Social Aspect exam 2

Women who work in sport organizations often face the burden of

dealing with organizational cultures they have not had a role in shaping.

The elimination of racial exclusion tends to be slowest in sports that involve

extensive off-the-field social contact.

Despite the success of players' organizations in professional team sports, it is difficult to convince players to participate in a strike. This is because athletes

have short playing careers that are dependent on owners.

When Doug Foley studied intergroup relations in a Texas town, he noted that the Mexicano coach of the local high school football team resigned in frustration when

he could not meet the expectations of boosters and also fight bigotry.

Racism is defined as attitudes, actions, and policies based on the belief that people in one racial category are

inherently superior to people in one or more other categories.

Research indicates that problems are most likely when retirement from a sport

is forced on an athlete because of injury.

The orientations of athletes and other people in sports are affected by the fact that a mass audience

lacks technical knowledge about the sports they watch.

A woman coach is hired in an all-male athletic department. The search committee concluded that she was qualified because she coached like a man. This shows that the athletic department is

male-dominated.

Studies show that in comparison with sports today, the tournaments and sport activities in medieval and early modern Europe were

more violent.

An investigation of sexual assaults by high school and club coaches in the state of Washington found that

nearly all offenses involved male heterosexual coaches victimizing girls.

People using an absolutist approach tend to

see deviance as located in the person who engages in it.

Controlling deviant overconformity in sports presents a unique challenge because

those who enforce team norms may not discourage overconformity.

When a basketball player dribbles the ball out of bounds during a game, she has

violated a formal norm.

Media coverage usually concludes that deviance in sports is the result of

weak character and greed.

Black female athletes sometimes learn to tone down their confidence and toughness so they

won't be seen by whites as "angry black women."

When corporations brand athletes they like to do it when the athletes are

young so they can mold the athlete's career to fit corporate interests.

Many football players in the U.S. say that "NFL" stands for

"Not For Long."

Spectator interest in sports is created in connection with four cultural conditions. Which of the following is NOT one of the conditions discussed in the chapter?

A large collection of low-income workers with free time on their hands.

In her book on lesbians and homophobia in sports, author Pat Griffin notes that myths about lesbians have many consequences in sports. Which of the following is NOT one of those consequences?

A widespread belief that lesbians can't play sports as well as heterosexuals.

Understanding deviance in sports requires an understanding of "the sport ethic." Which of the following beliefs is NOT one of the core norms of the sport ethic?

Athletes avoid injuries.

Which of the following is NOT among the author's policy recommendations for controlling sport violence?

Banning all block sales of tickets to large groups of people.

Tiger Woods, the popular and successful professional golfer, has identified himself as

Cablinasian.

Most sociological research on sports spectator violence has been done by scholars in

Europe.

The idea of race was first developed by

European explorers who encountered diverse people around the globe.

When Joe Louis won the heavyweight boxing championship in 1935, many white sports journalists used the racial ideology of that era to attribute his victory to

Louis's physical instincts and animal-like characteristics as a black man.

Which of the following characterizes the state of gender equity in U.S. high schools and colleges?

Neither high schools nor colleges have achieved equity.

The sports teams with the highest number of social media followers are located in

Spain

According to Title IX law in the U.S., a school may comply with the law by meeting one of three legal tests. Which of the following is NOT one of those tests?

The good intentions test.

Research indicates that girls and women often feel certain things when they develop physical strength through sport participation. Which of the following is NOT one of the things?

They feel that others will perceive them as attractive and sexy.

Dominant gender ideology in many societies today is organized around three ideas and beliefs. Which of the following is NOT one of the ideas or beliefs?

Women are destined by fate to be inferior to men in family structures.

Which of the following is NOT one of the reasons why women are underrepresented in coaching and administrative positions in sports?

Women don't have the business experience needed to succeed in sports programs.

When gender relations and class relations intersect in people's lives, which category of women is likely to have the highest sports participation rate?

Women from upper-income households.

The author notes that the biggest sports story in 2016-2018 was that hundreds of female athletes over nearly 20 years had been sexually assaulted by

a highly respected sports medicine doctor.

The athletes most likely to overconform to the norms of the sport ethic are those who see achievement as their only way to get ahead and those who have

a strong need to be accepted as athletes by their peers in sports.

The author points out that the most effective way to control cheating, corruption, harassment, and abuse in sports is to

abandon self-enforcement and create an independent enforcement agency.

When sports are male-dominated it means that

ability and qualifications are associated with manhood and men.

Data on global income and living conditions show that

about 40 percent of people worldwide lack resources to play organized sports.

One of the reasons that it is difficult to study deviance in sports is that much of it involves actions grounded in

accepting and overconforming to norms in sports cultures.

Studying deviance in sports presents problems in that

actions that are normal in sports may be deviant outside sports.

In the example of how age relations operate in sports, it was explained that the organization of youth sports programs generally reflects

adults' ideas about what children should be doing and learning.

Opposition to Title IX has led to dozens of lawsuits filed against the law. Over the past 40 years, court decisions in these cases have

always upheld the legality of the law and its enforcement guidelines.

The U.S. federal government law, Title IX, prohibits gender discrimination in

any educational institution that receives federal money.

Former Stanford athlete and author Mariah Burton Nelson has hypothesized that as women gain more power in society, men

are attracted to heavy contact sports such as football.

Due to general fears about terrorist attacks at sports events, people

are more willing to accept a militaristic approach to social control at events.

Deviance may involve underconformity or overconformity to norms. The author explains that deviance involving underconformity consists of ideas, traits, or actions that

are subnormal.

Some coaches privately approve of hazing on their teams because it can be used to

assert power over a team.

The NCAA has changed its definition of amateur a number of times primarily to

avoid defining college athletes as employees.

The people most likely to agree with the war on doping as waged by WADA and USADA are

believers in the great sport myth.

When sports were first racially desegregated, the existence of "entry barriers" in professional and elite amateur sports in the U.S. created a situation in which

black athletes had better performance records than white athletes.

Some forms of violence are accepted widely by athletes and even used as a basis for gaining status among fellow athletes. These include

borderline violence and brutal body contact.

In the discussion of how racial ideology influences choices to play sports, it is noted that ideology influences

both blacks and whites.

In the discussion of gender issues in informal and alternative sports, it is noted that

boys and men generally control who participates in these settings.

According to political theorist Antonio Gramsci, members of the ruling class in contemporary societies maintain their power to the extent that they

can convince people that society is organized as best as it can be.

In male-dominated and male-identified sport cultures, women are hired only when they

can show that they can do things as men have done them.

Sports are culturally important in many societies because they

celebrate hegemonic masculinity.

The dominant gender ideology associated with mainstream sports tends to

celebrate traditional ideas about masculinity.

Football has become "America's game" because it

celebrates the values and experiences of powerful people in society.

After reviewing issues related to the dynamics of racial and ethnic relations in sports the author concludes that

challenges associated with racial and ethnic relations will always exist. ?

The author notes that achieving full gender equity depends on developing alternative definitions of masculinity and femininity combined with

changing the way many sports are organized and played.

To avoid appease men and discourage men from seeing them as invaders of male spaces in sports, female athletes during the 20thcentury

chose to call themselves "ladies" when they played sports.

Racial ideology is a web of ideas and beliefs that is used to

classify and evaluate people in terms of biologically-based attributes.

Data collected over the past 50 years on college sports in the U.S. indicates that women

coach proportionately fewer women's sports teams today than in 1972.

Celebratory riots have been among the most dangerous and destructive forms of sport spectator violence in North America. In the past, they occurred most often at

college football games.

Female athletes continue to receive, on average, less support than male athletes receive in connection with their sport participation. Inequalities in support are highest in

community programs.

Major League Baseball teams have signed many Central and Latin Americans to contracts because these players

constitute a large pool of relatively cheap and skilled labor.

The non-profit organizations that control amateur sports in the United States share a primary interest in two things. They are

control over athletes and the money from sponsors and events.

Team owners in the major sport leagues in the U.S. have formed cartels that

coordinate the actions of owners. ?

Sports participation among Native Americans is limited due to poverty, poor health, a lack of equipment and facilities, and the fear that playing mainstream sports will

cut them off from their cultural roots and identities.

Corporate executives realize that if they can establish ideological outposts in the minds of people, they can use those outposts to

defuse popular opposition to corporate policies and products.

The sports participation patterns of Latinos and Latinas in North America are

diverse due to the many different histories and backgrounds of Latinos.

Sports programs that are designed as "interventions" for "at risk youth" are seldom successful because they

do nothing to change the conditions in which these youth live their lives.

Research indicates that concussions and repetitive subconcussive head hits can cause brain injuries that may lead to CTE—chronic traumatic encephalopathy. CTE is a neurodegenerative disease with symptoms similar to

early onset dementia.

The class ideology underlying dominant sport forms in North America involves the belief that

economic success is proof of ability, intelligence, and character.

According to the author, watching sports on television often leads viewers to be

emotionally expressive, but not overtly violent.

Racial ideology became an important source of support for Jim Crow Laws. These laws

enforced racial segregation in public settings.

Research shows that boys and men who play power and performance sports learn that they will be

evaluated favorably for their ability to combine violence and skills.

Soccer spectators outside of North America are more likely than North American sports spectators to use sport event as a site to

express political positions.

Among people born in the U.S., the odds of playing professional sports are

extremely limited for women from all ethnic backgrounds.

When using a constructionist approach, deviance is defined as ideas, traits, and actions that

fall outside of socially determined normative boundaries.

The author hypothesizes that dominant racial ideology influences athletic performance among black men in many societies because it encourages those men to

feel a sense of destiny to become great athletes in certain sports.

At the same time that public money in cities and states has been used to fund the construction of sport venues

fewer people can afford to buy tickets to see local teams.

According to the career model discussed in the chapter, when long-time professional athletes retire from full-time, year-round training and competition and re-enter the "ordinary world," they

find it difficult to become normal in that world.

During the 1990s, the city of Cleveland provided the owners of the city's NBA, NFL, and Major League Baseball teams with a billion dollars for three new stadiums city and tax exemptions of $50 million per year for fifty years. According to independent studies, this investment by the city

forced low income residents to find housing in other areas of the city.

Laberge and Albert studied French Canadian boys and found that middle-class boys linked sport participation to masculinity because they saw sports as activities in which they can

gain social acceptance in male groups.

In the box, "Jumping Genes" in Black Bodies, it is noted that much of the research devoted to identifying performance differences by skin color is based on the idea that

genes operate independently of the physical and social environment.

The most dramatic change in the world of sport over the past two generations has been the increase in the number of

girls and women who play sports around the world.

The legal status of most athletes in professional team sports in North America was for many years governed by the reserve system. The reserve system was designed to

give team owners full control over players and their careers.

After reading the section on occupational careers among former athletes, it could be hypothesized that occupational success and upward mobility would be highest among former elite athletes in

golf.

Research by Italian sociologist Mauro Valeri indicates that racism in Italian soccer

has increased in multiple expressions in recent years.

The NCAA allowed Florida State University to keep their mascot, Chief Osceola, and his horse Seminole because the university

has permission from tribal representatives to use their name and image.

In response to management decisions based exclusively on commercial interests, athletes

have joined with fans to create a global union to represent shared interests. ?

Golf has become a major commercial sport in certain countries because those who are interested in golf

have more economic resources and influence than others in society.

Learning to use violence as a strategy in sports tends to be highest in

heavy contact sports.

Beth Adubato's study of arrest records in Philadelphia during two NFL seasons indicated that police arrests for domestic violence are

higher on NFL game days than game days in other major men's sports. ?

Research on sports participation and social class tends to show that

higher-income people have high rates of attendance at most sports events.

Soccer fans in Europe and Latin America have created fan organizations in response to professional club teams that

ignored local traditions so that long-time fans felt disconnected from teams.

When rules are developed or changed in connection with commercialization, the new rules are likely to

increase action and scoring.

The franchise fees paid by the owners of new teams in the major men's professional sports leagues in North America have

increased dramatically over the past three decades.

Data show that ticket prices at men's professional sports in North America have

increased much faster than the rate of inflation.

Gambling on sports is legal in many parts of the world and an increasing number of American states. This

increases the probability of match-fixing and prop fixing. ?

The most difficult diversity issue faced in sports today is

integrating positions of power in sport organizations.

The author suggests that athletes who participate in high-performance sports today may face greater retirement transition challenges than athletes in the past faced because they have

intense, full-time training has cut them off from nonsport experiences and relationships.

As defined in the chapter, violence refers to

intentionally using physical force that is likely to cause harm to self or others.

The person who plays the role of "enforcer" on a contact sport team is expected to

intimidate and use violence against opponents.

When athletes collectively overconform to the norms of the sport ethic, they may develop hubris. This may lead them to see themselves as separate from and superior to the larger community in which they live. The author explains that this hubris

involves a sense of entitlement and lack of concern for people outside their sport.

Which of the following is NOT one of those problems associated with the IOC "female fairness" policy? The policy

is administered by male officials from the United Nations.

Deviance may involve underconformity or overconformity to norms. The author explains that deviance involving overconformity

is based on unquestioned acceptance of norms?

When sport worlds are male-identified it means that

it involves men and is about men.

In reviewing research on sexual assaults by male athletes the author emphasizes that

it is misleading to focus only on athletes when studying sexual assault.

When there are budget shortfalls, the U.S. high school sports programs most likely to be cut are in communities where there are

large proportions of low-income families.

The most effective way for people to defuse the influence of racial ideology is to

learn each other's history and heritage and work together to achieve goals.

Loic Wacquant's study of an inner-city boxing gym in Chicago indicated that the boxers

learned to control violent actions outside the ring as they learned the craft of boxing.

One of the problems with a two-category classification model is that it

leaves no normative space for those who don't fit into either category.

The relationships between team owners in the major professional men's team sports in North America are most accurately described as forms of

legal monopolies.

Information on violence in women's contact sports suggests that women are

less likely than men to use violence as proof of their sexual identity.

As of 2019, for every contract dollar made by NBA players during their season, players in the WNBA made

less than 2-cents.

Historical evidence shows that compared to spectators in the past, spectators today are

less violent and less likely to disrupt action on the field.

Research shows that high rates of alcohol use and binge drinking

linked with a culture in which partying and drinking are expected.

Data presented in the chapter indicate that felony rates among NFL players are

lower than rates in the general population in the case of property crimes. ?

Teams such as the Indianapolis Clowns and the Harlem Globetrotters were able to make a living in the mid-20th century by playing sports in ways that

made fun of white sports such as Major League Baseball and pro basketball. ?

Racial ideology in the United States is based on the one-drop rule. The original purpose of this rule was to

maintain power and property in the hands of white men.

Commercial sports are most likely to grow and prosper in societies with

market economies, large urban centers, and available capital.

Research shows that the Latinas who are most apt to play sports in the U.S. are

members of second- and third-generation families.

When sport worlds are male-centered it means that

men and men's lives are the expected focus of attention and stories.

The author argues that full gender equity for jobs in sport organizations depends on

men in those organizations changing their ideas about gender, sports, and leadership.

Data show that sport participation rates in the U.S. are highest in

middle- and upper-middle-income white communities.

Many people in North America believe that sports are

models of social equality and meritocracy.

Athletes who engage in deviant underconformity are usually punished or cut from teams; athletes who engage in deviant overconformity are

more susceptible than other athletes to injuries.

It is difficult to reduce the injuries that occur in power and performance sports because

most serious injuries occur within the rules in these sports.

As commercialization increases, the decision-making in sport organizations

moves further away from the control of athletes.

Race is used in the chapter to refer to a population of people who are believed to be

naturally or biologically distinct from other populations.

The growth of corporate branding in sports in recent years indicates that

nearly everything associated with sports is for sale.

When racial and ethnic exclusion is eliminated from sports, we can expect that

new and different challenges will emerge related to managing diversity. ?

When women in the United States began to overcome barriers to sports participation during the first half of the 20th, they

often chose to participation in "grace and beauty sports."

Professional athletes in individual sports generally make less money than people think because they

often pay their own expenses for travel and training.

In the box, Extreme Heroic Action, it is noted that professional wrestling is

organized around the mastery of dramatic expression.

Sports organizations that sponsor youth, high school, college, or professional football face a major crisis because

parents now demand that players be given more protective equipment.?

The sport ethic becomes a source of dangerous deviance in sports when

people in sports don't set boundaries to limit overconformity to the ethic.

After surveying the research on this topic, the author concludes that being a varsity athlete in high school or college is most likely to give people an occupational advantage when

playing sports enabled them to expand their experiences apart from sports.

The images associated with dominant sports in most societies today tend to promote manhood based on

power and control.

The author's recommendations for controlling substance use in sports call for a policy that involves

preventing athletes from competing unless they are certified as healthy.

Research on pain and injury in sports suggests that

professional contact and collision sports are dangerous workplaces.

The most glaring gender inequality concerning sport participation occurs at the

professional level.

Christina Chin's research on sports in the lives of Japanese Americans showed that Japanese parents formed and supported a youth basketball league for their children in the hope that it would

provide opportunities for Japanese children to form relationships with each other.

When tax money is used to build sports stadiums and arenas for professional teams, one of the main results is that

public money is transferred to wealthy individuals and corporations.

Athletes may be marginalized or formally punished if they engage in

quasi-criminal or criminal violence.

After Ann Travers and her colleagues studied lesbian softball leagues in North America, they concluded that

re-negotiating sexed boundaries is a deeply complicated process.

In the box, Extreme Heroic Action, it is noted that someone using cultural theories would hypothesize that professional wrestling is popular because it

reaffirms the ideologies that people use to make sense of their lives.

When people who control money and economic power use their financial clout to organize and sponsor sports, they give preference to sport forms that

reflect and maintain their values and interests.

Data on sport participation patterns indicate that African Americans

remain underrepresented in most pro and amateur sports.

Research on institutional corruption in sports is scarce because

researchers often have their reputations attacked.

The large annual increases in the salaries of major league baseball players after the 1976 season were due in large part to

rules changes that allowed some players to become free agents.

Social processes in elite power and performance sports often lead groups of athletes to develop hubris at the same time that these social processes

separate athletes from the rest of the community.

Television had a positive impact on the growth of commercial sports because it

serves as an effective tool for recruiting new spectators and fans.

Ethnic population is used in the chapter to refer to a category of people regarded as socially distinct because they

share a history, a way of life, and an identity.

A minority as used in the chapter refers to a socially identified population that

shares a sense of unity and suffers disadvantages due to discrimination.

The author notes that the new sport stadiums built for professional teams resemble

shopping malls with a playing field in the middle.

Opportunities to play professional sports are best described as

short term and limited to relatively few people.

The sport with the teams that have the highest global recognition and value is

soccer.

The classification systems that are popularly used to divide all human beings into specific and distinct racial categories are based on

social meanings that are given to certain biological traits.

Athletes today sometimes seem to engage in more sport-related forms of deviance than athletes in the past because

sports and sports organizations have more rules today than in the past.

Social historians suggest that violence remains an issue in sports because

sports are designed to create tension and excitement.

In the information on terrorism and sports, it is noted that

sports can't be separated from aspects of social life that inspire terrorism.

In the section on Gender Equity and Sexuality, the author provides examples suggesting that

sports organizations today often disapprove of homophobic statements and actions.

As heroic orientations become more central in commercialized sports, there is a danger that

sports will turn into circus spectacles. ?

As defined in the chapter, social stratification refers to

structured forms of inequality that affect people's life chances.

Owners of major professional men's teams in the U.S. often receive public assistance in the form of

tax exemptions and subsidies to build stadiums and arenas.

The contracts of most professional athletes in the major men's team sports are governed by a Collective Bargaining Agreement (CBA). This agreement is made between

team owners and players.

Class ideology in the United States is organized around

the American Dream and a belief in meritocracy.

Transgender athletes have pushed gender boundaries to the point that

the IOC and the NCAA have created policies to allow their participation.

According to the table that presented data on the U.S. Fan Cost Index for 1991-2019, the largest increase in expenses to see a game in the major men's sports occurred in

the National Football League.

Recent research in biology and genetics has led to the conclusion that

the concept of race has no biological validity.

To decrease deviant overconformity in a sport, it would have to be organized around a commitment to

the health and well-being of athletes.

When professional sport leagues, such as the NFL and MLB, become monopsonies, it means that they are

the only buyer of elite athlete labor in their sport.

According to a constructionist approach, the process of negotiating normative boundaries is influenced by

the power dynamics that exist in a society or social world.

Quotes from the men interviewed by sociologist Loic Wacquant suggest that participation in professional boxing is best understood in terms of

the social context in which people make choices about their lives.

When $500 million of public money was used to help build U.S. Bank stadium for the owner of the Minnesota Vikings

the team owner enjoyed a $600 million net increase in the team's value.

Spectator interest in sports is related to a combination of the level of risk or rewards associated with an event, anticipated displays of excellence or heroics, and

the uncertainty of an event's outcome.

Research on deviance in sports is limited in that it focuses primarily on

the underconformity of athletes.

Throughout the chapter, the term "class relations" is used to refer to

the ways that social class is incorporated into our everyday lives.

Some black women alter their presentation of self in social situations where white people are in the majority because they do not want

their intelligence and confidence to be perceived as arrogance.

Research suggests that violent confrontations between sport spectators are most likely when

there are existing tensions and conflicts in a community or society.

The primary reason that there have historically been fewer female athletes than male athletes at the summer Olympic Game is because

there have been fewer women's events in the summer games.

Research by Eric Anderson and his colleagues indicates that

there is a more inclusive form of masculinity emerging among young men.

Data on the salaries of black players compared to the salaries of white players in the major men's team sports shows that in recent years

there is no evidence of race-based salary discrimination as a chronic issue.

When people use continuous traits as a basis for identifying races,

there is no limit on the number of races that can be identified.

Fan organizations in the United States have not been supported like they have been in Europe and Latin America because sports fans in the U.S.

they are not actively concerned about social and labor issues in sports.

Gay men and lesbians in sports may be ignored, marginalized, or harassed because

they challenge assumptions that underlie dominant ideas about gender.

A study by Nancy Theberge found that elite women ice hockey players have a difficult time controlling all forms of brutal body contact in their sport because

they love the physicality of ice hockey.

In comparison with sports programs for girls and women, programs for boys and men are more likely to survive budget cuts because

they've had more years to develop legitimacy, support, fans, and sponsorships.

The model of a professional athlete's career shows that when athletes move from the amateur a professional level in a sport like cycling, they

train so intensely that it causes physiological damage to their bodies.

It has become difficult to determine what actions are deviant and what actions are accepted parts of athletic training today because

training involves surpassing limits that are accepted as normal in society.

An absolutist approach to deviance in sports is based on the assumption that

unchanging moral truths are the foundation for all norms.

Overall, the health and fitness movement has made many people aware of the tension between public health among women and the companies that

use unreal body images to market products to girls and women.

Most female athletes today manage gender issues by

using a "reformed apologetic" to appear both tough and feminine.

In the author's discussion of how some coaches use violence in their efforts to control, motivate, or teach players, it is noted that

violence by coaches is tolerated whereas violence by teachers is not. ?

In the culture of heavy contact sports, there is a general norm emphasizing that

violence is part of the game.

Rates of violence are higher in men's sports than in women's sports because

violence is tied to issues of masculinity for many men in sports.

It is difficult to say that playing violent sports causes people to be violent off the field because

violent sports may attract people who already have records of being violent.

In the Sports Business Journal's rankings of the most influential people in [U.S.] sports business, the people most represented in the top 20 of the 2018 list were

wealthy hedge fund advisors with corporate clients. ?

Efforts to organize fans to resist the increasing cost of tickets to sports events have generally failed because

wealthy status-conscious spectators don't object to high ticket prices.

Most people around the world agree that girls and women should have opportunities to play sports, but they often disagree on

what sports they should play and the resources they should receive.

The Caster Semenya case has demonstrated that

widespread ideas about femininity are linked with ideas about race.

Anarchy is the social condition that exists when

widespread underconformity creates general lawlessness.