no more than two years at a stretch and a total of five years if a person moves in and out of the welfare system. The stated purpose of this reform was to force people to be self-supporting and move them away from dependency on government.

What categories have the highest poverty rate?

In 2015, the government classified 43.1 million men, women, and children as poor, the largest number since the tracking began more than fifty years ago. The poor now represent 13.5 percent of the U.S. population. To be counted among the poor, families or individuals must report income below an official poverty line, which, for a family of four, was set that year at $24,257, which amounts to $66 a day for allexpenses. The government devised the poverty line to represent about three times what a family must spend for food. But, in 2015, the income of the average poor family was just 54 percent of this amount. This means that the typical poor family in the United States had to get by on about $13,000, or about $35 a day in 2015 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). Researchers report that the 1.5 million families who are the "poorest of the poor" struggle to survive on just $2 a day.

Distribution of income and wealth in U.S. (2015)

In 2015, the highest-paid 5 percent of U.S. families earned at least $239,000 (averaging $387,000), or 20.9 percent of all income, more than the total earnings of the lowest-paid 40 percent. At the very top of the pyramid, the richest one-tenth of 1 percent earned at least $1.9 million. In short, while a small number of people earn very high incomes, the majority make do with far less.

During the last 20 years, who in the U.S. has experienced the largest gains in average income?

In 2015, the highest-paid 5 percent of U.S. families earned at least $239,000 (averaging $387,000), or 20.9 percent of all income.

Hispanic/Latino, and how individuals in this category describe themselves, largest Hispanic category in U.S.

In 2015, the number of people of Hispanic descent in the United States topped 56 million (17.6 percent of the population), surpassing the number of Asian Americans (18 million, or 5.6 percent of the U.S. population) and even African Americans (40 million, or 12.4 percent) and making Hispanics the largest racial or ethnic minority. However, keep in mind that most people who fall into this category do not describe themselves primarily as "Hispanic" or "Latino." Like Asian Americans, Hispanics are really a cluster of distinct populations, each of which identifies with a particular ancestral nation. In one recent survey, 69 percent of U.S. Hispanics said that Latinos have many cultures and just 24 percent claimed to identify with one "Hispanic community". About two out of three Hispanics (some 35.8 million) are Mexican Americans, or "Chicanos." Puerto Ricans are next in population size (5.4 million), followed by Cuban Americans (2.1 million), Dominicans (1.9 million), and Guatemalans (1.4 million). Many other nations of Latin America are represented by smaller numbers. Although the Hispanic population is increasing all over the country, most Hispanic Americans still live in the Southwest. Almost 40 percent of Californians are Latino (and in Los Angeles, Latinos represent half the people). Median family income for all Hispanics—$47,328 in 2015, as shown in Table 12-5—is well below the national average.5 As the following sections explain, however, some categories of Hispanics have fared better than others. Hispanic Americans, the largest racial or ethnic minority in the United States, commonly form multigenerational homes. As the country moves toward a minority majority, housing construction is likely to shift in response to the attitudes and desires of the evolving population.

The point of describing gender in the Israeli kibbutzim is to is to show what?

In Israel, collective settlements are called kibbutzim. The kibbutz (the singular form of the word) has been an important setting for gender research because gender equality is one of its stated goals; men and women share in both work and decision making. In recent decades, kibbutzim have become less collective and thus less distinctive organizations. But for much of their history, both sexes shared most everyday jobs. Many men joined women in taking care of children, and women joined men in repairing buildings and providing armed security. Both sexes made everyday decisions for the group. Girls and boys were raised in the same way; in many cases, young children were raised together in dormitories away from parents. Women and men in the kibbutzim achieved remarkable (although not complete) social equality, evidence that cultures define what is feminine and what is masculine.

female genital mutilation

In global perspective, violence against women is built into other cultures in many different ways. One case in point is the practice of female genital mutilation, a painful and often dangerous surgical procedure that is performed in more than two dozen countries and is also known to occur in the United States, as shown in Global Map 11-2. The Thinking About Diversity box describes an instance of female genital mutilation that took place in California and asks whether this practice, which some people defend as promoting "morality," amounts to a case of violence against women. Female genital mutilation is known to be performed in at least thirty countries around the world. Across Africa, the practice is common and affects a majority of girls in the eastern African nations of Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia. In several Asian nations, the practice is limited to a few ethnic minorities. In the United States, Canada, several European nations, and Australia, there are reports of the practice among some immigrants. Worldwide, estimates suggest that at least 3 million girls (most live in Africa) undergo this procedure annually. Although the annual number is declining, globally, the number of women who have been cut in this way exceed 200 million. In the United States, there are no official data, but it is likely that hundreds or even thousands of such procedures are performed every year. In most cases, immigrant mothers and grandmothers who have themselves been mutilated insist that young girls in their family follow their example. Indeed, many immigrant women demand the procedure because their daughters now live in the United States, where sexual mores are more lax. "I don't have to worry about her now," the girl's mother explained to Meserak Ramsey. "She'll be a good girl." Female genital mutilation is known to be performed in at least thirty countries around the world. Across Africa, the practice is common and affects a majority of girls in the eastern African nations of Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somalia. In several Asian nations, the practice is limited to a few ethnic minorities. In the United States, Canada, several European nations, and Australia, there are reports of the practice among some immigrants.

offenders and victims of violent crime

In the nineteenth century, men claimed the right to rule their households, even to the point of using physical discipline against their wives. Today, a great deal of "manly" violence is still directed against women. A government report calculated that 458,274 aggravated assaults against women occurred in 2015. To this number can be added 368,921 rapes or sexual assaults and 1.8 million simple assaults. Gender violence is also an increasingly important issue on college and university campuses. According to research carried out by the U.S. Department of Justice, in a given academic year, about 3 percent of female college students become victims of rape (either attempted or completed). Other studies point out that, over a typical college career, about 20 percent of all college women experience some form of sexual assault. This means that campus violence against women is a serious problem. Just as important, the level of violence against young women not enrolled in college is substantially higher. Off campus as well, most gender-linked violence occurs where men and women interact most: in the home. Richard Gelles argues that with the exception of the police and the military, the family is the most violent organization in the United States, and it is women who suffer most of the injuries. The risk of violence is especially great for low-income women living in families that face a great deal of stress; low-income women also have fewer options to get out of a dangerous home. Violence toward women also occurs in casual relationships. As noted, ("Deviance"), most rapes involve men known, and often trusted, by their victims. Dianne Herman (2001) claims that abuse of women is built into our way of life. All forms of violence against women—from the catcalls that intimidate women on city streets to a pinch in a crowded subway to physical assaults that occur at home—express what she calls a "rape culture" of men trying to dominate women. Feminists explain that sexual violence is fundamentally about power, not sex, and therefore should be understood as a dimension of gender stratification. If our way of life encourages violence against women, it may encourage even more violence against men. As noted, ("Deviance"), in 80 percent of cases in which police make an arrest for a violent crime, including murder, robbery, and assault, the offender is a male. In addition, 79 percent of murder victims (and 42 percent of the victims of all of violent crime) are men. Our culture tends to define masculinity in terms of aggression and violence. "Real men" work and play hard, speed on the highways, and let nothing stand in their way. A higher crime rate is one result. But even when no laws are broken, men's lives involve more stress and isolation than women's lives, which is one reason that the suicide rate for men is more than three times higher than for women (Kochanek et al., 2016). In addition, as noted earlier, men live, on average, about five fewer years than women.

Intersection theory

Intersection theory. The key insight of intersection theory is that there are multiple systems of stratification based on race, class, and gender, and these systems do not operate independently of one another. On the contrary, these dimensions of inequality intersect and interact. Formally, then, intersection theory is analysis of the interplay of race, class, and gender, which often results in multiple dimensions of disadvantage. Research shows that disadvantages linked to race and gender often combine to produce especially low social standing for some people. The basic insight of intersection theory is that various dimensions of social stratification—including race and gender—can add up to great disadvantages for some categories of people. Just as African Americans earn less than whites, women earn less than men. Thus African American women confront a "double disadvantage," earning just 63 cents for every dollar earned by non-Hispanic white men. Income data confirm the basic claim of intersection theory. Looking first at race and ethnicity, the median income in 2015 for African American women working full time was $36,616, which is 83 percent as much as the $43,845 earned by non-Hispanic white women; Hispanic women earned $31,248—just 71 percent as much as their white counterparts. Looking at gender, African American women earned 88 percent as much as African American men, and Hispanic women earned 87 percent as much as Hispanic men. To explore the "intersection" of these dimensions of inequality, we find that some categories of women experience greater disadvantages. African American women earned only 63 percent as much as non-Hispanic white men, and Hispanic women earned just 54 percent as much. These income differences reflect minority women's lower positions in the occupational and educational hierarchies. Intersection theory helps us to see that although gender has a powerful effect on our lives, it does not operate alone. Class position, race and ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation form a multilayered system that provides disadvantages for some and privileges for others. If it is true that women are disadvantaged, it is also the case that some women are disadvantaged more than others. This insight is the first contribution of intersection theory. In addition, this approach helps us understand that, although the lives of all women are shaped by gender, there is no single "woman's experience." Rather, white women, Hispanic women, women of color (and also older women, women with disabilities, and lesbians) all have particular social standing and experiences that must be understood on their own terms. A remaining issue that must be addressed is what people should do about gender stratification. This concern leads to another expression of social-conflict theory—feminism.

Which of the following statements is true of the E-Government Act of 2002? a. It requires federal agencies to post machine-readable privacy policies on their Web sites and to perform privacy impact assessments on all new collections of data of ten or more people. b. It restricts government access to certain records held by financial institutions. c. It renews the U.S. government's authority to monitor electronic communications of foreigners abroad and authorizes foreign surveillance programs by the National Security Agency (NSA). d. It defines procedures to request judicial authorization for electronic surveillance of persons engaged in espionage against the United States on behalf of a foreign power

It requires federal agencies to post machine-readable privacy policies on their Web sites and to perform privacy impact assessments on all new collections of data of ten or more people.

Executive Order 9066

Japanese Americans faced their greatest crisis after Japan bombed the U.S. naval fleet at Hawaii's Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Rage was directed at the Japanese living in the United States. Some people feared that Japanese Americans would spy for Japan or commit acts of sabotage. Within a year, President Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, an unprecedented action designed to ensure national security by detaining people of Japanese ancestry in military camps. Authorities soon relocated 120,000 people of Japanese descent (90 percent of all U.S. Japanese) to remote inland reservations

_______ is a system of rules that tells us what we can and cannot do. They are enforced by a set of institutions.

Law

_____ involves publishing an intentionally false written statement that is damaging to a person's or an organization's reputation. a. Libel b. Phishing c. Vishing d. Slander

Libel

______ involves publishing and intentionally false written statement that is damaging to a person's or organization's reputation

Libel

Why is it challenging to define social classes in the U.S.?

Low-status consistency means that it is more difficult to define people's social position. Therefore, the lines between classes are much harder to define than the lines that separate castes.

Patriarchy; matriarchy

Matriarchy - the Musuo, a very small society in southwestern China's Yunnan province, in which women control most property, select their sexual partners, and make most decisions about everyday life. The Musuo appear to be a case of matriarchy ("rule by mothers"), a form of social organization in which females dominate males, which has only rarely been documented in human history. Patriarchy - The pattern found almost everywhere in the world is patriarchy ("rule by fathers"), a form of social organization in which males dominate females. Global Map 11-1 shows the great variation in the relative power and privilege of women that exists from country to country. According to the United Nations' Gender Inequality Index, Switzerland, Denmark, and the Netherlands give women the highest social standing relative to that of men; by contrast, women in Mali, Chad, Niger, and Yemen have the lowest social standing compared with men. Of the world's 194 nations, the United States was ranked forty-third in terms of gender equality. The justification for patriarchy is sexism, the belief that one sex is innately superior to the other. Sexism is not just a matter of individual attitudes; it is also built into the institutions of society. Institutional sexism is found throughout the economy, with women highly concentrated in low-paying jobs. Similarly, the legal system has long excused violence against women, especially on the part of boyfriends, husbands, and fathers. Males are socially dominant in the United States and elsewhere. Does this mean that patriarchy is inevitable? Some researchers claim that biological factors such as differences in hormones and slight differences in brain structure "wire" the two sexes with different motivations and behaviors—especially aggressiveness in males—making patriarchy difficult or perhaps even impossible to change. However, most sociologists believe that gender is socially constructed and can be changed. The fact that no society has completely eliminated patriarchy does not mean that we must remain prisoners of the past. To understand why patriarchy continues today, we must examine how gender is rooted and reproduced in society, a process that begins in childhood and continues throughout our lives.

Weber's dimensions of social stratification

Max Weber agreed with Karl Marx that social stratification causes social conflict, but he viewed Marx's two-class model as too simple. Instead, he claimed that social stratification involves three distinct of inequality.dimensions The first dimension, economic inequality—the issue so important to Marx—Weber called class position. Weber did not think of classes as well-defined categories but as a continuum ranging from high to low. Weber's second dimension is status, or social prestige, and the third is power. Marx viewed social prestige and power as simple reflections of economic position and did not treat them as distinct dimensions of inequality. But Weber noted that status consistency in modern societies is often quite low: A local official might exercise great power yet have little wealth or social prestige. Weber, then, characterizes social stratification in industrial societies as a multidimensional ranking rather than a hierarchy of clearly defined classes. In line with Weber's thinking, sociologists use the term socioeconomic status (SES) to refer to a composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality.

research using social distance scale

Measuring Prejudice: The Social Distance Scale One measure of prejudice is social distance, how closely people are willing to interact with members of some category. In the 1920s, Emory Bogardus developed the social distance scale shown in Figure 12-2. Bogardus (1925) asked students at U.S. colleges and universities to look at this scale and indicate how closely they were willing to interact with people in thirty racial and ethnic categories. People express the greatest social distance (most negative prejudice) by declaring that a particular category of people should be barred from the country entirely (point 7); at the other extreme, people express the least social distance (most social acceptance) by saying they would accept members of a particular category into their family through marriage (point 1). The social distance scale is a good way to measure prejudice. Part (a) illustrates the complete social distance scale, from least social distance at the far left to greatest social distance at the far right. Part (b) shows the mean (average) social distance score received by each category of people in 2011. Part (c) presents the overall mean score in specific years (the average of the scores received by all racial and ethnic categories). Between 1925, when the study was first carried out, and 2001, the average social distance response dropped from 2.14 to 1.44, showing increasing tolerance of diversity. When this research was repeated in 2011, the average response showed a modest increase to 1.68, suggesting a slight decline in tolerance. Part (d) shows the range of averages, the difference between the highest and lowest scores in given years (in 2011, for instance, it was 1.08, the difference between the high score of 2.23 for Muslims and the low score of 1.15 for Americans). This figure also became smaller in studies carried out after 1925, with a small increase between 2001 and 2011. In short, compared to students in past generations, today's students tend to see fewer differences between various categories of people. Bogardus found that people felt much more social distance from some categories than from others. In general, students in his surveys expressed the most social distance from Hispanics, African Americans, Asians, and Turks, indicating that they would be willing to tolerate such people as co-workers but not as neighbors, friends, or family members. Students expressed the least social distance from those from northern and western Europe, including English and Scottish people, and also Canadians, indicating that they were willing to include them in their families by marriage. What patterns of social distance do we find among college students today? A recent study using the same social distance scale reported three major findings. 1. The long-term trend is that students are more accepting of all minorities. Today's students express less social distance from all minorities than students did several decades ago. Figure 12-2 shows that the mean (average) score on the social distance scale declined from 2.14 in 1925 and 1946, dropping to 2.08 in 1956, 1.92 in 1966, 1.93 in 1977, and 1.44 in 2001. In 2011, the average response was 1.68, indicating a decline in tolerance. Even so, notice that in the 2011 research, students (81 percent of whom identified themselves as white) expressed far greater acceptance of minorities than did students in earlier studies. Regarding African Americans, for example, students in 2011 assigned a score of 1.42, suggesting greater acceptance than students felt toward the Irish or French. 2. Today's students see less difference between various minorities. In the earliest studies, students were very accepting of some categories of people (giving scores between 1 and 2) and they were not accepting of other categories of people (giving scores between 4 and 5). In the 2011 research, no category of the population received a score greater than 2.23. 3. The climate of concern over terrorism in the world probably has increased prejudice toward Arabs and Muslims. The current generation of students has grown up in a country concerned about terrorism. The fact that the 9/11 attacks in 2001 were carried out by nineteen attackers who were Arabs and Muslims probably explains the pattern by which students express the greatest social distance toward people in these two categories.

Which of the following is a computer-related mistake? a. Acquiring redundant systems. b. Mishandling computer outputs. c. Operating unintegrated information systems. d. Exhausting information system resources.

Mishandling computer outputs.

_______ is a means of acquiring data (such as location, noise level, traffic conditions) through sensor-enhanced mobile devices and then is shared with individuals, healthcare providers, utility firms, causing privacy risks if people are unaware their personal mobile data is shared.

Mobile crowd sensing (MCS)

______ are one's personal beliefs about right and wrong.

Morals

Structural mobility in the U.S.

More recently, the "outsourcing" of jobs and the closing of U.S. factories and other business operations have brought downward structural mobility, dealing economic setbacks to many people. The economic downturn that hit hard at the end of 2007 reduced income and economic opportunities in a way that millions of people continue to feel even now, a decade later.

CEO compensation compared to average workers

Most of these megahouses have been built by newly rich chief executive officers (CEOs) of large corporations. CEOs have always made more money than most people, but recent years have seen executive pay soar. Between 1970 and 2015, the average U.S. family saw only a modest increase in income (about 31 percent after inflation is taken into account). Yet, based on data that the government now requires corporations to provide, during the same period, the average annual compensation for the 100 highest-paid CEOs skyrocketed from $1.3 million (about 40 times the earnings of an average worker of that time) to $12.4 million (roughly 335 times as much as the earnings of today's average worker). From another angle, the typical CEO is now making almost as much annual income as the entire 454-person staff of the White House, which includes the nation's president. Richer still, the twenty-five highest-earning hedge fund managers in 2015 had, on average, $517 million each in income, earning as much in ten minutes as the average worker made all year and 1,185 times as much as the country's president.

who are the majority of perpetrators and victims of violence?

Off campus as well, most gender-linked violence occurs where men and women interact most: in the home. Richard Gelles argues that with the exception of the police and the military, the family is the most violent organization in the United States, and it is women who suffer most of the injuries. The risk of violence is especially great for low-income women living in families that face a great deal of stress; low-income women also have fewer options to get out of a dangerous home.

Obasogie research

Osagie Obasogie (2013) interviewed people who have been blind since birth. He concluded that they have the same attitudes about race as sighted people. This finding suggests that, rather than "seeing" race with our eyes, we learn what to think about race from our surrounding society.

________ is a tool used by the NSA and FBI to access the servers of major Internet services such as Facebook, Google, YouTube, and others to collect the content of emails, video, photos, file transfers, and live chats.

PRISM

Pluralism

Pluralism Pluralism is a state in which people of all races and ethnicities are distinct but have equal social standing. In other words, people who differ in appearance or social heritage all share resources roughly equally. The United States is pluralistic to the extent that all people have equal standing under the law. Also, many large cities contain "ethnic villages," where people proudly display the traditions of their immigrant ancestors. These include New York's Spanish Harlem, Little Italy, and Chinatown; Philadelphia's Italian "South Philly"; Chicago's Little Saigon; and Latino East Los Angeles. New York City alone has more than 300 magazines, newspapers, and radio stations that publish in more than ninety languages. But the United States is not truly pluralistic, for three reasons. First, although most people value their cultural heritage, few want to live exclusively with others exactly like themselves. Second, our tolerance of social diversity goes only so far. One reaction to the rising number of U.S. minorities is a social movement to make English the nation's official language. Third, as you will see later in this chapter, people of various colors and cultures do not have equal social standing.

How China's economy has changed?

Political and economic change has affected not just the Russian Federation but also the People's Republic of China. After the Communist revolution in 1949, the state took control of all farms, factories, and other productive property. Communist Party leader Mao Zedong declared all work to be equally important, so officially, social classes no longer existed. The new program greatly reduced economic inequality. But as in the Soviet Union, social differences remained. The country was ruled by a political elite with enormous power and considerable privilege; below them were managers of large factories and skilled professionals; next came industrial workers; at the bottom were rural peasants, who were not even allowed to leave their villages to migrate to cities. More economic changes came in 1978 when Mao died and Deng Xiaoping became China's leader. The state gradually loosened its hold on the economy, allowing a new class of business owners to emerge. In 2012, Xi Jinping assumed a position of leadership over the Chinese Communist Party, which continues to control the country. In recent years, many political leaders have prospered as they have joined the ranks of the small but wealthy elite who control new, privately run industries. China's economy has shifted from rigid centralized control to more of a market system, which led to years of rapid growth, which only recently has begun to slow. China has now moved into the middle-income category. Much of the nation's new prosperity has been concentrated in cities, especially in coastal areas, where living standards have soared far above those in China's rural interior. Since the late 1990s, the booming cities along China's coast have become home to many thousands of people made rich by the expanding economy. In addition, the stronger economy in the coastal regions of the country has attracted more than 250 million young migrants and family members from rural areas in search of better jobs. China's population has experienced structural upward mobility as the economy has expanded by about 10 percent annually over almost four decades. China is now the world's second-largest economy (after that of the United States), reflecting in part that China is now the world's largest exporter. China has the fastest-growing economy of all the major nations and currently manufactures more products than even the United States. With more and more money to spend, the Chinese are now a major consumer of automobiles—a fact that probably saved the Buick brand from extinction.

how prejudice and discrimination form a vicious circle

Prejudice and Discrimination: The Vicious Circle Prejudice and discrimination reinforce each other. The Thomas theorem, discussed in Chapter 4("Social Interaction in Everyday Life"), offers a simple explanation of this fact: Situations that are defined as real become real in their consequences. Applying the Thomas theorem, we understand how stereotypes can become real to people who believe them and sometimes even to those who are victimized by them. Prejudice on the part of white people toward people of color does not produce innate inferiority, but it can produce social inferiority, pushing minorities into low-paying jobs, inferior schools, and racially segregated housing. Then, as white people interpret that social disadvantage as evidence that minorities do not measure up, they unleash a new round of prejudice and discrimination, giving rise to a vicious circle in which each perpetuates the other, as shown in Figure 12-3. - Stage 1: Prejudice and discrimination begin, often as an expression of ethnocentrism or an attempt to justify economic exploitation. - Stage 2: As a result of prejudice and discrimination, a minority is socially disadvantaged, occupying a low position in the system of social stratification. (Social disadvantage) - Stage 3: This social disadvantage is then interpreted not as the result of earlier prejudice and discrimination but as evidence that the minority is innately inferior, unleashing renewed prejudice and discrimination by which the cycle repeats itself. (Belief minority's innate inferiority) Prejudice and discrimination can form a vicious circle, thereby perpetuating themselves.

_______ deals with the "right to be left alone" or to be withdrawn from public view. In IS is data that is being collected is often distributed and easily accessed without our knowledge or consent.

Privacy Issues

Feminism - who defines themselves as feminist and/or supports the issue

Public Support for Feminism Because all of the various types of feminism call for significant change, feminism has always been controversial. Today, about 20 percent of U.S. adults support the idea that "women should return to their traditional roles in society." Surveys also tell us that about 60 percent of women and 30 percent of men consider themselves to be feminists. Over time, the share of the population seeking opportunity and equality for women has steadily increased. The most dramatic changes took place in the early 1970s; later changes have been far smaller. Although the share of U.S. adults who describe themselves as "feminists" is not quite half, when asked if women and men should be "social political, and economic equals," more than nine-in-ten women and men say "yes" (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2016). Most men and women who express criticism of feminism hold conventional ideas about gender. Some men oppose gender equality for the same reason that many white people have historically opposed social equality for people of color: They do not want to give up their privileges. Other men and women, including those who are neither rich nor powerful, distrust a social movement (especially its radical expressions) that attacks the traditional family and rejects social patterns that have guided male-female relations for centuries. Men who have been socialized to value strength and dominance may feel uneasy about feminist ideals of men as gentle and warm. Similarly, some women whose lives center on their husband and children may think that feminism does not value the social roles that give meaning to their lives. In general, support for feminism is greatest among younger women, women who have more education, and those who work outside the home. Race and ethnicity play some part in shaping people's attitudes toward feminism. In general, African Americans (especially African American women) express the greatest support of feminist goals, followed by whites, with Hispanic Americans holding somewhat more traditional attitudes when it comes to gender. Support for feminism is strong and widely evident in academic circles. But this does not mean that feminism is accepted uncritically. Some sociologists charge that feminism ignores a growing body of evidence that men and women think and act in somewhat different ways, and these differences may make complete gender equality impossible. Furthermore, say critics, with its drive to increase women's presence in the workplace, feminism undervalues the crucial and unique contribution women make to the development of children, especially in the first years of life. Generally, people in the United States believe that social standing should reflect individual talent and effort. Therefore, support for liberal feminism—which claims that women should compete with men on a level playing field—is more widespread. There is less support for socialist and radical feminism, which calls for making categories of people equal by making basic change to our way of life. Overall, we are seeing an unmistakable trend toward belief in greater gender equality. In 1977, 65 percent of all adults endorsed the statement "It is much better for everyone involved if the man is the achiever outside the home and the woman takes care of the home and family." By 2014, the share supporting this statement had dropped sharply, to 31 percent.

The ______ tags, are microchips with antenna that generate radio transmissions that can lead to potential privacy concerns. These that are embedded in products we buy.

RFID

race and ethnicity

Race A race is a socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits that members of a society consider important. People may classify one another racially based on physical characteristics such as skin color, facial features, hair texture, and body shape. Scientists invented the concept of race more than a century ago as they tried to organize the world's physical diversity into three racial types. They called people with lighter skin and fine hair Caucasoid, people with darker skin and coarse hair Negroid, and people with yellow or brown skin and distinctive folds on the eyelids Mongoloid. Sociologists consider such terms misleading at best and harmful at worst. For one thing, no society contains biologically "pure" people. The skin color of people we might call "Caucasoid" (or "Indo-European," "Caucasian," or more commonly "white") ranges from very light (typical in Scandinavia) to very dark (in southern India). The same variation exists among so-called "Negroids" ("Africans" or more commonly "black" people) and "Mongoloids" ("Asians"). In fact, many "white" people (say, in southern India) actually have darker skin than many "black" people (the Aborigines of Australia). Overall, the three racial categories differ in just 6 percent of their genes, and there is actually more genetic variation within each category than between categories. This means that two people in the European nation of Sweden, randomly selected, are likely to have at least as much genetic difference as a Swede and a person in the African nation of Senegal. So how important is race? From a biological point of view, the only significance of knowing people's racial category is assessing the risk factors for a few diseases. Why, then, do societies make so much of race? Such categories allow societies to rank people in a hierarchy, giving some people more money, power, and prestige than others and allowing some people to feel that they are inherently "better" than others. Because race may matter so much, societies may construct racial categories in extreme ways. Throughout much of the twentieth century, for example, many southern states labeled as "colored" anyone with as little as one thirty-second African ancestry (that is, one African American great-great-great-grandparent). Today, the law allows parents to declare the race of a child (or not) as they wish. Even so, most members of U.S. society are still very sensitive to people's racial backgrounds. A Trend toward Mixture Over many generations and throughout the Americas, the genetic traits from around the world have become mixed. Many "black" people have a significant Caucasoid ancestry, just as many "white" people have some Negroid genes. Whatever people may think, race is not a black-and-white issue. Today, people are more willing to define themselves as multiracial. On the most recent U.S. Census survey for 2015, 10 million people described themselves by checking two or more racial categories. In 2015, 6 percent of children under the age of five were multiracial compared to less than 1 percent of people age sixty-five and older. Ethnicity Ethnicity is a shared cultural heritage. People define themselves—or others—as members of an ethnic category based on common ancestry, language, or religion that gives them a distinctive social identity. The United States is a multiethnic society. Even though we favor the English language, almost 65 million people (22 percent of the U.S. population) speak Spanish, Italian, German, French, Chinese, or some other language in their homes. In California, about 45 percent of the population does so. With regard to religion, the United States is a predominantly Protestant nation, but most people of Spanish, Italian, and Polish descent are Roman Catholic, and many of Greek, Ukrainian, and Russian descent belong to the Eastern Orthodox Church. More than 5.1 million Jewish Americans have ancestral ties to various nations around the world. The population of Muslim men and women is generally estimated at between 2 and 3 million and is rapidly increasing due to both immigration and a high birthrate. Like race, the concept of "ethnicity" is socially constructed, becoming important only because society defines it that way. For example, U.S. society defines people of Spanish descent as "Latin," even though Italy has a more "Latin" culture than Spain. People of Italian descent are not viewed as Latin but as "European" and therefore less different from the point of view of the European majority. Like racial differences, the importance of ethnic differences can change over time. A century ago, Catholics and Jews were considered "different" in the mostly Protestant United States. This is much less true today. Keep in mind that race is constructed from biologicaltraits and ethnicity is constructed from cultural traits. However, the two often go hand in hand. For example, Japanese Americans have distinctive physical traits and, for those who hold to a traditional way of life, a distinctive culture as well. Table 12-1presents the most recent data on the racial and ethnic diversity of the United States. On an individual level, people play up or play down cultural traits, depending on whether they want to fit in or stand apart from the surrounding society. Immigrants may drop their cultural traditions or, like many people of Native American descent in recent years, try to revive their heritage. For most people, ethnicity is more complex than race because they identify with several ethnic backgrounds. Rock-and-roll legend Jimi Hendrix was African American, white, and Cherokee; news anchor Soledad O'Brian considers herself both white and black, both Australian and Irish, and both Anglo and Hispanic.

humans as a species

Racial diversity appeared among our human ancestors as the result of living in different geographic regions of the world. In regions of intense heat, for example, humans developed darker skin (from the natural pigment melanin) as protection from the sun; in regions with moderate climates, people have lighter skin. Such differences are literally only skin deep because human beings the world over are members of a single biological species.

racism

Racism A powerful and harmful form of prejudice, racism is the belief that one racial category is innately superior or inferior to another. Racism has existed throughout world history. Despite their many achievements, the ancient Greeks, the peoples of India, and the Chinese all regarded people unlike themselves as inferior. Racism has also been widespread throughout the history of the United States, where ideas about racial inferiority supported slavery. Today, overt racism in this country has decreased because more people believe in evaluating others, as Martin Luther King Jr. envisioned, according to their personal character rather than the color of their skin. Even so, racism remains a serious social problem, as some people think that certain racial and ethnic categories are smarter than others. As studies have shown, however, racial differences in mental abilities result from environment rather than biology.

According to Dahrendorf, why did a revolution, as predicted by Marx, not occur in advanced capitalist societies?

Ralf Dahrendorf (1959) suggested four reasons: 1. Fragmentation of the capitalist class. Today, tens of millions of stockholders, rather than single families, own most large companies. Day-to-day corporate operations are in the hands of a large class of managers, who may or may not be major stockholders. With stock widely held—about half of U.S. households own at least some stocks—more and more people have a direct stake in the capitalist system. 2. A higher standard of living. A century ago, most U.S. workers were in factories or on farms in blue-collar occupations, lower-prestige jobs that involve mostly manual labor. Today, most workers are in white-collar occupations, higher-prestige jobs that involve mostly mental activity. These jobs are in sales, customer support, management, and other service fields. Most of today's white-collar workers do not think of themselves as an "industrial proletariat." Just as important, the average income in the United States rose almost tenfold over the course of the twentieth century, even allowing for inflation. During this period, in addition, the number of hours in the workweek actually decreased. Therefore, despite recent tough times economically, the typical worker today is far better off than the typical worker was a century ago, an example of structural social mobility. Even in 2016, a year in which voters favored "outsider" candidates, there was little support for changing the capitalist foundations of the country's economy. 3. More worker organizations. Workers today have the right to form labor unions and other organizations that make demands of management, backed by threats of work slowdowns and strikes. As a result, labor disputes are settled without threatening the capitalist system. 4. Greater legal protections. Over the past century, new laws made the workplace safer, and unemployment insurance, disability protection, and Social Security now provide workers with greater financial security.

research on married women keeping their name

Research also shows that subjects asked to assess women's personal traits typically perceive those who take their husband's last name as more caring, dependent, and emotional (traditional feminine qualities). By contrast, they assess women who keep their maiden names as more ambitious, talented, and capable (more competitive against others, including men). Data on salaries reveal a significant difference in pay: Married women who keep their own name end up earning about 40 percent more than those who adopt their husband's name. Such patterns demonstrate how gender shapes the reality we experience in everyday life. They also suggest that women who face a decision about surnames when they marry may consider the choice they make will carry particular meaning to others and have important consequences.

How does divorce affect women's social class?

Research points to the conclusion that marriage has an important effect on social standing. In a study of women and men in their forties, Jay Zagorsky (2006) found that people who marry and stay married accumulate about twice as much wealth as people who remain single or who divorce. Reasons for this difference include the fact that couples who live together typically enjoy double incomes and also pay only half the bills the two partners would have if they were single and living in separate households. It is also likely that compared to single people, married men and women work harder in their jobs and save more money, primarily because they are working not just for themselves but also to support children and spouses who are counting on them. Just as marriage pushes social standing upward, divorce usually makes social position go down. Couples who divorce take on the financial burden of supporting two households, which leaves them with less money for savings or other investment. After divorce, women are hurt more than men because typically the man earns more. Many women who divorce lose not only most of their income but also benefits such as health care and insurance coverage.

% of richest in U.S. whose fortunes came from inheritance

Research suggests that more than one-third of our country's richest individuals—those with hundreds of millions of dollars in wealth—derived their fortunes mostly from inheritance

During a recent brainstorming session, one of Franklin's co-workers suggested that their company could sell some of the data contained in its customer databases to earn extra revenue for the business. As a long-time member of the ACM (Association for Computing Machinery), Franklin is opposed to the idea because it violates which of the following imperatives in the ACM code of ethics? a. Be honest and trustworthy. b. Respect the privacy of others. c. Honor property rights d. Avoid harm to others.

Respect the privacy of others

theories on prejudice - Scapegoat theory

Scapegoat Theory Scapegoat theory holds that prejudice springs from frustration among people who are themselves disadvantaged. For instance, take the case of a white woman who is frustrated by the low pay she receives from her assembly-line job in a textile factory. Directing hostility at the powerful factory owners carries the obvious risk of being fired; therefore, she may blame her low pay on the presence of minority co-workers. Her prejudice does not improve her situation, but it is a relatively safe way to express anger, and it may give her the comforting feeling that at least she is superior to someone. A scapegoat, then, is a person or category of people, typically with little power, whom people unfairly blame for their own troubles. Because they have little power and thus are usually "safe targets," minorities often are used as scapegoats.

Segregation

Segregation Segregation is the physical and social separation of categories of people. Some minorities, especially religious orders like the Amish, voluntarily segregate themselves. However, majorities usually segregate minorities by excluding them. Residential neighborhoods, schools, occupations, hospitals, and even cemeteries may be segregated. Pluralism encourages distinctiveness without disadvantage, but segregation enforces separation that harms a minority. Racial segregation has a long history in the United States, beginning with slavery and evolving into racially separated housing, schools, buses, and trains. Court decisions such as the 1954 Brown case have reduced de jure (Latin, "by law") discrimination in this country. However, de facto ("in actual fact") segregation continues in the form of countless neighborhoods that are home to people of a single race. Research suggests that racial segregation is lower in large U.S. cities today than in the past. The trend reflects both greater racial tolerance and increasing availability of housing loans to minorities. Despite this decline, however, segregation persists in the United States. For example, Livonia, Michigan, is 90 percent white, and neighboring Detroit is 80 percent African American. Kurt Metzger (2001) explains, "Livonia was pretty much created by white flight [from Detroit]." Further, research shows that across the country, many whites (especially those with young children) avoid neighborhoods where African Americans live. At the extreme, Douglas Massey and Nancy Denton (1989) document the hypersegregation of poor African Americans in some inner cities. Hypersegregation means having little contact of any kind with people outside the local community. Hypersegregation is the daily experience of about one-fourth of all African Americans. The number of hypersegregated cities in the United States has declined by half since 1970, but this pattern is still pronounced in twenty-one large U.S. cities.

costs of sexism

Sexism limits the talents and the ambitions of the half of the human population, who are women. Although men benefit in some respects from sexism, their privilege comes at a high price. Masculinity in our culture encourages men to engage in many high-risk behaviors: using tobacco and alcohol, playing dangerous sports, and even driving recklessly. As Marilyn French (1985) argues, patriarchy drives men to relentlessly seek control, not only of women but also of themselves and their world. Thus masculinity is linked not only to accidents but also to suicide, violence, and stress-related diseases. The Type A personality—marked by chronic impatience, driving ambition, competitiveness, and free-floating hostility—is one cause of heart disease and an almost perfect match with the behavior our culture considers masculine. As men seek control over others, they lose opportunities for intimacy and trust. As one analyst put it, competition is supposed to "separate the men from the boys." In practice, however, it separates men from men and from everyone else.

sexual harassment and types of

Sexual harassment refers to comments, gestures, or physical contacts of a sexual nature that are deliberate, repeated, and unwelcome. During the 1990s, sexual harassment became an issue of national importance that rewrote the rules for workplace interaction between women and men. Most (but not all) victims of sexual harassment are women. The reason is that, first, our culture encourages men to be sexually assertive and to see women in sexual terms. As a result, social interaction between men and women in the workplace, on campus, and elsewhere can easily take on sexual overtones. Second, most people in positions of power—including business executives, doctors, bureau chiefs, assembly-line supervisors, professors, and military officers—are men who oversee the work of women. Surveys carried out in widely different work settings show that about 3 percent of women claim that they have been harassed on the job in the last year and about half of women say they receive unwanted sexual attention. Sexual harassment is sometimes obvious and direct: A supervisor may ask for sexual favors from an employee and make threats if the advances are refused. Courts have declared that such quid pro quo sexual harassment (the Latin phrase means "one thing in return for another") is a violation of civil rights. More often, however, the problem of unwelcome sexual attention is a matter of subtle behavior—sexual teasing, off-color jokes, comments about someone's looks—that may or may not be intended to harass anyone. But based on the effect standard favored by many feminists, such actions add up to creating a hostile environment for women in the workplace. Incidents of this kind are far more complex because they involve different perceptions of the same behavior. For example, a man may think that repeatedly complimenting a co-worker on her appearance is simply being friendly. The co-worker, on the other hand, may believe that the man is thinking of her in sexual terms and is not taking her work seriously, an attitude that could harm her job performance and prospects for advancement.

Which of the following is not a common computer-related mistake? a. Programming errors b. Shopping online while at work c. Data-entry or data-capture errors d. Errors in handling files

Shopping online while at work

How long have women served in the U.S. armed forces_

Since colonial times, women have served in the U.S. armed forces. Yet in 1940, at the outset of World War II, just 2 percent of armed forces personnel were women. In 2017, women represented 16 percent of all deployed U.S. troops as well as people serving in all capacities in the armed forces. Clearly, women make up a growing share of the U.S. military and, since 2015, virtually all military assignments have been open to both women and men. In 2013, Defense Secretary Leon Panetta announced that women would be allowed to serve in ground-combat operations, where gaining leadership experience is widely viewed as crucial for career advancement. For years, of course, women have been engaged in combat operations, because in today's high-tech military, the line between troop support and outright combat is not easy to draw, as women serving in Iraq have learned. In fact, between May 2003 and March 2017, the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan claimed the lives of 166 female soldiers The debate on women's role in the military has been going on for centuries. Some people object to opening doors in this way, claiming that women lack the physical strength of men. Others point out that military women are better educated and score higher on intelligence tests than military men. But the heart of the issue is our society's deeply held view of women as nurturers—people who give life and help others—which clashes with the image of women trained to kill. Whatever our views of women and men, the reality is that military women are in harm's way. In part, this fact reflects the strains of a military short of personnel. In addition, the type of insurgency that surrounds our troops in Iraq and Afghanistan can bring violent combat to any soldier at any time. Finally, our modern warfare technology blurs the distinction between combat and noncombat personnel. A combat pilot can fire missiles at a target miles away; by contrast, non-fighting medical evacuation teams must travel directly into the line of fire.

Relative poverty and absolute poverty

Social stratification creates both "haves" and "have-nots." - relative poverty - All systems of social inequality create poverty, or at least relative poverty, the lack of resources of some people in relation to those who have more. - absolute poverty - A more serious but preventable problem is absolute poverty, a lack of resources that is life-threatening. Roughly 750 million human beings around the world—one person in ten—are at risk of absolute poverty. Even in the affluent United States, families go hungry, sleep in parked cars or on the streets, and suffer from poor health simply because they are poor.

Myrdal - the "American dilemma"

Some free persons of color lived in both the North and the South, laboring as small-scale farmers, skilled workers, and small business owners. But the lives of most African Americans stood in glaring contradiction to the principles of equality and freedom on which the United States was founded. However, most white people did not apply these ideals to black people, and certainly not to slaves. In the Dred Scott case of 1857, the U.S. Supreme Court addressed the question "Are slaves citizens?" by writing, "We think they are not, and that they are not included, and were not intended to be included, under the word 'citizens' in the Constitution, and can therefore claim none of the rights and privileges which that instrument provides for and secures for citizens of the United States" (quoted in Blaustein & Zangrando, 1968:160). Thus arose what the Swedish sociologist Gunnar Myrdal (1944) called the "American dilemma": a democratic society's denial of basic rights and freedoms to one category of people. People would speak of equality, in other words, but do little to make all categories of people equal. Many white people resolved this dilemma by defining black people as naturally inferior and undeserving of equality.

Status consistency

Status consistency is the degree of uniformity in a person's social standing across various dimensions of social inequality. A caste system has little social mobility and therefore has high-status consistency. This means that, remaining in the same social category, the typical person has the same relative standing with regard to wealth, power, and prestige as everyone else in that caste group. However, the greater mobility of class systems moves people up and down and therefore produces less status consistency. In the United States, for example, most college professors with advanced degrees enjoy high social prestige but earn only modest incomes. Low-status consistency means that it is more difficult to define people's social position. Therefore, the lines between

fastest growing category of homeless people

The 2016 survey found about 550,000 people living in shelters, in transitional housing, and on the street on a single night in January. As with earlier estimates of the homeless population, critics claimed that the HUD estimate undercounted the homeless, who may well have numbered several million people. Between 2009 and 2016, official statistics suggest, the extent of homelessness has modestly declined. The large majority of homeless people report that they do not work, although about 18 percent have at least a part-time job. Working or not, all homeless people have one thing in common: poverty. One-third of homeless people are substance abusers, and one-third have some mental illness (about 25 percent of homeless people fall into both categories). More broadly, a fraction of 1 percent of our population, for one reason or another, seems unable to cope with our complex and highly competitive society. Other people see homelessness resulting from societal factors, including low wages and a lack of affordable housing. Supporters of this position point out that 35 percent of the homeless consist of families (typically a single mother with young children), and since the recession began in 2007, the share of families among the homeless has been rising. From another angle, children are the fastest-growing category of the homeless.

Davis-Moore thesis

The Davis-Moore thesis states that social stratification has beneficial consequences for the operation of a society. Social stratification has been found in every society? Davis and Moore note that modern societies have hundreds of occupational positions of varying importance. Certain jobs—say, washing cars or answering a telephone—are fairly easy and can be performed by almost anyone. Other jobs—such as designing a new generation of computers or transplanting human organs—are very difficult and demand the scarce talents of people with extensive and expensive training. Therefore, the greater the functional importance of a position, the more rewards a society attaches to it. This strategy promotes productivity and efficiency because rewarding important work with income, prestige, power, or leisure encourages people to do these jobs and to work better, longer, and harder. Unequal rewards (the foundation of social stratification) benefit society as a whole. Davis and Moore claim that any society could be egalitarian, but only to the extent that people are willing to let anyone perform any job. Equality also demands that someone who performs a job poorly be rewarded just as much as someone who performs the job well. Such a system clearly offers little incentive for people to try their best, reducing the society's productive efficiency. Positions a society considers crucial must offer enough rewards to draw talented people away from less important work.

The "beauty myth"

The Duchess of Windsor once remarked, "A woman cannot be too rich or too thin." The first half of her observation might apply to men as well, but certainly not the second. After all, the vast majority of ads placed by the $62-billion-a-year U.S. cosmetics industry and the $64-billion diet industry target women. According to Naomi Wolf (1990), certain cultural patterns add up to a "beauty myth" that is damaging to women. First, the foundation of the beauty myth is the notion, taught from an early age, that women should measure their worth in terms of physical appearance or, more specifically, how physically attractive they are to men. Of course, the standards of beauty embodied by the Playboy centerfold or the 100-pound New York fashion model are out of reach for most women. Second, our society teaches women to prize relationships with men, whom they presumably attract with their beauty. Striving for beauty not only drives women to be extremely disciplined but also forces them to be highly attentive to and responsive to men. In short, beauty-minded women try to please men and avoid challenging male power. Belief in the beauty myth is one reason that so many young women are focused on body image, particularly being as thin as possible, often to the point of endangering their health. During the past several decades, the share of young women who develop an eating disorder such as anorexia nervosa (dieting to the point of starvation) or bulimia (binge eating followed by vomiting) has risen dramatically. The beauty myth, then, is the idea that striving to be physically attractive to men is the key to women's happiness. As Wolf sees it, however, such efforts are more likely to end up standing between women and their power and worthwhile accomplishments. The beauty myth affects males as well: Men are told repeatedly that they should want to possess beautiful women. Such ideas about beauty reduce women to objects and motivate thinking about women as if they were dolls rather than human beings. There can be little doubt that the idea of beauty is important in everyday life. According to Wolf, the question is whether beauty is about how we look or how we act.

Suppose you have been receiving unsolicited phone calls from telemarketers. Which agency should you contact to prevent these 'junk' calls? a. The Federal Trade Commission b. your local police department c. Better Business Bureau d. The Department of Justice

The Federal Trade Commission

Percentage of U.S. population that is middle class

The Middle Class made up of 40 to 45 percent of the U.S. population, the large middle class has a tremendous influence on our culture. Television and movies usually show middle-class people, and most commercial advertising is directed at these average consumers. The middle class contains far more racial and ethnic diversity than the upper class.

What has owning and operating gambling casinos done for Native Americans?

The U.S. Census Bureau (2012) recognizes forty-one American Indian nations and six Alaskan Native nations, which are made up of more than 600 smaller tribal groups. Today, many Native Americans are displaying ethnic pride as they reclaim their cultural heritage. Traditional cultural organizations report a surge in new membership applications, and many children can speak native languages better than their parents. The legal right of Native Americans to govern their reservations has enabled some tribes to build profitable gaming casinos. But the wealth produced from gambling has enriched relatively few Native peoples, and most profits go to non-Indian investors. While some prosper, most Native Americans remain severely disadvantaged and share a profound sense of the injustice they have suffered at the hands of white people.

Was the former Soviet Union classless?

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which rivaled the United States as a military superpower in the mid- to late twentieth century, was born out of a revolution in Russia in 1917. The Russian Revolution ended the feudal estate system ruled by a hereditary nobility and transferred most farms, factories, and other productive property from private ownership to state control. Following the lead of Karl Marx, who believed that private ownership of property was the source of social stratification, Soviet leaders boasted of becoming a classless society. Critics, however, pointed out that based on their jobs, the Soviet people were actually stratified into four unequal categories. At the top were high government officials, known as apparatchiks. Next came the Soviet intelligentsia, including lower government officials, college professors, scientists, physicians, and engineers. Below them were manual workers and, at the lowest level, the rural peasantry. In reality, the Soviet Union was not classless at all, and political power was concentrated in only a small percentage of the population. But putting factories, farms, colleges, and hospitals under state control did create greater economic equality (although with sharp differences in power) than in capitalist societies such as the United States.

Feminism first-wave

The first wave of feminism in the United States began in the 1840s as women opposed to slavery, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, drew parallels between the oppression of African Americans and the oppression of women. Their main objective was obtaining the right to vote, which was finally achieved in 1920. But other disadvantages persisted, causing a second wave of feminism to arise in the 1960s that continues today.

largest Asian American category in U.S.

The largest category of Asian Americans is people of Chinese ancestry (4.0 million), followed by those of Asian Indian (3.7 million), Filipino (2.9 million), Vietnamese (1.7 million), Korean (1.5 million), and Japanese (758,000) descent. Almost one-third of Asian Americans live in California.

structural-functional theory of gender

The structural-functional approach views society as a complex system of many separate but integrated parts. From this point of view, gender serves as a means to organize social life. Culture explained, the earliest hunting and gathering societies had little power over biology. Lacking effective birth control, women could do little to prevent pregnancy, and the responsibilities of child care kept them close to home. At the same time, men's greater strength made them better suited for warfare and hunting. Over the centuries, this sex-based division of labor became institutionalized and largely taken for granted. Industrial technology opens up a much greater range of cultural possibilities. With human muscle power no longer the main energy source, the physical strength of men becomes less important. In addition, the ability to control reproduction gives women greater choices about how to live. Modern societies relax traditional gender roles as the societies become more meritocratic because rigid roles waste an enormous amount of human talent. Yet change comes slowly because gender is deeply rooted in culture. As Talcott Parsons observed, gender helps integrate society, at least in its traditional form. Gender forms a complementary set of roles that links women and men into family units and gives each sex responsibility for carrying out important tasks. Women take the lead in managing the day-to-day life of the household and raising children. Men connect the family to the larger world as they participate in the labor force. Thus gender plays an important part in socialization. Society teaches boys—presumably destined for the labor force—to be rational, self-assured, and competitive. Parsons called this complex of traits instrumental qualities. To prepare girls for child rearing, socialization stresses expressive qualities, such as emotional responsiveness and sensitivity to others. Society encourages gender conformity by instilling in men and women a fear that straying too far from accepted standards of masculinity or femininity will cause rejection by the opposite sex. In simple terms, women learn to reject nonmasculine men as sexually unattractive, and men learn to reject unfeminine women. In sum, gender integrates society both structurally (in terms of what we do) and morally (in terms of what we believe). Influential in the 1950s, this approach has lost much of its standing today. First, structural-functionalism assumes a singular vision of society that is not shared by everyone. For example, historically, many women have worked outside the home because of economic necessity, a fact not reflected in Parsons's conventional, middle-class view of social life. Second, Parsons's analysis ignores the personal strains and social costs of rigid gender roles. Third, in the eyes of those seeking sexual equality, Parsons's gender "complementarity" amounts to little more than women submitting to male domination.

symbolic-interaction theory of gender

The symbolic-interaction approach takes a micro-level view of society, focusing on how people "do" gender as part of face-to-face interaction in everyday life. Gender affects everyday interaction in a number of ways. If you watch women and men interacting, you will probably notice that women typically engage in more eye contact than men do. Why? Holding eye contact is a way of encouraging the conversation to continue; in addition, looking directly at someone clearly shows the other person that you are paying attention. This pattern is an example of sex roles, defined earlier as the way a society defines how women and men should think and behave. To understand such patterns, consider the fact that people with more power tend to take charge of social encounters. When men and women engage one another, as they do in families and in the workplace, it is men who typically initiate the interaction. That is, men speak first, set the topics of discussion, and control the outcomes. With less power, women are expected to be more deferential, meaning that they show respect for others of higher social position. In many cases, this means that women (just like children or others with less power) spend more time being silent and also encouraging men (or others with more power) not just with eye contact but by smiling or nodding in agreement. As a technique to control a conversation, men often interrupt others, just as they typically feel less need to ask the opinions of other people, especially those with less power. If a woman is planning to marry a man, should she take his last name or keep her own? This decision is about more than how she will sign a check: It also affects how employers will see her and even her future pay. In the United States today, about one-third of women who marry men keep their own name or hyphenate two names. Research shows that women who marry in their thirties (after they have started a career) are much more likely to keep their own name than women who marry in their early twenties. Research also shows that subjects asked to assess women's personal traits typically perceive those who take their husband's last name as more caring, dependent, and emotional (traditional feminine qualities). By contrast, they assess women who keep their maiden names as more ambitious, talented, and capable (more competitive against others, including men). Data on salaries reveal a significant difference in pay: Married women who keep their own name end up earning about 40 percent more than those who adopt their husband's name. Such patterns demonstrate how gender shapes the reality we experience in everyday life. They also suggest that women who face a decision about surnames when they marry may consider the choice they make will carry particular meaning to others and have important consequences. The strength of the symbolic-interaction approach is helping us see how gender plays a part in shaping almost all our everyday experiences. Our society defines men (and everything we consider to be masculine) as having more value than women (and what is defined as feminine). For this reason, just about every familiar social encounter is "gendered" so that men and women interact in distinctive and unequal ways. The symbolic-interaction approach suggests that individuals socially construct the reality they experience as they interact every day, using gender-linked traits such as clothing and demeanor (and, for women, also last name) as elements of their personal "performances" that shape ongoing reality. Gender plays a part in the reality we experience. Yet, as a structural dimension of society, gender is at least largely beyond the immediate control of any of us as individuals as it gives some people power over others. In other words, patterns of everyday social interaction reflect our society's gender stratification. Everyday interaction also helps reinforce this inequality. For example, to the extent that fathers take the lead in dinner table discussions, the entire family learns to expect men to "display leadership" and "show their wisdom." As mothers do the laundry, children learn that women are expected to do household chores. A limitation of the symbolic-interaction approach is that by focusing on situational social experience, it says little about the broad patterns of inequality that set the rules for our everyday lives. To understand the roots of gender stratification, we have to "kick it up a level" to see more closely how society makes men and women unequal. We will do this using the social-conflict approach.

Heavy computer use can negatively affect one's physical health. a. True b. False

True

In 2015, the European Court of Justice found that the Safe Harbor Framework (an agreement that had been in place since 2000 between the United States and the European Union (EU), allowing the transfer of personal data from the EU to the United States) did not adequately protect the personal data of citizens residing in EU countries. a. True b. False

True

Just because an activity is defined as legal does not mean that it is ethical. a. True b. False

True

One idea for reducing cyberloafing is to develop software that recognizes and categorizes Internet sites into sites that employees can always visit, sometimes visit, and never visit. a. True b. False

True

The Government Accounting Office uncovered a total of $321 million spent in the six-year period 2008 to 2013 on projects that duplicated other efforts within the Defense Department, Department of Homeland Security, and the Department of Health and Human Services. a. True b. False

True

What has happened to the poverty gap between whites and minorities?

Two-thirds of all poor people are white (including some who also describe themselves as Hispanic); 23 percent are African American (also including some who say they are also Hispanic). But in relation to their overall numbers, African Americans are almost three times as likely as whites to be poor. In 2015, some 24.1 percent of African Americans (10 million people) lived in poverty, compared to 21.4 percent of Hispanics (12.1 million), 11.4 percent of Asian Americans (2.1 million), and 9.1 percent of non-Hispanic whites (17.8 million). The poverty gap between whites and minorities has changed little since 1975. People of color have especially high rates of child poverty. Among African American children, 32.9 percent are poor; the comparable figures are 28.9 percent among Hispanic children and 12.1 percent among non-Hispanic white children.

Wealth and Income

U.S. economic inequality income - earnings from work or investments. In 2016 the Census Bureau reports that the median U.S. family income in 2015 was $70,697. The richest 20 percent of families (earning at least $134,000 annually, with a mean of about $225,000) received 48.6 percent of all income, and the bottom 20 percent (earning less than $30,000, with a mean of about $17,000) received only 3.7 percent. wealth - the total value of money and other assets, minus outstanding debts. Wealth—including stocks, bonds, and real estate—is distributed even more unequally than income. The richest 20 percent of U.S. families own roughly 89 percent of the country's entire wealth. High up in this privileged category are the top 5 percent of families, the "very rich," who own 65 percent of all private property. Richer still, with wealth into the tens of millions of dollars, are the 1 percent of families that qualify as "super-rich" and possess about 37 percent of the nation's privately held resources. At the top of the wealth pyramid, the ten richest U.S. families have a combined net worth of more than $523 billion. This amount equals the total property of 6.4 million average families, enough people to fill the cities of New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Houston, Phoenix, and Los Angeles. Family wealth reflects the total value of homes, cars, investments, insurance policies, retirement pensions, furniture, clothing, and all other personal property, minus a home mortgage and other debts. The wealth of average people is not only less than that of the rich but also different in kind. Most people's wealth centers on a home and a car—property that generates no income—but the greater wealth of the rich is mostly in the form of stocks and other income-producing investments. In the United States, wealth is an important source of power. The small proportion of families that controls most of the country's wealth also has the ability to shape the agenda of the entire society. Some sociologists argue that such concentrated wealth weakens democracy because the political system primarily serves the interests of the super-rich.

Social mobility in the U.S.

U.S. is a dynamic society marked by quite a bit of social movement. Earning a college degree, landing a higher-paying job, or marrying someone who earns a good income contributes to upward social mobility; dropping out of school, losing a job, or becoming divorced (especially for women) may result in downward social mobility. Over the long term, though, social mobility is not so much a matter of individual changes as changes in society itself. In the first half of the twentieth century, for example, industrialization expanded the U.S. economy, pushing up living standards. Even people who were not good swimmers rode the rising tide of prosperity.

The _______ imposes limitations on the bulk collection of the telecommunications metadata of U.S. citizens; prohibits large-scale indiscriminate data collection (such as all records from an entire zip code); and requires the NSA to obtain permission from the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (FISC) to access the metadata records, which are now held by telecommunication companies rather than by the government.

USA Freedom Act (2015)

The __________ requires telephone companies to turn over customer information, including numbers called, without a court order if the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) claims that the records are relevant to a terrorism investigation. a. USA Patriot Act of 2001 b. Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999 c. Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986 d. Cable Act of 1992

USA Patriot Act of 2001

_______ information systems make it difficult to collaborate and share information which leads to missed opportunities, increased costs, and lost sales.

Unintegrated

Which of the following is a useful policy to minimize waste and mistakes? a. Users should implement proper procedures to ensure correct input data. b. Changes to HTML and URLs should be documented and authorized by end users. c. Tight control should be avoided over critical tables. d. System report

Users should implement proper procedures to ensure correct input data.

WASP cultural legacy

White Anglo-Saxon Protestants White Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs) were not the first people to inhabit the United States, but they soon dominated after European settlement began. Most WASPs are of English ancestry, but the category also includes people from Scotland and Wales. With some 31.3 million people claiming English, Scottish, or Welsh ancestry, 9.7 percent of our society has some WASP background, and WASPs are found at all class levels (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). Many people associate WASPs with elite communities along the East and West Coasts. But the highest concentrations of WASPs are in Utah (because of migrations of Mormons with English ancestry), Appalachia, and northern New England (also due to historical patterns of immigration). Looking back in time, WASP immigrants were highly skilled and motivated to achieve by what we now call the Protestant work ethic. Because of their high social standing, WASPs were not subject to the prejudice and discrimination experienced by other categories of immigrants. In fact, the historical dominance of WASPs has led others to want to become more like them (Jones, 2001). WASPs were never one single group; especially in colonial times, considerable hostility separated English Anglicans and Scottish Presbyterians (Parrillo, 1994). But in the nineteenth century, most WASPs joined together to oppose the arrival of "undesirables" such as Germans in the 1840s and Italians in the 1880s. Those who could afford it sheltered themselves in exclusive suburbs and restrictive clubs. Thus, the 1880s—the decade when the Statue of Liberty first welcomed immigrants to the United States—also saw the founding of the first country club with exclusively WASP members. By about 1950, however, WASP wealth and power had peaked, as indicated by the 1960 election of John Fitzgerald Kennedy, the first Irish Catholic president. Yet the WASP cultural legacy remains. English is this country's dominant language and Protestantism its majority religion. Our legal system also reflects our English origins. But the historical dominance of WASPs is most evident in the widespread assumption that the terms "race" and "ethnicity" apply to everyone but them.

white ethnics

White Ethnic Americans The term "white ethnics" recognizes the ethnic heritage and social disadvantages of many white people. White ethnics are non-WASPs whose ancestors lived in Ireland, Poland, Germany, Italy, or other European countries. More than half (52 percent in 2015) of the U.S. population falls into one or more white ethnic categories. High rates of emigration from Europe during the nineteenth century first brought Germans and Irish and then Italians and Jews to our shores. Despite cultural differences, all shared the hope that the United States would offer greater political freedom and economic opportunity than their homelands. Most did live better in this country, but the belief that "the streets of America were paved with gold" turned out to be a far cry from reality. Most immigrants found only hard labor for low wages. White ethnics also endured their share of prejudice and discrimination. Many employers shut their doors to immigrants, posting signs that warned, "None need apply but Americans". In 1921, Congress enacted a quota system that greatly limited immigration, especially by southern and eastern Europeans, who were likely to have darker skin and different cultural backgrounds than the dominant WASPs. This quota system continued until 1968. In response to prejudice and discrimination, many white ethnics formed supportive residential enclaves. Some also established footholds in certain businesses and trades: Italian Americans entered the construction industry; the Irish worked in construction and in civil service jobs; Jews predominated in the garment industry; many Greeks (like the Chinese) worked in the retail food business. Many working-class people still live in traditional neighborhoods, although those who prospered have gradually assimilated. Most descendants of immigrants who labored in sweatshops and lived in crowded tenements now lead more comfortable lives. As a result, their ethnic heritage has become a source of pride.

Miranda works at a small-batch soda pop manufacturing plant. For eight hours a day, she uses her right hand to lift individual bottles of soda pop off the production line and place them in packing crates. Lately her right elbow has been hurting, so she visited her doctor, who diagnosed her with _______. a. a repetitive strain injury b. carpal tunnel syndrome c. a thromboembolism d. none of these answers

a repetitive strain injury

Social Stratification

a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy, is based on four important principles: 1. Social stratification is a trait of society, not simply a reflection of individual differences. Neither the rich nor the poor created social stratification, yet this system shapes the lives of us all. 2. Social stratification carries over from generation to generation. We have only to look at how parents pass their social position on to their children to see that stratification is a trait of societies rather than individuals. Some people, especially in industrial societies, do experience social mobility, a change in position within the social hierarchy. 3. Social stratification is universal but variable. Social stratification is found everywhere. Yet what is unequal and how unequal it is vary from one society to another. In some societies, inequality is mostly a matter of prestige; in others, wealth or power is the key element of difference. In addition, some societies contain more inequality than others. 4. Social stratification involves not just inequality but beliefs as well. Any system of inequality not only gives some people more than others but also defines these arrangements as fair. Like the what of social inequality, the explanations of why people should be unequal differ from society to society.

In today's workplace, most employers issue a policy stating that they will monitor employees' use of any company-owned computer, server, or email system, thus eliminating any expectation of privacy. How many organizations actually monitor, retain, and review employees' emails? a. about one-fourth b. about half c. about three-quarters d. nearly all

about half

Federal law permits employers to monitor their employees' use of company-owned computer equipment, specifically _______. a. e-mails b. instant messages c. website views d. all of these answers

all of these answers

Flexibility is a major component of ergonomic design, mainly because: _______. a. people come in a wide range of shapes and sizes b. people have their own preferences c. people need to be able to position equipment in different ways for best results d. all of these answers

all of these answers

Harold is thinking about setting up profiles on Facebook and Twitter. Which of the following categories of data should he avoid sharing on these social media platforms? a. his location b. his religious and political affiliations c. his health conditions d. all of these answers

all of these answers

To minimize waste and mistakes, organizations often develop and implement policies and procedures which focus on: ________ a. the use of data editing to ensure data accuracy and completeness b. the assignment of clear responsibility for data accuracy within each information system c. the implementation of source data automation d. all of these answers

all of these answers

The ________ states the principles and core values that are essential to their work and, therefore, govern their behavior. It can become a reference point for weighing what is legal and what is ethical.

code of ethics

Poorly designed work environment and failure to take regular breaks to stretch the muscles and rest the eyes are two primary causes of ______

computer-related health problems

Data-entry or data-capture errors, programming errors, errors in handling files, mishandling of computer output, and an inadequate planning for and control of equipment malfunctions are examples of ______

computer-related mistakes

Errors, failures, and other computer problems that make computer output incorrect or not useful; most of these are caused by human error, are examples of ______

computer-related mistakes

The most common causes of _____ happen when have unclear expectations, inadequate training and feedback, program that contains errors, and incorrect input by a data-entry clerk.

computer-related mistakes

Organizations operating unintegrated information systems, acquiring redundant systems, and wasting information system resources are examples of ______

computer-related waste

Heavy computer users who experience red, dry, itchy eyes should _____. a. keep their focus on their screens for long hours b. consider the use of artificial tears c. consider the use of older, but more human friendly CRT monitors d. avoid blinking often

consider the use of artificial tears

Invasion of privacy can damage an organization reputation, turn away customers, and dramatically reduce revenues and profits if organizations don't have _____

corporate privacy policies

Gathering information, developing a problem statement, consulting those involved as well as other appropriate resources, identifying options, weighing options, choosing an option, implementing a solution and reviewing results are the steps involved in the __________

decision-making process

Establishing, implementing, monitoring, and reviewing policies and procedures are a way to _______ computer related waste and mistakes

efficiently and effectively prevent and minimize

Improper misuse through texting, sending personal email, playing computer games, surfing the Web, shopping online, and checking for updates on Instagram and Facebook are _______

employees waste of company time, money and IS resources

The study of designing and positioning computer equipment is called _____

ergonomics

Your cousin works at her desktop computer for prolonged period of time every day. She would like to minimize the harmful effects of such repetitive work. Her workspace should be designed with ______ in mind. a. productivity b. economics c. ergonomics d. privacy

ergonomics

Training programs as well as manuals and documents covering the use and maintenance of information systems, requiring all new applications be applications be approved through a process, and requiring documentation and descriptions of certain applications to be submitted to a central office are examples of ____________

establishing policies and procedures

When decision-making gets complicated because it involves significant value conflicts among the various stakeholders as to what is the fairest option pursue, then the decision represents an _______

ethical dilemma

The _________ deal with what is generally considered right or wrong.

ethical issues

Morals are one's personal beliefs about right and wrong, whereas the term ______ describes standards or codes of behavior expected of an individual by a group (nation, organization, and profession) to which an individual belongs.

ethics

Anne and Jordan have two pre-teen sons and they're concerned about what their kids might see and share on the Internet. They should probably invest in a. privacy screening b. security passwords c. filtering software d. Internet licensing

filtering software

NetNanny, SpyAgent, Qustodio, Safe Eyes, Spector Pro are the top-rated Internet ___________

filtering software

A job that requires sitting at a desk and using a computer for many hours a day can lead to _______. a. sleep disorders b. formation of blood clots c. inflammation of the gum tissue d. undesirable weight loss

formation of blood clots

While giving her students a physics exam, Professor Thompson noticed that Jack, one of her students who has been struggling with the course material, appeared to be copying answers from Graydon, one of the best students in the class. She decides that she should compare their answers when the class period is over before deciding what to do about the situation. In which phase of the ethical decision-making process is Professor Thompson? a. gathering information b. identifying options c. weighing options d. developing a problem statement

gathering information

Seated immobility thromboembolism (SIT), Repetitive strain injury (RSI), and Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) are some of the _______ an organization has in today's work environment. If paying attention to these it can increase employee productivity.

health concerns

Companies using the advice from an internal or external auditing group, and the use of training and good communication with the employees are the keys for a successful acceptance. These are examples of __________

implementation policies and procedures

Systems acquired by an organization that perform the same functions ________

increases hardware and software costs

Sending email messages, visiting a Web site, and buying over the internet are privacy concerns with the _________

internet

Meritocracy

meritocracy - refers to social stratification based on personal merit. Because industrial societies need to develop a broad range of abilities beyond farming, stratification is based not just on the accident of birth but also on merit (from a Latin word meaning "earned"), which includes a person's knowledge, abilities, and effort. A rough measure of merit is the importance of a person's job and how well it is done. Such a system would have ongoing social mobility, blurring social categories as individuals continuously move up or down in the system, depending on their latest performance. A pure meritocracy would have individuals moving up and down the social ranking all the time. Such extreme social mobility would pull apart families and other social groupings.

Implementing internal audits to measure actual results against established goals, such as percentage of end-user reports produce on time, percentage of data-input errors detected, number of input transactions entered per eight-hour shift, and keeping track of the amount of time employees spend on no-work related Web sites are examples of _______

monitoring policies and procedures

Job insecurity, loss of control, incompetence and demotion are _____ stress that can cause health concerns in an organization

occupational

In a recent survey of 2100 human resource professionals, which two activities were listed as the biggest "productivity killers" in the workplace? a. personal cell phone use and Internet surfing b. Internet surfing and online game play c. online shopping and online game play d. personal cell phone use and online game play

personal cell phone use and Internet surfing

Federal permitting employers to monitor emails sent and received by employees, emails erased from hard disks and retrieved in case of lawsuits, and the use of email among public officials that might violate "open meeting" laws are part of _____

privacy and email

Companies selling information of data collected and stored on customers to other companies is part of the ______

privacy and fairness in information use

Federal laws protect employers by letting them monitor employers use of instant messaging using employer's IM network or employer-provided phones, this is part of ______

privacy and instant messaging

RIFD tags and Mobile crowd and sensing (MCS) are part of the _____

privacy and personal sensing devices

The monitoring of employees inappropriate Web surfing and email, and the court ruling in favor of employers by taking away the 4th amendment rights from employees which protects against unreasonable searches and seizures are part of ________

privacy at work

Having elbows near your body in a an open angle to allow circulation to the lower arms and hands, having arms perpendicular to the floor, wrists nearly straight, height of keyboard and mouse 1 or 2 inches above thighs, keyboard center in front of body, monitor about one arm's length away, monitor at eye level, and chair with backrest that supports the curve of lower back is a checklist to check if you are ______

properly seated at a correctly positioned keyboard

Finding out what is stored about you in existing databases, being careful when you share information about yourself, being proactive in protecting your privacy, and taking care when purchasing anything from the web are steps to ______

protect personal privacy

Not sending personal or private IMs at work, selecting a texting or IM app that receives high security ratings, disabling text previews when screen is locked, not opening files or links in messages from people you don't know, never sending sensitive personal data via IM, choosing appropriate IM screen name, and not sending embarrassing message is a way to ______

protect your privacy and your employer's property

Preventing waste and mistakes involves establishing, implementing, monitoring, and ______ policies and procedures

reviewing

Questions such as: Do current policies cover existing practices adequately? Does the organization plan any new activities in the future? Who will handle them and what must be done? Are contingencies and disasters covered? are examples of _______

reviewing policies and procedures

In order to be accredited by the Better Business Bureau, a business is required to publish a privacy notice on its website that includes all of the following elements EXCEPT a. updates b. sharing and selling c. access d. choice

sharing and selling

Parental consent is also required for minors on ________ services such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, Pinterest, Google Plus, Tumblr, and Instagram. Parents should monitor children's activities.

social network

Graydon noticed Jack, his friend and classmate, cheating on a physics exam and now he is trying to decide what to do about it. He knows he could keep quiet about it, but that would violate his moral values, plus the school's code of ethics requires students to report incidents of cheating. On the other hand, if he reports the incident, both his friend and probably all of their other friends will be mad at him. In which phase of the ethical decision-making process is Graydon? a. identifying options b. developing a problem statement c. gathering information d. weighing options

weighing options

Two primary causes of computer-related health problems are a poorly designed ______ and failure to take regular breaks to stretch the muscles and rest the eyes.

work environment

prejudice and discrimination

— Prejudice is a rigid and unfair generalization about an entire category of people. Prejudice is unfair because all people in some category are described as the same, based on little or no direct evidence. Prejudice may target people of a particular social class, sex, sexual orientation, age, political affiliation, physical disability, race, or ethnicity. Prejudices are prejudgments that can be either positive or negative. Our positive prejudices tend to exaggerate the virtues of people like ourselves, and our negative prejudices condemn those who differ from us. Negative prejudice can be expressed as anything from mild dislike to outright hostility. Because such attitudes are rooted in culture, everyone has at least some prejudice. — Prejudice often takes the form of a stereotype(stereo is derived from a Greek word meaning "solid"), a simplified description applied to every person in some category. Many white people hold stereotypical views of minorities. Stereotyping is especially harmful to minorities in the workplace. If company officials see workers only in terms of a stereotype, they will make assumptions about their abilities, steering them toward certain jobs and limiting their access to better opportunities. Minorities, too, stereotype whites and other minorities. Surveys show, for example, that African Americans are more likely than whites to express the belief that Asians engage in unfair business practices and Asians are more likely than whites to criticize Hispanics for having too many children.