Social Problems Chapter 14

Technology and Corporate America

-As philosopher Jean-François Lyotard noted, knowledge is increasingly produced to be sold. The development of GMOs, the commodification of women as egg donors, direct-to-consumer genetic testing, and the harvesting of regenerated organ tissues are all examples of market-driven technologies. Like the corporate pursuit of computer technology, profit-motivated biotechnology creates several concerns. -First is the concern that only the rich will have access to life-saving technologies such as genetic testing and cloned organs. Such fears may be justified. Myriad Genetics patented breast and ovarian cancer genes (Bollier 2009). However, because of the resulting gene monopolies and the associated astronomical patient costs for genetic testing and treatment, in 2009, the American Civil Liberties Union and several plaintiffs filed a lawsuit against Myriad Genetics, alleging that the patents are "invalid and unconstitutional" (Genomics Law Report 2011). Appeals of several lower court decisions took the case to the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled in favor of the plaintiffs—human genes cannot be patented (American Civil Liberties Union 2013). As a result of the case, nonprofit genetic testing companies have been working to build a genetic reference database, with the hopes of providing a more cost-effective alternative for patients seeking diagnostic genetic testing (Hayden 2014). -The commercialization of technology causes several other concerns, including issues of quality control and the tendency for discoveries to remain closely guarded secrets rather than collaborative efforts (Crichton 2007; Lemonick and Thompson 1999; Mayer 2002; Rabino 1998). For example, between 2009 and 2014, the number of jointly written scientific articles steadily declined (Noble 2015). Furthermore, industry involvement has made government control more difficult because researchers depend less and less on federal funding. More than 63 percent of research and development in the United States is supported by private industry using their own company resources (NSF 2015).

The Computer Revolution

-Early computers were much larger than the small machines we have today and were thought to have only esoteric uses among members of the scientific and military communities. In 1951, only about a half dozen computers existed (Ceruzzi 1993). The development of the silicon chip and sophisticated microelectronic technology allowed tens of thousands of components to be imprinted on a single chip smaller than a dime. This advancement made computers affordable and led to the development of laptop computers, cellular phones, digital cameras, the iPad, and portable DVDs. Although the first PC was developed over 30 years ago, today 83.8 percent of U.S. households report having a computer in the home compared to 61.8 percent just a decade ago (File and Ryan 2014). -Computer and Internet use is associated with several important demographic variables. Most important, when examining the table, note the following points: Older Americans and those with a disability are the least likely to live in a house with a computer or to have high-speed Internet access, eighteen- to 34-year-olds are the most likely to live in a house with a computer, Asians and white, non-Hispanics are the most likely to live in a house with a computer and to have high-speed Internet access, and as educational attainment increases, the likelihood of living in a home with a computer and of having access to high-speed Internet increases. -Although computer and Internet usage has grown rapidly in the past decade, a global divide in computer and Internet access still exists. In the United States, 87 percent of Americans report having at least occasional access to the Internet and 80 percent own a computer, whereas only 9 percent of Pakistanis have occasional access to the Internet and 12 percent own a computer (Pew 2015a). The most common computer Internet activity around the world, as in the United States, is using social media. -Computers are big business, and the United States is one of the most successful producers of computer technology in the world, boasting several of the top companies. The largest PC producer is Lenovo, followed by Hewlett Packard, Dell, Asus, and Acer. Although the sale of desktop and laptop computers has been steadily declining, the sale of mobile devices and tablets has been increasing (Gartner Research 2015). -Computer software is also big business and, in some cases, too big. Since 1999, Microsoft has been battling the U.S. Department of Justice over anti-trust violations. These laws prohibit unreasonable restraint of trade. At issue are Microsoft's Windows operating system and the vast array of Windows-based applications (e.g., spreadsheets, word processors, tax software)—applications that only work with Windows. As a result of the appellate process and other delays, Microsoft's compliance with the final judgment remains incomplete and continues to be monitored by the courts (U.S. Department of Justice 2015). -Microsoft is not the only software giant under legal attack. Both Apple and Samsung, in more than 40 lawsuits between 2012 and the present, have claimed patent violations in their mobile devices (Chowdhy 2014). In 2015, the European Union brought antitrust charges against Google, alleging that the company manipulated its search engine to favor its own retail services and, similar to the charges brought against Microsoft, that Google had unfairly compelled manufacturers of Android devices to use only Google-based services. Resolution of the case is expected to take many years (Savel 2015).

Loss of Privacy and Security

-In 2014, identity theft was the number one complaint filed with the Federal Trade Commission for the 15th year in a row (FTC 2015; see also Chapter 4). Through computers, individuals can obtain access to someone's phone bills, tax returns, medical reports, credit histories, bank account balances, and driving records. Nearly all Americans are affected by cybersecurity breaches. For example, attacks against large retailers, including Target and The Home Depot, among others, as well as large health insurance providers in 2014 and 2015 compromised the personal information of at least 200 million Americans (Granville 2015). In November 2014, the data centers of Sony Pictures were wiped clean, leading to the cancellation of the theatrical release of the The Interview, a comedy about North Korean leader Kim Jong-un. The subsequently leaked emails of celebrities and executives led to several highly publicized scandals and the resignation of the company's CEO (see Chapter 4). -Although just inconvenient for some, unauthorized disclosure of, for example, medical records, is potentially devastating for others. If a person's medical records indicate that he or she is human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive, that person could be in danger of losing his or her job or health benefits. If DNA testing of hair, blood, or skin samples reveals a condition that could make the person a liability in an insurer's or employer's opinion, the individual could be denied insurance benefits, medical care, or even employment. In response to such fears, the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA) was passed. GINA is a federal law that prohibits discrimination in health coverage or employment based on genetic information (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission 2015). -Technology has created threats not only to the privacy of individuals but also to the security of entire nations (also see Chapter 15). As revealed by Edward Snowden, the National Security Administration (NSA) computer program XKeyscore allows "analysts to search with no prior authorization through vast databases containing e-mails, online chats, and the browsing histories of millions of individuals" (Greenwald 2013, p. 1). International organizations viewed the NSA program as a violation of human rights; and in 2015, a group of organizations including Wikipedia, Amnesty International, and the Human Rights Watch filed a lawsuit against the NSA (NBC News 2015). -Although the extent to which Snowden is telling the truth is unknown, the Snowden incident led the NSA to reevaluate its policies on communications technologies (Clarke et al. 2013). Not only is the federal government reevaluating how it collects and maintains data for its own uses, but it's also reevaluating its role in addressing the consequences of Internet privacy and security for private citizens: Breaches of privacy can cause harm to individuals and groups. It is a role of government to prevent such harm where possible, and to facilitate means of redress when harm occurs. ... Cameras, sensors, and other observational or mobile technologies raise new privacy concerns. Individuals often do not knowingly consent to providing data. ... Analysis technology (such as facial, scene, speech, and voice recognition technology) is improving rapidly. Mobile devices provide location information that might not be otherwise volunteered. The combination of data from those sources can yield privacy-threatening information unbeknownst to the affected individuals. (President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology 2014, p. 1) -Ironically, a classified cybersecurity report leaked by Snowden revealed that the U.S. government views the expansion of encryption technology, which would prevent data from being collected from individual users, as the best means of defense against hacking crimes, which are estimated to cost the global economy $400 billion per year (Ball 2015). Cyberattacks are ranked alongside war, water crises, and global unemployment as the highest-impact risks facing global society over the next 10 years (World Economic Forum 2014). -Although newer forms of mobile technology, in particular social media, are being increasingly used by organizations to reach consumers, Americans feel less secure about sharing their information on these platforms compared with older forms of technology. In a nationally representative survey, about two-thirds of Americans felt somewhat or very secure about sharing private information with a trusted person or organization over a landline phone (Pew 2014d). Fewer than half felt secure about sharing that information in text message, email, or chat; and only 16 percent felt at least somewhat secure about sharing information on social media sites (see Figure 14.4). -A survey of cybersecurity experts indicates that Internet vulnerability is likely to increase, with the majority of experts indicating that major cyberattacks causing widespread harm are likely to occur within the next 10 years (Pew 2014b). Opting out of these technologies is not necessarily an option, as journalist Julia Angwin (2014) found when she attempted to avoid sharing all personal information online. Angwin discovered that not only is it impossible to live a normal life in today's modern society without sharing personal data, but the new reality of massive data collection means that people increasingly internalize this sense of insecurity, editing their words and thoughts and ultimately limiting their own freedom. -While Americans are increasingly falling victim to cybercrimes and identity theft, it is important to remember that much of the technology behind these crimes originate in the United States. A study conducted by the computer security company Sophos in 2014 found that the United States produces more malicious spam software than any other nation by a wide margin (Ducklin 2014).

Runaway Science and Government Policy

-Science and technology raise many public policy issues. Policy decisions, for example, address concerns about the safety of nuclear power plants, the privacy of e-mail, the hazards of chemical warfare, and the ethics of cloning. In creating science and technology, have we created a monster that has begun to control us rather than the reverse? What controls, if any, should be placed on science and technology? And are such controls consistent with existing law? Consider the use of the file-sharing network BitTorrent to download music and movie files (the question of intellectual property rights and copyright infringement); laws limiting children's access to material on the Internet (free speech issues); and Acxiom, the "cookie"-collecting company that helps corporations customize advertising on websites by tracing clicks and keystrokes (Fourth Amendment privacy issues). -Concerns over "runaway science" are not uniquely American. Although genetic data may be collected legally—in the course of an arrest, for example—growing evidence indicates that governments around the world are maintaining large genetic databases. In the United States, the Federal Bureau of Investigation's DNA database contains genetic information on more than 11 million suspected or convicted criminals. Is the collection of DNA from a suspected criminal an unreasonable search? In a 5-4 decision, the Supreme Court ruled that it is a reasonable search to take DNA samples from people who have been arrested without warrant, arguing that such a practice is the same as taking fingerprint samples from suspects (Ross 2014). The use of DNA materials in criminal investigations is likely to expand rapidly, as the FBI, Homeland Security, and other government agencies have begun to adopt new DNA scanner technology that can generate a full DNA profile, check it against a national database, and report a match in under 90 minutes (Bauer 2014). -An encryption token, sometimes called a security token, permits the holder to access a computer by providing a code sent to the device. Some security tokens act as keys of a sort and can be used to authorize use through Bluetooth or USB connections. -Yet it is the government, often through Congress, regulatory agencies, or departments, that is responsible for controlling technology, prohibiting some (e.g., assisted-suicide devices) and requiring others (e.g., seat belts). A good example is the Stem Cell Research Advancement Act of 2013 that was introduced in the U.S. House of Representatives and remains in committee. As proposed, the act supports the use of embryonic stem cells, including human embryonic stems cells, defines the types of human embryonic stem cells eligible for use in research (e.g., donated from in vitro fertilization clinics), mandates that the Department of Health and Human Services maintain, review, and update guidelines in support of human stem cell research, and prohibits public funds from being used for human cloning (Stem Cell Research Advancement Act 2013) -Of late, two areas of concern have required increased government scrutiny: the National Security Agency (NSA) surveillance programs and international and domestic cyber-threats. After lengthy debate, Congress voted in June 2015 to reform the NSA's surveillance program to prevent the agency from collecting phone records of millions of Americans, while still allowing the agency broad powers to monitor both foreign and domestic cyber-threats (Diamond 2015). Further, confirming the fears of many, in June 2015, the government announced that the records of 4 million federal employees were breached by hackers working for the Chinese government (Nakashima 2015). Not surprisingly, between 2011 and 2014, more than 200 cybersecurity bills were introduced into either the U.S. House of Representatives or the U.S. Senate, five of which were enacted (Fischer 2015). -The government studies and makes recommendations on the use of science and technology through several boards and initiatives, including the National Science and Technology Council, the Office of Science and Technology Policy, the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, and the U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative. These agencies advise the president on matters of science and technology, including research and development, implementation, national policy, and coordination of different initiatives. Based on the advice of these initiatives, the Obama administration has outlined five key priorities to address cybersecurity (White House 2015b): Protect infrastructure and information systems from cyber threats, improve ability to identify and report cyber incidents, build international partnerships to promote Internet freedom and secure, reliable cyberspace, secure federal networks, and partner with the private sector to build a cyber-savvy workforce

Malicious Use of the Internet

-The Internet may be used for malicious purposes, including but not limited to cybercrime and prostitution (see Chapter 4), hacking, piracy, electronic aggression (e.g., cyberbullying), and "questionable content" sites. Internet piracy entails illegally downloading or distributing copyrighted material (e.g., music, games, or software). Court cases indicate that trade organizations (e.g., the Recording Industry Association of America) are pursuing criminal cases against violators, and courts are imposing strict penalties. The founders of The Pirate Bay, a file-sharing website that allowed users free access to popular movies, music, and television shows, were pursued by international authorities for several years and eventually found guilty of hacking and piracy crimes in Denmark and Sweden where they were each sentenced to two- to four-year jail terms (BBC 2014). -Malware is a general term that includes any spyware, crimeware, worms, viruses, and adware that is installed on owners' computers without their knowledge. A 2014 study found that crimes committed through the use of malware cost consumers nearly $500 billion annually, or approximately 20 percent of the economic value created by the Internet (Center for Strategic and International Studies 2014). A recent type of malware, ransomware, locks your computer or part of your computer, making it impossible to access your system until you pay a ransom, usually through some online payment method such as PayPal. -In addition to hacking, the Internet also facilitates drug dealing, illegal weapons sales, and human trafficking. Much of this illicit activity occurs on the deep web, also known as the dark web, the term for the many thousands of illicit websites that can only be accessed through special coding and are not accessible though standard search engines on the conventional, or surface, web. In 2014, the FBI shut down and arrested the leader of Silk Road, a deep website notorious for the black market sales of illegal drugs and weapons using bitcoin currency (Weiser 2015). In a dramatic twist, two FBI agents who worked undercover on the Silk Road investigation were later charged with money laundering and wire fraud when it was discovered that they allegedly converted investigation resources into bitcoins for their own personal use (Weiser and Apuzzo 2015). -Electronic aggression is defined as any kind of aggression that takes place with the use of technology (David-Ferdon and Hertz 2009). For example, cyberbullying refers to the use of electronic communication (e.g., websites, e-mail, instant messaging, or text messaging) to send or post negative or hurtful messages or images about an individual or a group (Kharfen 2006). Cyberbullying differs from traditional bullying in several significant ways, including the potential for a larger audience, anonymity, the inability to respond directly and immediately to the bully, and reduced levels of adult or peer supervision (Sticca and Perren 2013). Approximately 40 percent of Internet users report some form of online harassment; men are more likely to report verbal harassment, whereas women are more likely to report stalking and sexual harassment (Duggan 2014) (see Figure 14.6). -Estimates of the frequency of involvement in cyberbullying—as victim, perpetrator, or both—range dramatically, although electronic aggression researchers generally agree that texting is the most common means of cyberbullying (David-Ferdon and Hertz 2009). Because cyberbullying is capable of reaching wider audiences, many states and school districts have begun creating cyberbullying disciplinary policies. As of 2015, 22 states have anti-bullying laws that include cyberbullying, and in 48 states, anti-bullying laws also prohibit electronic harassment (Hinduja and Patchin 2015).

Digital Divide

-One of the most significant social problems associated with science and technology is the increased division between the classes. In a now oft-quoted statement, Welter (1997) notes: It is a fundamental truth that people who ultimately gain access to, and who can manipulate, the prevalent technology are enfranchised and flourish. Those individuals (or cultures) that are denied access to the new technologies, or cannot master and pass them on to the largest number of their offspring, suffer and perish. (p. 2) -The fear that technology will produce a "virtual elite" is not uncommon. Several theorists hypothesize that, as technology displaces workers—most notably the unskilled and uneducated—certain classes of people will be irreparably disadvantaged: the poor, minorities, and women. There is even concern that biotechnologies will lead to a "genetic stratification," whereby genetic testing, gene therapy, and other types of genetic enhancements are available only to the rich. -Globally, the digital divide reflects the economic and social conditions of a country. In general, wealthier and more educated countries have more technology than poorer countries with a less educated populace, and the gap is growing (see Figure 14.5). Much of the gap can be explained by a lack of access to devices and/or Internet connections at home or at work. Africa, for example, has 15 percent of the world's population, but only 7 percent of households have access to the Internet. Europe, however, has 12 percent of the world's population, but over 75 percent of the households have Internet connections (UN 2014). Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerburg seeks to bridge the digital divide by building infrastructure, expanding broadband access, and innovating affordable mobile technologies in the developing world (Internet.org 2015). -Similarly, in the United States, the wealthier the family, the more likely the family is to have Internet access. Of households with annual incomes of $150,000 or more, 98.1 percent have Internet access, and 94.5 percent have a high-speed Internet connection. However, only 62.4 percent of households with income levels below $25,000 a year have an Internet connection, and fewer than half have a high-speed connection (File and Ryan 2014). The digital divide between urban and rural America is also stark. While 17 percent of all Americans lack access to reliable Internet service, more than half of rural Americans lacks access (Federal Communications Commission [FCC] 2015). As a result of this disparity, in 2015, the FCC announced it would spend $7 billion expanding broadband Internet access to poor and rural areas, with the goal of ensuring that at least 98 percent of Americans have access to high-speed Internet service (White House 2015a). -Some of the differences in Internet use and broadband home access are a function of housing patterns. Inner-city neighborhoods are disproportionately populated by racial and ethnic minorities and are simply less likely to have the telecommunications hardware necessary for access to online services. Racial and ethnic minorities' lack of access to computers and the Internet, although signaling a type of digital divide, may be less common than what researchers are now calling the participation gap. Black and Latino children, for example, are more likely to access the Internet via mobile devices and, when online, to use Twitter, play games, participate in social networking, and watch video games than their advantaged, white counterparts (McCollum 2011). In fact, black and Latino households are much more likely than white households to have only handheld devices, rather than desktop or laptop computers, to access the Internet (File 2014). Furthermore, some research indicates that having a home computer, although increasing computer skills, actually lowers academic achievement rather than raising it, as one might expect (Vigdor et al. 2014). -There are few gender disparities in computer use and access in developed countries such as the United States and Japan. However, in developing counties, women play a subordinate role in information communication technologies (ICT), which affects their employability. As was the case with the first wave of industrialization in which women were highly concentrated in textile manufacturing, the new wave of ICT production has seen women concentrated largely in tedious, repetitive, and low-skill tasks such as data entry and word processing (Thas et al. 2007). -Concern over accessibility to broadband connectivity has led to a debate over net neutrality. Net neutrality advocates hold that Internet users should be able to visit any website and access any content without Internet service providers (ISPs) (e.g., cable or telephone companies) acting as gatekeepers by controlling, for example, the speed of downloads. Why would an ISP do that? Hypothetically, if Internet service provider company X signs an agreement with search engine Y, then it's in the best interest of Internet service provider X to slow down all other search engines' performances so that you will switch to search engine Y. Internet service providers argue that Internet users, be they individuals or corporations, who use more than their "fair share" of the Internet should pay more. Why should you pay the same monthly fee as your neighbor who nightly downloads full-length movie files? Others fear any government regulation of the Internet and/or prefer a strictly market model. The debate is politically charged and partisan: Republican leaders claim that government regulations to enforce net neutrality would stifle business with burdensome bureaucracy, and Democratic leaders argue that the regulations are needed to protect consumers. -In 2015, the FCC invoked its right to regulate net neutrality under Title II of the Federal Communications Act, which gives the agency authority to regulate utilities such as telephone and power companies. FCC chairman Tom Wheeler argued that "the Internet is simply too important to be left without rules or a referee on the field. ... The Internet has replaced the function of the telephone and the post office" (Risen 2015, p. 1). The FCC's Open Internet Rules are premised on three principles: No Blocking (providers can't block access to otherwise legal content, services, and devices); No Throttling (providers can't impede the Internet traffic of otherwise legal content, services, and devices); and No Paid Prioritization (providers can't favor some Internet traffic over others in exchange for any other considerations, also known as "no fast lanes") (FCC 2015). The fight over net neutrality is far from over, however, as telecom companies plan to challenge the FCC ruling in court, and the political debate between Republicans and Democrats in Congress will likely continue past the next election cycle (Pagliary 2015).

Chapter Intro

-Technological dualism is the tendency for technology to have both positive and negative consequences. Clearly, advances in medical technology have helped people around the world survive illnesses and injuries that would have been deadly only a few decades ago. On the other hand, medical interventions can themselves cause harm. In Hannah's case, the operation giving her the chance to breathe on her own led to a lung infection that caused her death. A recent study of over 1 million Medicare patients found that in a one-year period, more than 40 percent of them received screenings, tests, or treatments that professional medical organizations determined have no benefit or are likely to cause harm (Schwartz et al. 2014). Like medical technology, the 3-D printer is another example of technological dualism. Although efficient and cost-effective for manufacturers, 3-D printers may lead to higher rates of unemployment, particularly among assembly line laborers (see Chapter 7). Similarly, 3-D printers can be used to make a robotic hand for a child with amniotic band syndrome or to make a semiautomatic gun used by a mass murderer. -Science and technology go hand in hand. Science is the process of discovering, explaining, and predicting natural or social phenomena. A scientific approach to understanding acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), for example, might include investigating the molecular structure of the virus, the means by which it is transmitted, and public attitudes about AIDS. Technology, as a form of human cultural activity that applies the principles of science and mechanics to the solution of problems, is intended to accomplish a specific task—in this case, the development of an AIDS vaccine. -Societies differ in their level of technological sophistication and development. In agricultural societies, which emphasize the production of raw materials, the use of tools to accomplish tasks previously done by hand, or mechanization, dominates. As societies move toward industrialization and become more concerned with the mass production of goods, automation prevails. Automation involves the use of self-operating machines, as in an automated factory where autonomous robots assemble automobiles. Finally, as a society moves toward post-industrialization, it emphasizes service and information professions (Bell 1973). At this stage, technology shifts toward cybernation, whereby machines control machines—making production decisions, programming robots, and monitoring assembly performance. -What are the effects of science and technology on humans and their social world? How do science and technology help to remedy social problems, and how do they contribute to social problems? Is technology, as author Neil Postman (1992) suggested, both a friend and a foe to humankind? We address each of these questions in this chapter.

Conflict Perspective

-Conflict theorists, in general, argue that science and technology benefit a select few. For some conflict theorists, technological advances occur primarily as a response to capitalist needs for increased efficiency and productivity and thus are motivated by profit. As McDermott (1993) predicted, most decisions to increase technology are made by "the immediate practitioners of technology, their managerial cronies, and for the profits accruing to their corporations" (p. 93). In the United States, private industry spends more money on research and development than the federal government does. The Dalkon Shield (an intrauterine device, or IUD, a form of contraception) and silicone breast implants are examples of technological advances that promised millions of dollars in profits for their developers. However, the rush to market took precedence over thorough testing of the products' safety. Subsequent lawsuits filed by consumers resulted in large damage awards for the plaintiffs. -Science and technology also further the interests of dominant groups to the detriment of others. The need for scientific research on AIDS was evident in the early 1980s, but the required large-scale funding was not made available so long as the virus was thought to be specific to homosexuals and intravenous drug users. Only when the virus became a threat to mainstream Americans were millions of dollars allocated to AIDS research. Hence, conflict theorists argue that granting agencies act as gatekeepers to scientific discoveries and technological innovations. These agencies are influenced by powerful interest groups and the marketability of the product rather than by the needs of society. -When the dominant group feels threatened, it may use technology as a means of social control. For example, the use of the Internet is growing dramatically in China, the world's largest Internet market. Censorship has been consolidated under the State Council Information Office, also known as the "great firewall of China" (Chen 2011). A study by Harvard Law School researchers indicates that, of the 204,000 websites accessed, nearly 20,000 were inaccessible. Top Google search results for such words as Tibet, equality, Taiwan, and democracy China were consistently blocked (Associated Press 2010). China is not alone, however. The OpenNet Initiative, a collaborative effort of three academic institutions, reports that Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Iran, Syria, and Ethiopia also have pervasive political censorship of the Internet (OpenNet 2015). -Finally, conflict theorists as well as feminists argue that technology is an extension of the patriarchal nature of society that promotes the interests of men and ignores the needs and interests of women. As in other aspects of life, women play a subordinate role in reference to technology in terms of both its creation and its use. For example, washing machines, although time-saving devices, disrupted the communal telling of stories and the resulting friendships among women who gathered together to do their chores. Bush (1993) observed that, in a "society characterized by a sex-role division of labor, any tool or technique ... will have dramatically different effects on men than on women" (p. 204).

Symbolic-Interactionist Perspective

-Knowledge is relative. It changes over time, over circumstances, and between societies. We no longer believe that the world is flat or that the Earth is the center of the universe, but such beliefs once determined behavior because individuals responded to what they thought to be true. The scientific process is a social process in that "truths"—socially constructed truths—result from the interactions among scientists, researchers, and the lay public. -Kuhn (1973) argued that the process of scientific discovery begins with assumptions about a particular phenomenon (e.g., the world is flat). Because unanswered questions always remain about a topic (e.g., why don't the oceans drain?), science works to fill these gaps. When new information suggests that the initial assumptions were incorrect (e.g., the world is not flat), a new set of assumptions or framework emerges to replace the old one (e.g., the world is round). It then becomes the dominant belief or paradigm. -Symbolic interactionists emphasize the importance of this process and the effect that social forces have on it. Lynch et al. (2008) describe the media's contribution in framing societal beliefs about racial discrimination, racism, and genetic determinism. Social forces also affect technological innovations, and their success depends, in part, on the social meaning assigned to any particular product. As social constructionists argue, individuals socially construct reality as they interpret the social world around them, including the meaning assigned to various technologies. If claims makers can successfully define a product as impractical, cumbersome, inefficient, or immoral, the product is unlikely to gain public acceptance. Such is the case with RU-486, an oral contraceptive known as the "abortion pill" that is widely used in France, Great Britain, China, and the United States but is opposed by many Americans (National Abortion and Reproductive Rights Action League [NARAL] 2013). Similarly, widespread media coverage of the potential risks associated with eating genetically modified (GM) food likely contributes to the disparity between U.S. adults and scientists in the belief that they are unsafe—57 percent versus 11 percent, respectively (Pew 2015b). -Not only are technological innovations subject to social meaning, but who becomes involved in what aspects of science and technology is also socially defined. Men, for example, far outnumber women in earning computer science degrees, as many as 10 to 1 at some schools. Some of the disparity can be explained by variations in interest. In a sample of first-year college students, although fluctuating over time, women consistently expressed less interest in computer science than men (Sax et al. 2015). Societal definitions of men as rational, mathematical, and scientifically minded may have contributed to the interest gender gap. This chapter's Social Problems Research Up Close feature highlights the similarities and differences between how men and women use the Internet.

Global Context: Technological Revolution

-Less than 50 years ago, traveling across state lines was an arduous task, a long-distance phone call was a memorable event, and mail carriers brought belated news of friends and relatives from far away. Today, travelers journey between continents in a matter of hours, and for many, e-mail, faxes, instant messaging, texting, and cell phones have replaced previously conventional means of communication. -The world is a much smaller place than it used to be, and it will become even smaller as the technological revolution continues. In 2014, the Internet had 3 billion users in more than 200 countries, with 277 million users in the United States (Internet Statistics 2015). Of all Internet users, the highest proportion come from Asia (45.7 percent), followed by Europe (19.2 percent), North America (10.2 percent), Latin America and the Caribbean (10.5 percent), Africa (9.8 percent), the Middle East (3.7 percent), and Oceania /Australia (0 percent) (Internet Statistics 2015). Although the penetration rate—that is, the percentage of people who have access to and use the Internet in a particular area—is higher in industrialized countries, there is some movement toward the Internet becoming a truly global medium as Africans, Middle Easterners, and Latin Americans increasingly get online. For example, Internet use in the United States grew 182 percent between 2000 and 2013; the number of Internet users in Nigeria increased by 33,560 percent during the same time period (Internet Statistics 2015). In developing nations, at least half of Internet users say they use the Internet daily. The most popular Internet activity for these users was socializing with friends and family (Pew 2015a). -Social media use dominates Internet activity in many parts of the developing world, with users in Saudi Arabia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Mexico, and Argentina spending three hours a day or more on social media (Figure 14.1). Social media use is likely to continue its rapid expansion around the world as Google and Facebook work to bring affordable Internet access and wireless technologies to previously unconnected parts of the developing world (Efrati 2013; Internet.org 2015). The duality of expanding wireless technology use and global social media connections, however, may come at a price to victims of cybercrime. Technology known as "creepware," software that can be purchased for as little as $40, allows cybercriminals to spy on and steal personal information from victims from anywhere in the world (Perez 2014). -The movement toward globalization of technology is, of course, not limited to the use and expansion of the Internet. The world robot market and the U.S. share of it continue to expand, Microsoft's Internet platform and support products are sold all over the world, scientists collect skin and blood samples from remote islanders for genetic research, a global treaty regulating trade of genetically altered products has been signed by more than 100 nations, and South Korea's Samsung leads its competitors in cell phone innovations and sales (Noble 2015). -To achieve such scientific and technological innovations, sometimes called research and development (R&D), countries need material and economic resources. Research entails the pursuit of knowledge; development refers to the production of materials, systems, processes, or devices directed to the solution of practical problems. According to the National Science Foundation (NSF), the United States spends over $400 billion a year in research and development, accounting for about 30 percent of the global total—the largest single-performing country in the world (NSF 2015). As in most other countries, U.S. funding sources are primarily from private industry, 63 percent of the total, followed by the federal government and nonprofit organizations such as research institutes at colleges and universities (NSF 2015). -The United States leads the world in science and technology, although there is some evidence that we are falling behind (Dutta et al. 2015; Information Technology and Innovation Foundation [ITIF] 2012; Price 2008). For example, a report by the World Economic Forum compares information and communication technologies (ICTs) across countries using a Network Readiness Index (NRI) (Figure 14.2). The NRI is composed of four subsections: the quantity and quality of the environment for ICTs (e.g., political environment, regulatory environment), ICTs' readiness (e.g., affordability), ICTs' usage (e.g., individual, business), and the impact of ICTs (e.g., social, economic) -In 2015, the NRI results indicated that Nordic countries (Finland, Sweden, Netherlands, Norway, and Switzerland) held 5 of the top 10 index positions (Dutta et al. 2015). Asian countries also made a strong showing, with Singapore rated as number 1, and Japan, Taiwan/China, Republic of Korea, and Hong Kong all in the top 18 rankings. The United States ranked number 7 on the overall index but scored higher on the impact subsection and lower on the remaining three subsections. -The decline of U.S. supremacy in science and technology is likely to be the result of several interacting forces (Coleman 2015; ITIF 2009; Lemonick 2006; Price 2008; World Bank 2009). First, the federal government has been scaling back its investment in research and development in response to fiscal deficits (Britt 2015; Plummer 2013). Second, corporations, the largest contributors to research and development, have begun to focus on short-term products and higher profits as pressure from stockholders mounts. Third, developing countries, most notably China and India, are expanding their scientific and technological capabilities at a faster rate than the United States. In 2000, the United States was the leading exporter of ICT goods. By 2012, China had surpassed the United States in the value of ICT exports by more than $300 billion (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development [OECD] 2014). -Fourth, there has been concern over science and math education in the United States, both in terms of quality and quantity. More than half of students entering college need remedial-level math courses in order to complete college-level work (NSF 2015). Although the United States awards the highest number of science and engineering PhD degrees in the world, about 6 in 10 students receiving degrees in these fields are from foreign nations. The majority of these foreign nationals do not stay in the United States after receiving their degrees, leaving a significant gap between high-skill technology jobs in the United States and American workers able to fill those jobs. -Finally, Mooney and Kirshenbaum (2009) document "unscientific America"—the tremendous disconnect between the citizenry, media, politicians, religious leaders, education, and the entertainment industry (e.g., CSI, The Big Bang Theory, Grey's Anatomy), on the one hand, and science and scientists, on the other. Post-World War II America, in part because of the Cold War, invested in R&D, leading to such scientific and technological advances as the space program, the development of the Internet, and the decoding of the genome. Yet, despite these significant contributions and the recognition of the significance of STEM disciplines, most Americans know very little about science (NSF 2015) (see this chapter's Self and Society). Table 14.1 displays the gaps in opinions about scientific issues between professional scientists and the American public.

Technology and the Workplace

-All workplaces—from government offices to factories and from supermarkets to real estate agencies—have felt the impact of technology. A survey of working adults found that more than half say that email and the Internet are "very important" to doing their jobs, and cell phones outrank landline phones in importance at work (Pew 2014e). Some technology lessens the need for supervisors and makes control by employers easier. For example, employees in the Department of Design and Construction in New York City must scan their hands each time they enter or leave the workplace. The use of identifying characteristics such as hands, fingers, and eyes is part of a technology called biometrics. Union leaders "called the use of biometrics degrading, intrusive and unnecessary and said that experimenting with the technology could set the stage for a wider use of biometrics to keep tabs on all elements of the workday" (Chan 2007, p. 1). -Technology can also make workers more accountable by gathering information about their performance. In addition, through time-saving devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs) and battery-powered store-shelf labels, technology can enhance workers' efficiency. Wearable technology is also expected to improve worker productivity. For example, one British grocery store uses digital armbands to track the delivery, transport, and shelving of goods, which makes it unnecessary for workers to mark clipboards. Other companies use wearable technology to provide assembly line workers instructions without having to stop and look at a manual, and to monitor fatigue among backhoe operators to prevent accidents (Boitnott 2015). -Technology, however, can also contribute to worker error. The use of computerized medical records, intended to improve efficiency and reduce medical error, has met with mixed results in the health care industry. In one case, a teenage patient was given a massive overdose of an antibiotic leading to a grand mal seizure that nearly led to his death. The error happened when the doctor ordering the medication through a computer system failed to notice that the drop-down menu on the computer screen was set to "milligrams per kilogram" rather than "milligrams." One doctor who worked on the case suggested that such medical errors are a result of a lag between the advancements of technology and the understanding of that technology among the humans who use it (Wachter 2015). -Technology is also changing the location of work (see Chapter 7). Nearly 3.5 million employees—2.7 percent of the American workforce—telecommute ( i.e., consider home their primary place of work) (Global Workforce 2015). Although there is some indication that telecommuting increases worker productivity and satisfaction, the incorporation of advanced technology can also blur the distinction between work and personal life. Unlike structural functionalists who would argue that telecommuting provides a flexible work option for working parents, Noonan and Glass (2012), consistent with a conflict perspective, suggest that "telecommuting appears ... to have become instrumental in the general expansion of work hours, facilitating workers' needs for additional work time beyond the standard workweek and/or the ability of employers to increase or intensify work demand among their salaried employees" (p. 38). -Robotic technology has also revolutionized work. Although the economic downturn of 2009 and 2010 led to a reduction in the sales of robotic equipment, the record sales and growth from 2011 to 2014 is predicted to continue through 2017 (International Federation of Robotics 2014). Google's intensive, and highly secretive, R&D investments in robotics have fueled wild speculation about the future of robotics in the workplace, but they clearly point to a larger trend toward the incorporation of robots into all occupational sectors (Henn 2014). -Ninety percent of robots work in factories, and more than half of these are used in heavy industry, such as automobile manufacturing. While the most common use for robots has been in manufacturing, a survey of robotics experts indicates that about half believe that robots will play a significant role in both blue-collar and white-collar jobs in the next decade (Pew 2014a). Robotics experts are also divided on whether these "digital agents" will displace existing jobs; 52 percent believe that while some jobs will be eliminated by new technologies, the economy will adapt by inventing new types of work, resulting in a net gain in job creation.

Science and Biotechnology

-Although recent computer innovations and the establishment of the Internet have led to significant cultural and structural changes, science and its resulting biotechnologies have produced not only dramatic changes but also hotly contested issues with public policy implications. In this section, we look at some of the issues raised by developments in genetics, food and biotechnology, and reproductive technologies. -Molecular biology has led to a greater understanding of the genetic material found in all cells—DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)—and with it the ability for genetic testing. Genetic testing "involves examining your DNA, the chemical database that carries instructions for your body's functions," and using that information to identify abnormalities or alterations that may lead to disease or illness (Mayo Clinic 2013, p. 1). -A growing body of research indicates that human characteristics once thought to be largely social or psychological in nature are, at least in part, genetically induced. These include behavioral and psychological traits, such as personality characteristics, addiction, depression, autism, schizophrenia and anorexia, as well as physical illnesses such as sickle-cell disease, breast cancer, Alzheimer's, and cystic fibrosis (De Rubeis et al. 2014; Harmon 2006; Oak Ridge National Laboratory 2011; Picard and Turnbull 2013; Wheelwright 2014). The U.S. Human Genome Project (HGP), a 13-year effort to decode human DNA, was completed in 2003. Conclusion of the project has transformed medicine, particularly by revealing how the physical and the social interact: All diseases have a genetic component whether inherited or resulting from the body's response to environmental stresses like viruses or toxins. The successes of the HGP have ... enabled researchers to pinpoint errors in genes—the smallest units of heredity—that cause or contribute to disease. (Human Genome Project 2007, p. 1) -The hope is that, if a defective or missing gene can be identified, possibly a healthy duplicate can be acquired and transplanted into the affected cell. This is known as gene therapy. Alternatively, viruses have their own genes that can be targeted for removal. Experiments are now under way to accomplish these biotechnological feats. -Genetic engineering is the ability to manipulate the genes of an organism in such a way that the natural outcome is altered. Genetically modified (GM) food, also known as genetically engineered food, and genetically modified organisms involve this process of DNA recombination—scientists transferring genes from one plant into the genetic code of another plant. -The vast majority of soy, corn, canola, and sugar beets grown in the United States are genetically engineered. Because these ingredients are widely used in processed foods, nearly all packaged food sold in the United States and Canada contain genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Most American adults believe that foods grown with pesticides (72 percent) and GM foods are unsafe for human consumption (65 percent), and 92 percent believe the government should require labels that identify food as "genetically modified" or "bio-engineered" (Consumer Reports 2015; Pew 2015b). -Sixty countries mandate GMO labeling, but efforts to pass similar regulations in the United States have met with controversy and resistance from the agricultural industry. Biotechnology companies and other supporters of GM foods argue this technology has the potential to alleviate hunger and malnutrition, as it can enable farmers to produce higher-yield crops. In 2015, the Food and Drug Administration approved apples and potatoes that had been genetically modified to not bruise or brown as safe for human consumption (Rossignol 2015). Critics argue that the world already produces enough food for all people to have a healthy diet. If food were distributed equally, every person would be able to consume 2,790 calories a day (World Hunger Education Service 2015). The fundamental causes of hunger, these critics argue, is not lack of technology but rather poverty and unequal access to food and land. -Critics also argue that GMO practices can have wide-ranging effects on human health and the environment. Biotechnology companies claim that crops that are genetically designed to repel insects negate the need for chemical (pesticide) control and thus reduce pesticide poisoning of land, water, animals, foods, and farmworkers. However, critics are concerned that insect populations can build up resistance to GM plants with insect-repelling traits, which would necessitate increased rather than decreased use of pesticides. The inability of humans to control chain reactions in ecosystems also raise concerns. Critics argue that the introduction of genetically modified "frankenfish" into the wild could weaken the genetic pools of wild populations, leading to their collapse and affecting the broader ecosystem (Friends of the Earth [FOE] 2015). -Human health concerns include possible toxicity, carcinogenicity, food intolerance, antibiotic resistance buildup, decreased nutritional value, and food allergens to GM foods—all examples of technology-induced diseases. An international study conducted by the World Health Organization of the chemicals in Monsanto's most common weed killer found strong evidence that water contamination from the use of these chemicals in commercial agriculture causes cancer (Guyton et al. 2015). -Nanotechnology, which refers to the manipulation of materials and creation of structures and systems at the scale of atoms and molecules, is also being used to modify food ingredients (FOE 2014). This technology is used to add nutrition and flavor to foods, as well as to add antibacterial ingredients to food packaging. Between 2008 and 2014, the number of food and beverage products on the market with nano-ingredients present grew more than 10-fold (FOE 2014). Although nanotechnology has the potential to improve nutritional value and shelf life of food, critics argue that there is also a high likelihood that it will have negative consequences for human health and the environment. In particular, nanofoods use particles of silver, titanium dioxide, zinc, and zinc oxide that have been shown to be highly toxic to animals in laboratory testing. Because of the small size of these particles, there is greater risk that these particles will access and alter human cells. The lack of regulation of nanotechnology increases the risk of harmful nanochemicals being released into soil and water, where these particles can alter plant and animal life at the cellular level (FOE 2014). -The evolution of "reproductive science" has been furthered by scientific developments in biology, medicine, and agriculture. At the same time, at least historically, its development has been hindered by the stigma associated with sexuality and reproduction, its link with unpopular social movements (e.g., contraception), and the feeling that such innovations challenge the natural order (Clarke 1990). Nevertheless, new reproductive technologies have been and continue to be developed. -Although there are other reproductive technologies (e.g., in vitro fertilization), abortion more than any other biotechnology epitomizes the potentially explosive consequences of technological innovation (see also Chapter 13). Abortion is the removal of an embryo or fetus from a woman's uterus before it can survive on its own. -In the United States, since the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in Roe v. Wade in 1973, abortion has been legal. However, several Supreme Court decisions have limited the scope of the Roe v. Wade decision (e.g., Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey). Furthermore, several recent legislative initiatives in Congress are intended to restrict or prohibit a woman's access to a lawful abortion. For example, many states have enacted laws that require abortion providers to operate hospital-style surgical centers, regulations that will lead to the closure of many clinics. Clinics in Texas and Mississippi challenged the law, arguing that the new regulations were not necessary to improve the safety of the procedure but rather were designed to place an undue burden on women seeking abortions. The appeals court in Mississippi struck down the law, while the Texas court upheld it (Ludden 2015). However, in 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court granted an emergency appeal from the clinics that, at least for now, halts enforcement of the restrictions (Associated Press 2015). -Historically, abortions are banned when the fetus is considered viable, usually around 22 to 26 weeks from conception. Recently, however, state laws have made legal abortions more restrictive. With an exception for the life or health of the mother, abortions after 20 weeks are prohibited in 13 states (NARAL 2015). Other recently enacted state restrictions include that abortion must take place in a hospital and be performed by a licensed physician, gestational limits, restrictions on state spending for abortions, restrictions on private insurance coverage for abortions, the right of individual or institutional refusal to perform an abortion, state-mandated counseling, waiting periods, and parental involvement if involving a minor (Guttmacher Institute 2015) -Abortion is a complex issue for everyone, but especially for women, whose lives are most affected by pregnancy and childbearing. Women who have abortions are disproportionately poor, unmarried minorities who say that they intend to have children in the future. Abortion is also a complex issue for societies, which must respond to the pressures of conflicting attitudes toward abortion and the reality of high rates of unintended and unwanted pregnancy. The debate over abortion has also complicated health care reform as conservatives, citing a 30-year ban on using taxpayer's money to pay for elective abortions, battle the Obama administration and abortion rights supporters. -Attitudes toward abortion tend to be polarized between two opposing groups of abortion activists—pro-choice and pro-life. As recently as 2015, public opinion surveys indicated that 50 percent of Americans identify as pro-choice and 44 percent as pro-life (Gallup 2015a). Advocates of the pro-choice movement hold that freedom of choice is a central human value; that procreation choices must be free of government interference; and that because the woman must bear the burden of moral choices, she should have the right to make such decisions. Alternatively, pro-lifers hold that an unborn fetus has a right to live and be protected, that abortion is immoral, and that alternative means of resolving an unwanted pregnancy should be found. -Attitudes about abortion vary by religion and age. Three-quarters of evangelical Protestants and more than one-half of Catholics say that abortion is morally wrong, while 38 percent of mainline Protestants and 25 percent of religiously unaffiliated Americans say that abortion is morally wrong. Adults under 30 are less likely than adults over 30 to know that Roe v. Wade was a decision about abortion (44 percent compared with 62 percent, respectively), and young adults are more likely to say that abortion is "not that important" compared with other issues (62 percent compared with 53 percent, respectively) (Lipka 2015). -Attitudes about abortion are shaped by technological advancements; the likelihood of a premature baby surviving a birth in the second trimester, about 22 to 27 weeks, was unheard of when Roe v. Wade was first enacted in 1973. Now the survival rate of the earliest premature births is about 25 percent (Westcott 2015). For the nearly half of Americans who view abortion as morally wrong, the proliferation of reproductive technologies raises ethical dilemmas (Lipka 2015). In a highly controversial decision in 2014, the Supreme Court ruled that some businesses cannot be compelled to provide insurance coverage for their employees for certain reproductive technologies. The majority ruled in a 5-4 decision that coverage of reproductive technologies that violate a business owner's religious beliefs is a substantial burden (Mears and Cohen 2014). In another case, a Christian college was exempted from having to provide full contraception coverage to its employees and students (Holpuch 2014). Both of these cases centered on the issue of whether an employer's religious beliefs are burdened by the provision of coverage for reproductive technologies. However, in her dissent, Justice Sonya Sotomayor argued that "thinking one's religious beliefs are substantially burdened—no matter how sincere or genuine that belief may be—does not make it so" (Holpuch, 2014, p. 1).

Problems of Mental and Physical Health

-High levels of media use are associated with lower academic achievement, sleep problems, obesity, and a wide range of physical and mental health problems (Department of Health and Human Services 2013). Although the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children and adolescents have no more than two hours of "screen time" per day, approximately 73 percent of youth age 12 to 17 exceed this recommendation (Herrick et al. 2014). -Technology changes what we do, and when and how we do it. The multitasking that is associated with technology is linked to distraction, a false sense of urgency, and the inability to focus. Not only does the use of technology encourage distraction through multitasking, it also rewires the brain at the cellular level to make prolonged concentration more difficult (Carr 2010). The average attention span dropped from 12 seconds in 2000 to 8 seconds in 2015, contributing to a phenomenon called "slowness rage," in which a decreased attention span combined with the faster pace of technology leads to feelings of anxiety and anger when daily experiences take longer than expected (Wald 2015). -The effects of technology on our brains may have more serious consequences than feeling impatient more often, however. A study of college students from 10 countries found that four out of five exhibited physical and emotional symptoms of addiction withdrawal, including panic attacks, physical discomfort, and depression, when asked to give up cell phone and Internet use for 24 hours (Moeller et al. 2012). Psychologists have also noted a pattern of "Facebook depression" in which increases in social media use are associated with lower levels of self-esteem and life satisfaction, and increased Internet use is correlated with self-harm and suicidal behavior (Kross et al. 2013; Daine et al. 2015).

Information and Communication Technology and the Internet

-Information and communication technology, or ICT, refers to any technology that carries information. Most information technologies were developed within a 100-year span: taking pictures and telegraphy (1830s), rotary power printing (1840s), the typewriter (1860s), transatlantic cable (1866), the telephone (1876), motion pictures (1894), wireless telegraphy (1895), magnetic tape recording (1899), radio (1906), and television (1923) (Beniger 1993). The concept of an "information society" dates back to the 1950s, when an economist identified a work sector he called "the production and distribution of knowledge." In 1958, 31 percent of the labor force was employed in this sector; today, more than 50 percent is. When this figure is combined with those in service occupations, more than 75 percent of the labor force is involved in the information society. -The Internet is an international infrastructure—a network of networks—that distributes knowledge and information. In 2014, 87 percent of all Americans used the Internet from some location, although home Internet access is generally lower (File and Ryan 2014; Fox and Rainie 2014). Among those who do not go online, about one-third report that the main reason they don't use the Internet is because they don't think it is relevant to their lives. Another one-third report that it is too difficult to use, and 19 percent say that the expense of owning a computer and subscribing to Internet service is too high. The remaining 7 percent say they lack physical access to a computer or the Internet (Zickuhr 2014). Nearly half of Internet nonusers are over the age of 65. -The most recent advancement in Internet technology is the Internet of Things (IoT), in which nearly every device with an on-off switch can be connected to the Internet. The vast array of network and information sharing made possible by the IoT has the potential to radically transform social relations, with both positive and negative consequences (Morgan 2014). It may be convenient for your car to "know" your schedule and automatically redirect you around a traffic jam to make sure you don't miss your appointment, but do you want your wearable device to report to your boss every time you take a coffee break? What are the boundaries of privacy and security when everything you use shares your information with everything else? -IoT is made possible by wireless Internet access. The growth of mobile Internet capabilities has led to "always-present" connectivity as users working on laptops, tablets, and smartphones access the Internet from coffee shops, classrooms, and shopping malls. Approximately one-fourth of teens say that they are online "almost constantly" (Lenhart 2015). The near constant use of the Internet is driven by the high rate of mobile technology usage among teens: Nearly three-quarters have access to a smartphone, with an additional 30 percent using a basic cell phone. Among those with smartphone access, 94 percent go online daily. -High-speed broadband use has also increased over time, from 4 percent of American households in 2001 to 70 percent of American households in 2013. The demographics of broadband access is similar to those of computer and Internet use; that is, those who are younger, more educated, and wealthier are more likely to have home broadband (File and Ryan 2014; Zickuhr and Smith 2013). -E-commerce is the buying and selling of goods and services over the Internet, and primarily includes online shopping and online banking. In OECD countries, the proportion of people who buy goods online rose from 30 percent in 2007 to 47 percent in 2013 (OECD 2014). Online sales represent nearly half of all U.S. sales, with books and magazines being the most common online purchases, followed by clothing, computer hardware, and computer software (U.S. Census Bureau 2013). Motivations to purchase products online include convenience, the ability to compare prices, and less expensive products in some states where there is no Internet sales tax. The Marketplace Fairness Act of 2015, presently being debated in Congress, would "require all sellers not qualifying for a small-seller exception ... to collect and remit sales and use taxes with respect to remote sales." -Online banking as well as mobile banking has increased significantly over the last decade (Fox 2013). As more financial exchanges occur online, the risks and benefits of e-commerce continue to be debated. Bitcoins provide a recent example of the technological dualism of e-commerce. Invented in 2008, bitcoins are an entirely digital currency that are not backed, and therefore not regulated, by any government. Bitcoins allow for an ease and flexibility in global economic transactions that conventional national currencies do not allow, but critics point out that such unregulated and anonymous exchanges are used to buy and sell illegal goods and services on a digital black market, subject to wild swings in value, and at high risk of theft by hackers (Peek 2015). -Many Americans turn to the Internet to address health issues and concerns. In a survey on the Internet and health, over a third of U.S. adults reported going online to research a health condition (Fox and Duggan 2013). Women, youth, those with annual household incomes over a $75,000, and the college educated were the most likely to seek an online diagnosis. -Many other Americans, 72 percent, sought general health or medical information on the Internet, and half of those searches were on behalf of friends or family members. Interestingly, sociologically, there is a "social life" to health information on the Internet. It is not uncommon for people to share their health stories, post symptoms and diagnoses, and otherwise provide peer-to-peer health support (Fox and Duggan 2013). In rural China, where access to the public health care system is limited by geographic distance and long waits for appointments, a mobile app that allows patients to communicate with doctors and receive virtual diagnoses is estimated to have 100 million users in 2015 (Shadbolt 2014). -Digital patient records are thus the first step in creating learning health systems, whereby physicians, looking across patient populations, can identify successful treatments or detect harmful interactions (Lohr 2011). Furthermore, mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets "have the computing capability, display, and battery power to become powerful medical devices that measure vital signs and provide intelligent interpretation or immediate transmission of information" (p. 883). -Lastly, there is evidence that technology can help mediate the soaring cost of health care. For example, high school students in Illinois used a 3-D printer that had been donated to the school to build a prosthetic hand for a 9-year-old girl who had been born without fingers, for a total cost of $5 (Thornhill 2014). Other important sources of cost effectiveness include electronic claims processing and reducing medical errors through more effective diagnostic and treatment interventions. As of July 2012, the federal government spent over $6.6 billion in health information technology incentives (Castro 2013). -The Internet, perhaps more than any other technology, is the foundation of the information society. Whether reading an online book, taking a MOOC (massive open online course; see Chapter 8), mapping directions, visiting the Louvre virtually, or accessing Wikipedia, the Internet provides millions of surfers with instant answers to questions previously requiring a trip to the library. -Finally, with the lightning growth of the Internet, there are concerns that information is often outdated, difficult to find, and limited in scope (Mateescu 2010). Some are already looking ahead to a time when search engines look for information not syntactically (i.e., based on combinations of words and phrases) but semantically (i.e., based on the meaning of words and phrases). The Semantic Web, sometimes referred to as Web 3.0, entails not only pages of information but also pages that describe the interrelationship between the pages of information, resulting in "smart media" (Cambridge 2015). -Technology is changing the world of politics. The number of registered voters who used social media to follow political candidates doubled from 2010 to 2014, and more than 40 percent of registered voters aged 18 to 29 say that they use mobile technology to follow political news (Smith 2014). -Social media sites like Twitter and Facebook have been central to political events around the world. For example, Arab Spring protests throughout the Middle East in 2011 were coordinated through social media sites, often in spite of government efforts to restrict access. Although social media can facilitate political change, it can also present risks to the users. Government officials in Tunisia, Iran, Egypt, and elsewhere in the Middle East have used social media postings to track, arrest, and charge political dissidents (Arab Network for Human Rights Information 2015). In the fight against domestic terrorism in the United States, the FBI has been struggling to find a balance between trying to prevent terror groups such as ISIS from using social media to reach potential recruits and using social media as a tool to track the activities of terrorist organizations (K. Johnson 2015). -Social networks (e.g., Facebook, Twitter) and blogs comprise a sector of the Internet called membership communities. Membership communities have changed in three substantively significant ways in recent years: increasing numbers of people visit membership communities, people are spending substantially more time interacting in these communities, and older people are participating in membership communities. In 2015, over 2 billion people, or about a third of the world's population, had an active social media account; Facebook alone had nearly 1.4 billion active users (Kemp 2015). Globally, nearly a quarter of Facebook users check their account five or more times a day. Among American social media users, 70 percent checked Facebook daily. Although people under the age of 30 still comprise the largest proportion of social media users, of those who use the Internet, 63 percent of 50- to 64-year-olds and 56 percent of those 65 years and older report using Facebook (Duggan et al. 2015).

Postmodernism and Technological Fix

-Many Americans believe that social problems can be resolved through a technological fix (Weinberg 1966) rather than through social engineering. For example, a social engineer might approach the problem of water shortages by persuading people to change their lifestyle: use less water, take shorter showers, and wear clothes more than once before washing. A technologist would avoid the challenge of changing people's habits and motivations and instead concentrate on the development of new technologies that would increase the water supply. -Social problems can be tackled through both social engineering and a technological fix. In recent years, for example, social engineering efforts to address the problem of date rape on college campuses have included sexual assault awareness campaigns and public service announcements about binge drinking and the definition of "consent." An example of a technological fix for the same problem was developed by four students at North Carolina State University who invented a type of nail polish that, when a woman dips her finger into a drink, would change color if common date rape drugs were present (Sullivan 2014). -Not all individuals, however, agree that science and technology are good for society. Postmodernism is a worldview that holds that rational thinking and the scientific perspective have fallen short in providing the "truths" they were once presumed to hold. During the industrial era, science, rationality, and technological innovations were thought to hold the promises of a better, safer, and more humane world. Today, postmodernists question the validity of the scientific enterprise, often pointing to the unforeseen and unwanted consequences of resulting technologies. Automobiles, for example, began to be mass-produced in the 1930s, in response to consumer demands. But the proliferation of automobiles has also led to increased air pollution and the deterioration of cities as suburbs developed, and, today, traffic fatalities are the number one cause of accident-related deaths.

Science, Ethics, and the Law

-Science and its resulting technologies alter the culture of society through the challenging of traditional values. Public debate and ethical controversies, however, have led to structural alterations in society as the legal system responds to calls for action. For example, several states now have what are called genetic exception laws. Genetic exception laws require that genetic information be handled separately from other medical information, leading to what is sometimes called patient shadow files (Legay 2001). The logic of such laws rests with the potentially devastating effects of genetic information being revealed to insurance companies, other family members, employers, and the like. Their importance has also grown—there are now genetic tests for more than 1,000 diseases, and hundreds more are being researched. Examples of protected tests include the BRCA1 and BRCA2 tests for breast cancer and carrier screening for such conditions as sickle-cell anemia and cystic fibrosis (Genetics and Public Policy Center 2010). -Are such regulations necessary? In a society characterized by rapid technological and thus social change—a society in which custody of frozen embryos is part of a divorce agreement—many would say yes. Cloning, for example, is one of the most hotly debated technologies in recent years. Bioethicists and the public vehemently debate the various costs and benefits of this scientific technique. Despite such controversy, however, the chairman of the National Bioethics Advisory Commission warned nearly 20 years ago that human cloning will be "very difficult to stop" (McFarling 1998). Fifteen states have laws pertaining to human cloning, with some prohibiting cloning for reproductive purposes, some prohibiting therapeutic cloning, and still others prohibiting both (National Conference of State Legislatures 2015; Rovner 2013). -Should the choices that we make as a society depend on what we can do or what we should do? Whereas scientists and the agencies and corporations that fund them often determine what we can do, who should determine what we should do (see this chapter's Animals and Society feature)? Although such decisions are likely to have a strong legal component—that is, they must be consistent with the rule of law and the constitutional right of scientific inquiry—legality or the lack thereof often fails to answer the question "What should be done?" Roe v. Wade (1973) did little to quash the public debate over abortion and, more specifically, the question of when life begins. Thus, it is likely that the issues surrounding the most controversial of technologies will continue throughout the 21st century with no easy answers.

Unemployment, Immigration, and Outsourcing

-Some technologies replace human workers, and many of those jobs are unlikely to return to the labor market. A 10-year study of the use of automated technology to replace human labor found that while initial phases of technology adoption in workplaces use automation to replace physical labor, thus displacing manufacturing jobs, newer forms of technology have focused on automation of language and reasoning skills (Elliot 2014). As a result, millions of middle-class jobs in the areas of human services, transportation, education, and health care may soon be displaced. Such a shift has the potential to radically transform our social and economic system in much the same way that the decline of agricultural production and rise of manufacturing transformed 20th-century society: Although economists are right in principle that displaced workers should be able to move into new positions ... it seems unlikely that the structure of the labor market can change as quickly as the technology is advancing. ... The nation will be forced to reconsider the role that paid employment plays in distributing economic goods and services and in providing a meaningful focus for many people's daily lives. (Elliot 2014, p. 1) -Unemployment rates can also increase when companies outsource (sometimes called off-shore) jobs to lower-wage countries. Between 2001 and 2013, an estimated 3.2 million American jobs were outsourced to China alone, with three-quarters of those jobs in the manufacturing sector (Peralta 2014). It should be noted, however, that economic trends affect receiving countries as well; in other words, jobs lost in one country impact outsourcing in another. For example, IT outsourcing to South Asia resulted in a loss of jobs in the United States and a gain in India; however, increasing automation in IT services is now resulting in job losses in the Indian IT industry and an increase in jobs in international robotics firms (Overby 2015). -Other employment challenges arise due to the lack of highly skilled American workers in STEM occupations. These jobs are often filled by foreign workers who enter the United States on H1-B visas. These visas allow workers to temporarily hire foreign workers in specialty and high-tech occupations when there are not enough qualified domestic workers available. The number of H-1B visas the federal government issues each year is limited to 65,000 (U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services 2015). Critics of the H-1B visa limitations are pressuring the federal government to increase the number of visas available annually, arguing that there are more high-tech jobs available than workers to fill them.

Structural-Functionalist Perspective

-Structural functionalists view science and technology as emerging in response to societal needs—that "science was born indicates that society needed it" (Durkheim 1973/1925). As societies become more complex and heterogeneous, finding a common and agreed-on knowledge base becomes more difficult. Science fulfills the need for an assumed objective measure of "truth" and provides a basis for making intelligent and rational decisions. In this regard, science and the resulting technologies are functional for society. -Scientific knowledge has grown at a more rapid rate over time; during each of three historical periods—from about 1650-1750, 1750-1950, and 1950-2012—scientific knowledge grew at triple the rate of the previous phase (Bornmann and Mutz 2015). If society changes too rapidly as a result of science and technology, however, problems may emerge. When the material part of culture (i.e., its physical elements) changes at a faster rate than the nonmaterial part (i.e., its beliefs and values), a cultural lag may develop (Ogburn 1957). For example, the typewriter, the conveyor belt, and the computer expanded opportunities for women to work outside the home. With the potential for economic independence, women were able to remain single or to leave unsatisfactory relationships and/or establish careers. But although new technologies have created new opportunities for women, beliefs about women's roles, expectations of female behavior, and values concerning equality, marriage, and divorce have lagged behind. -Robert Merton (1973), a structural functionalist and founder of the subdiscipline sociology of science, also argued that scientific discoveries or technological innovations may be dysfunctional for society and may create instability in the social system. For example, the development of time-saving machines increases production, but it also displaces workers and contributes to higher rates of employee alienation. Defective technology can have disastrous effects on society. For example, defective airbags from Japanese automobile parts provider Takata resulted in deaths and serious injuries, and the recall of more than 34 million cars (BBC 2015).

The Challenge to Traditional Views and Belief

-Technological innovations and scientific discoveries often challenge traditionally held values and beliefs, in part because they enable people to achieve goals that were previously unobtainable. For example, technological advances now allow postmenopausal women to give birth, challenging societal beliefs about childbearing and the role of older women. The techniques of egg retrieval, in vitro fertilization, and gamete intrafallopian transfer make it possible for two different women to each make a biological contribution to the creation of a new life. Such technology requires society to reexamine its beliefs about what a family is and what a mother is. Should family be defined by custom, law, or the intentions of the parties involved? -Medical technologies that sustain life lead us to rethink the issue of when life should end. The increasing use of computers throughout society challenges the traditional value of privacy. New weapons systems make questionable the traditional idea of war as something that can be survived and even won. And cloning causes us to wonder about our traditional notions of family, parenthood, and individuality. Toffler (1970) coined the term future shock to describe the confusion resulting from rapid scientific and technological changes that unravel our traditional values and beliefs.

Social Relationships, Social Networking, and Social Interaction

-Technology affects social relationships and the nature of social interaction. The development of telephones has led to fewer visits with friends and relatives; with the advent of DVRs, cable television, and video streaming, the number of places where social life occurs (e.g., movie theaters) has declined. The average white-collar worker checks his or her email 74 times a day and reports high levels of anxiety when not at work about the need to respond to emails. The potential health risks of "email addiction" have led some companies to install "holiday mode" to prevent workers from receiving emails outside their work hours (Roberts 2014). As technology increases, social relationships and human interaction are transformed. -Students who attend schools where cell phone use is banned showed significantly higher performance on exams than those who attended schools where phones were allowed. This difference was most dramatic for underachieving students, indicating that low-achieving students suffer more from technological distraction than high-achieving students (Beland and Murphy 2015). Technology can also increase the likelihood of people living in a social cocoon, increasing isolation from one another and from diverse viewpoints. A survey researcher at the University of Denver reports that 40 percent of people say they would avoid someone in real life who had "unfriended" them on Facebook (Kelly 2013). Additionally, Internet recommender systems, those systems that personalize search results, contribute to polarization between groups in society by echoing already existing biases (Dandekar et al. 2013).