Social Psych

Impact of deception

Most participants do not object to mild discomfort and deception -report they learn and enjoy deception experiments more than non-deception experiments

Hemenway, vriniotis, miller 2006

National random "digit dial" survey of over 2,400 licensed drivers. -Made obscene gestures: w/ gun in glove compartment - 23%. w/o- 16% -aggressively followed another vehicle too closely w/ 14% w/o-8%

2 basic human motives

Need to feel good about ourselves (self-esteem motive) need to be accurate (social cognition motive)

Large rewards/ threats results

No dissonance counter attitudinal behavior - i only did it for the money - still dont like avoiding temptations - i did it to avoid threat, still like it

Lowballing

an unscrupulous strategy whereby a salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price; frequently, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price uses illusion of irrevocability

What is automatic thinking based on

analysis of social environment based on past experiences and knowledge of the world

3 components of attitudes

affective, behavioral, cognitive

Hindsight bias

after people know that something occurred, they exaggerate how much they could have predicted it before

Bushman & Anderson 2009

after playing a violent video game or watching a violent movie -increase indifferences to victims of violence

instrumental aggression

aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain

Hostile aggression

aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain or injury

Random assignment

all participants had equal chance fo being in any experimental condition - distributes individual differences in participants to ensure that initially the groups are reasonably similar

Dillemma with evolutionary psychology in proscoial behavior

altriusm should have disappeared because puts self as risk so selfish people would survice/reproduce more Explanations: -kin selection -norm of reciprocity -social norms

Out-group Homogeneity

in group members perceive out-group as being more similar (homogeneous) than they really are -"They" are all alike -know 1 out group member, assume you know something about all of them

Institutionalized discrimination

in hiring: Race, gender, weight In our criminal system: -higher incarceration rates for blacks

Independent view of the self

reflect values of independence and uniqueness -typical of the west/individualistic cultures

Investment model of commitment/close relationships

staying in a relationship depends on -satisfaction -investment (financial, possessions, emotional welfare, time and energy) -what would be lose by leaving it

social norm

altruism is a social norm -best learners have a survival advantage -over time, ability to learn social norms has become part of our genetic makeup -evolution favors groups whose members help each other

chronically accessible schemas

always accessible, constantly active and ready to use because past experiences.

Glass Ceiling

an added invisible "hurdle" that women and minorities face, making access to positions and authority and top leadership positions in many organizations more difficult to reach

passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship

Behavioral Component

an attitude based on observations of how one behaves toward an object. (self -perception theory)

Conditioned Stimulus

an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response (NS becomes CS) ex. ringing bell

Unconditioned response

an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus ex. Salivating at food

how to increases likelihood that bystanders intervene

-indicate that help is needed (make situation less ambiguous, eliminate plural ignorance) -identify someone specific (break diffusion of responsibility) -tell them what help is needed

Word, Zanna, & Cooper (1974)

-interview studies/ hiring practices. white college students asked to interview people, some of which were black Explained: self-fulfiling prophecy -impact on individual level -impact on societal level

how to solve group think

-leader should remain impartial -group should seek outside opinions -create subgroups - seek anonymous opinions

Why better performance with group diversity

-less concerned with conforming to maintain status quo (high cohesiveness) -express different viewpoints -consider different options, course of action

Where do attitudes come from?

-linked to genes because identical twins share more attitudes than fraternal twins -there is no specific gene for each attitudes instead more of an indirect function (temperament, personality) -Social experiences plays a major role in shaping attitudes

Ethical dilemma for researchers

-must be well controlled and resemble the real world as much as possible to have internal and external validity -must ALSO avoid causing participants undue and unnecessary stress, discomfort, unpleasantness -must follow federal, state and professional guidelines to ensure participant welfare

how do we reduce cognitive dissonance

1. change behavior to bring it in line with the dissonant cognition 2. changing one of the dissonant attitudes or cognitions 3. adding new cognitions

Reasons why we obey

1. conforming to the wrong norm (fast-paced nature of the experiment, no time to reflect) 2. self-justification (shock levels increased in small increments, internal pressure to continue to obey) 3. the loss of personal responsibility (experimenter took responsiblility)

how to reduce dissonance caused by self evaluation maintenance theory

1. distance ourselves from person 2. change how relevant task is to our self-esteem 3. change your performance relative to your friends (work harder)

3 affective attitudes facts

1. do no result from rational examination of facts 2. are not governed by logic 3. often linked to values, which makes them very difficult to change

External validity

the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized from -experimental situation to real life situations ("Across situations") -The people who participated in the experiment to people in general ("Across people")

experimental realism

the extent to which the study is engaging ex. believable? engaged in situation? high ________

Game Theory: types of social interactions

Evaluates alternate strategies when outcome depends not only on each individual's strategy but also that of others.

Attitudes

Evaluation of people, objects and ideas

3 explanations when correlation is found

Ex. Aggression and violent TV is correlated 1. aggressive kids watch more violent TV 2. kids who watch violent TV become aggressive 3. both caused by 3rd variable (ex. Bad parents)

Kin selection

the idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection Research:Burnstein, crandall and kitayama 1994 - people more likely to save realtives in life-threatening situation

Gender differences in importance of physical attractiveness

Men more likely than women to report physical attraction as being important, but in terms of behavior no gender differences

Schemas

Mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects

Counterfactual thinking

Mentally changing some aspect of the past as a way of imagining what might have been. used in a negative "close call" event because easier to undo an outcome the greater the reaction. (angrier about failing by one point not 30) -conscious and effortful but not voluntary ex. changed 1 answer on test ex. silver medalist less happy than bronze becuase could have won

Counterfactual Reasoning

Mentally changing some aspect of the past in imagining what might have been. -the easier it is to mentally undo an outcome, the stronger the emotional reaction (distress) to it.

Urban overload hypothesis

the theory that people living in cities are constantly bombarded with stimulation and that they keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed by it -if currently in urban area less likely to help

Functions of introspection

-increases self-awareness -helps us figure out why we feel the way we do? Maybe.

Self depricating bias

in collectivist cultures, personal success due to others, personal failure due to self

Fundamental attribution error

(AKA correspondence bias) When we attribute peoples behavior with their dispositions. tend to make internal attributions for other peoples behaviors -people do what they do because of the kind of people they are, not because of the situation they are in

Longitudinal studies

(Johnson 2002) 700 families, 17 years: TV watching in adolescence predicted violence against others in adulthood (Gentile et. al 2011) -viewing more media violence at beginning of school year predicted more aggression and less prosocial behavior at the end of the year

Two factor theory of emotion

(Schacter) idea that emotional experiences are the result of 2 step self-perception process in which people first experience physiological arousal and then seek an appropriate explantion for it

educational desegregation does not reduce prejudice because?

--in a typical classroom setting, students not of equal status and not pursuing common goal -very little true integration... everybody remained in their clusters Conclusion: contact is not enough to reduce prejudice

Hollander's qualitative analysis

-117 transcripts reveal that obedience is not dichotomous -virtually all participants showed at least 1/6 forms of resistance 6 forms: -performing silence and hesitation -imprecating (Cursing) -laughing -addressing the learner -prompting the experimenter -trying to stop the experiment and accounting for such attempts

McKinsey (large consulting firm)

-180 publicly traded companies in france, germany, the UK and US from 2008-2010 -measured number of women and foreign nationals in senior leadership -Return of equity of companies in the top quartile were 53% higher, on average, then they were for those in the bottom quartile

Surverys

-A representative sample of people are asked questions about their attitudes or behaviors Common correlational method

Mary Cover Jones

-an American psychologist -studied under supervision of Watson -conducted the first study using systematic desensitization as a fear removal procedure

Resisting Persuasive Messages

-Attitude Inoculation - expose people to small doses of arguments against their position to boost their immunity to persuasion -consider pros and cons before someone attacks it -being alert to product placement -resisting peer pressure

ways that don't actually decrease aggression

-Catharsis (maybe short-term but not long-term) -Watching others be aggressive -aggressing against those who have hurt us (revenge)

Limits of observational method

-Certain behaviors occur rarely or in private -Does not allow prediction or explanation -for archival analysis - sources may not have all the information researches need

Ethics of milgrams experiment

-Critics said the Milgram's experiment stressed the participants against their will -They argued that the participant's self-esteem may have been altered -Milgram stated that the critic's controversy was "terribly overblown" (84% later said they were glad to have participated)

Parental punishments

-DONT use aggression as punishment (punishers model aggressive behavior) -DO use threat of mild punishment without aggression (Just powerful enough to stop the undesired activity; restraint must then be justified, leading to attitude change)

What is wrong with positive stereotypes?

-Denies individuality of person -endorsement of more positive stereotypes - endorsement of more negative steteotypes

Prejudices lead to..

-Ethnocentrism -in group bias (caused due to self-esteem motive)

Random selection/sample

-Giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample -a way of ensuring that a sample of people is representative of a population Only way to make survey useful

Empirical demonstrations of priming

-Guest lecturer study - Kelley 1950 -Donald & His boat study - higgins 1970

Strength in the Social Impact Theory

-How Important the group is to you Normative pressures stronger when there is a cost to losing the group -people whose friendship, love and respect we value Consequence: Highly cohesive groups can make less logical decisions (nobody wants to upset relationships)

Ways of identifying prejudices

-Implicit biases: hidden from oneself -IAT measures speed of positive and negative reactions to target groups

Why do people join groups

-Joining forces with others allows us to accomplish objectives that would be more difficult to meet individually - fulfills basic human needs (evolutionary perspective) -helps us define who we are (identify with groups)

Everyday discrimination

-Microaggressions: slights, indignities, put-downs -social distance: A persons reluctance to get too close to another group, unwilling to work with, marry, or live next to members of a particular group

examples of observational method

-Naturalistic observation -Ethnography -Archival Analysis

Cuases of prejudice

-Normative conformity (ex. institutionalized discrimination_ -Social categorization

Sherif found:

-Once hostility and distrust were established, simply removing a conflict and the competition did not restore harmony. -In fact, bringing 2 competing groups together in neutral situations actually increased their hostility and distrust.

reactance theory

-People experience an unpleasant state called reactance when their freedom is threatened -attempts to manage people's attitudes backfire if they make people feel that their choice is limited ex. say please don't graffiti, better than DO NOT WRITE ON WALL

Pavlovs influence

-Provided basis for john Watson's ideas - used classical conditioning principles to demonstrate (with rosalie Raynor in 1920) how fears might be conditioned

Committed relationship

-Similarity is important -long-term relationships with differences can be difficult to maintain

Predictors of attraction

-Similarity of opinions, interests and experiences, appearance, genetics and propinquity ->the more similar (percieved similarity) someone is to you the more you will like them - Physical attractiveness- very important

Follow up studies that decreases conformity

-Teacher observes two other teachers rebel and refuse to continue (drops to 10%- Normative social influence) -experimenter leaves and ordinary man gives orders to continue (down to 20% informational social influence) -teacher free to choose shock level (down to 3%) -teacher and learner in same room (down to 40%)

Most important social influences to a social psychologist

-The situation -your interpretation of the situation (construals)

Social Norms for obedience/conformity

-Universally valued (because otherwise chaos) -Socialized to conform and obey at least legitimate authority figures -Internalize social norms of conformity of obedience -Conform to people we don't know, obey even if authority figure is absent

Origins of affectively based attitudes

-Values (religious, moral beliefs) -sensory reaction (liking the smell) -aesthetic reaction (admiring architecture) -Social experiences/ Learning (conditioning - classical and operant)

Participants rights

-Welfare during and after participation -informed consent -debriefing participants after about what transpired -protect the confidentiality of participants

Gender differences in aggression

-Women more likely to harm through manipulation of relationships (relational aggression) -Men more likely perpetrators of extreme violence in families, inflict more serious injury (physical aggression) -no differences in less violent aggression (hitting/slapping, throwing objects)

groupthink

-a kind of thinking that values group cohesiveness and solidarity -over considering the facts in a realistic manner ex. Bay of pigs, challenger space shuttle

Meta-analysis (generalizability across people)

-a statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable. -how to summarize replication studies

Possible directions of causality

-aggresive people may prefer violent TV -watching violent TV may make people aggressive -a third variable cause both

Asches conformity study

-almost everyone gets this right when alone (unambiguous), but tremendous conformity (public compliance) when in group. If answers written on paper conformity dropped -75% conformed at least once -25% never conformed

why do some people help more than others?

-altruistic personality -gender - religious -mood -geographic location (urban overload hypothesis)

Anxious/ambivilent Attachment style

-as a child distressed before the caregiver even leaves room, difficult to soothe amongst return. Response is mix of anger and indifference. -want to be close to partner but concern that others will not reciprocate one's desire for intamacy -results in higher-than-average levels of anxiety -less able to trust others, find it difficult to develop close, intimate relationships

why does jigsaw classroom work?

-breaks down perception of in-group and out-group, creates feeling of one-ness -people must do each other "favors" by sharing info -develop empathy for others

Aggression as an optional strategy

-capacity for aggression exists -expression of aggression depends on circumstances and culture seen in lack of consistency across cultures and changes over time

Antecedents of group think (occurs when...)

-cohesive group -isolation from other viewpoints - strong, directive leader -perceived pressure from outside forces -group norm of consensus (not encouraged to consider alternative viewpoints)

Typical leadership style for men

-competitive -individualistic -prefer vertical hierarchies -prefer formal authority when dealing with followers

Group polarization occurs because

-conformity both normative social influence and informational social influence - all individuals bring arguments supporting initial recommendation so each ism ore convinced -social comparison interpretation

Controlled Thinking

-conscious -intentional -voluntary -effortful

Typical leadership style for women

-consensus building -inclusiveness -participation -caring

Reducing prejudice

-contact -cooperation and interdependence

some evidence of 3 other universal emotions

-contempt -pride -shame

why study social psych

-curiosity (about ourselves and each other) -to contribute to the solution of social problems (ex. Kurt Lewin)

Advantages of a survey

-difficult to observe variables -able to sample representative segments of population

Normative reasons for conforming

-don't want to feel peculiar, like a fool, belief that what other think is important even if strangers -social species -other people are important to our well-being -being depreived of human contact is stressful and traumatic

Reversing the effects of stereotype threat

-draw on counter-stereotype -self-affirmation

Lab for subliminal influence

-examined preference for product after subliminal prime (flashes of words in one condition flashed lipton ice) -results if thirsty, chose liption ice afterwards significantly more

Participants who inflicted psychological or physical harm on an innocent person...

-experience cognitive dissonance -derogated their victims -convinced themselves victim deserved what they got -makes it easier to do further harm to the victim in future

Does watching violence increase aggressive behavior?

-experimental data are mixed

Functions of Encoding Nonverbal Communication

-express emotion -Convey an attitude -communicate your personality -can contradict spoken words (sarcasm)

Fritz Heider

-father of attribution theory -"Naive" or "commonsense" psychology

City of london police experiment

-field study in one square mile in the heart of london -taser-equipped officers: 48% increase in use of force Non-taser- Equipped officers - 19% increase in use of force Assaults on officers: doubled

5 main research paradigms

-free choice -induced compliance -effort justification -threats and expectancies -hypocrisy

Social causes of aggression

-frustration -provocation -weapons

What increases cooperation

-future interactions -change group norms -tit for tat (cooperate first then copy opponent) -individual reps rather than groups -personality/cognitive skills

What determines if we become aggressive due to frustration

-goal proximity -status, gender (both sides) -size and strength of the person responsible for frustration -ability to retaliate -proximity to the person also when frustration is understandable, legitimate and unintentional

Testosterone

-greater testosterone linked to greater aggression (shut down activity in brain area related to impulse control)

conditions of deindividuation

-group size (the larger the group the less self-awareness) -arousing/distracting activities (ex. storm the field) -phsyical anominity

Consequences of resisting normative social influence

-group would try to bring you back into the fold (teasing, discussions) -if discussion fail (friends may say negative things to you and about you) start to withdraw, ignore and reject you

positive aspects of Self awareness

-helps direct your behavior so that you stay true to yourself and keeps you out of trouble (uphold moral compass) -if you have experienced a major success, SA feels good! (proud of accomplishments)

Games that directly promote/reward violence increase:

-hostility -aggressive thoughts - aggressive acts

Best predictor if relationship will end

-how people deal with conflict -no evidence of gender differences

Symptoms of group think

-illusion of invulnerability - belief in the moral correctness of the group -spend more time rationalizing than rethinking decisions -stereotyped views of out group -self-censorship -direct pressure on dissenters to conform -illusion of unanimity -mind guards (protect leader from contrary views)

How to change the situation

-improve poor relations -restructuring the standards, procedures, and deadlines for completing task -altering their use of position power to become more or less autocratic

Effectiveness of men and women leaders

-no gender differences in leadership effectiveness -research indication that there is a positive correlation between gender diversity and organizational performance (83% higher ROE for fortune 500 companies with more than 3 women on board)

Duck 1982, breaking up process

-not a single event, but a process with step: 1. intrapersonal: thinks about dissatisfaction. Focus on partners behavior 2. Dyadic: discusses breakup with partner. confront partner 3. Social: breakup announced to others to friends (Create public story) 4. intrapersonal: recover by thinking about why and how it happened. Retrospection

Why is introspection not always perfect

-not always pleasant to think about self - reasons for feelings can be hidden from conscious awareness

Basic understanding of social facilitation

-others increase our arousal - arousal strengthens dominant responses If dominant response = fail at task (something complex) leads to worse performance in presence of others if dominant response = succesful at task (something easy) we will do better with audience

Why do we commit the fundamental attribution error?

-our attention is on person, not situation -we do not have all of the info like what happened before and construals

Explaining deindividuation

-people feel less accountable because reduced likelihood that they will be singled out. -increases obedience to group norms (more than social norms) -less self-aware so more less self-regulated/restrained seen online too because anonymous comments

How does advertising work

-people influenced more than they think - many take emotional approach of attitude change (peripheral) or may take a cognitive approach (central)

covariation model assumes..

-people make casual attributions in a rational, logical way observing information. -if dont have all info, still make attributio with info you have -sometimes take inaccurate shortcuts -tend to make internal attributions for other peoples behaviors

Why is social psych necessary?

-people often unaware of the reasons behind their own responses and feelings. -specify folk wisdom to the conditions under which one or another is MOST likely -emphasis on how people interpret the world. (different levels of analysis than other fields)

Effects of alcohol

-reduces anxiety and inhibitions -disrupts information processing -self-fulfilling prophecy (think drink/ expectancy effect) you might misinterpret situations and then act provocatively

Bf skinner

-responses (operants) emitted, not elicited (voluntary) -expanded principle of reinforcement

Taylor and fiske 1975 - manipulating perceptual salience

-seating arrangement and watching two actors -those facing student A thought he took lead -those facing student B thought he took the lead -those head on thought it was equally influential

3 adult attachment styles

-secure attachment style -avoidant attachment style -anxious/ambivalent attachment style

Functions of self

-self knowledge -self control -impression management -self-esteem

Examples of task-structuring leadership behaviors

-set goals - clarify expectations - set schedules and timelines - assign tasks

Examples of relationship consideration leadership behavior

-show empathy and understanding - be friendly and approachable - allow participation - nurture followers

Lassiter (2010) - investigations

-showed videos of confessions wehre just detective, just suspect or both people were showing -when just showing suspect, produced higher ratings of voluntariness --appears guiltier when less perceptually salient

Why suppress prejudices

-sincere motivation to become less prejudiced -avoid being labeled a sexist, racist etc.

Propaganda

-systematic attempt to manipulate thoughts and behavior of others -uses both informational social influence (incorrect info, but builds on pre-existing beliefs) -uses normative social influence (rejection, ostracism, death for failure to accept beliefs)

Evolutionary psychology

-the attempt to explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors that evolved over time according to the principles of natural selection

informed consent

-the process of explaining a research study to participants before they agree to join -informing them of the effects that the study might have on them -informing them fo their rights, including the right to withdraw without penalty -sometimes not possible (deception)

idiosyncracy credits

-the right to deviate every once in a while -conforming most of the time, "earns" occasional deviation without consequences

in-group bias

-the tendency to favor members of one's own group -group can be temporary & trivial (minimal group) or significant

What does not increase cooperation

-threats of retaliation (often escalates the conflict)

Why conform?

-to know whats right (informational social influence) -the need to be accepted (normative social influence)

Secure attachment style

-trust caregivers, show positive emotions when they are back with them, not worried with abandonment -view that one is worthy and well-liked -more likely to develop mature, lasting relationships

Group

-two or more people who for longer than a few moments interact and are interdependent in the sense that needs and goals cause them to influence each other

Attachment is not destiny

-unhappy relationships with parents, you are not doomed to repeats this -experience in relationships can help you learn new and more healthy ways of relating to others

Long-lasting attitude change

-use central route -long-term maintenance of the attitude -more likely to behave consistently with this attitude -more resistant to counter-persuasion

Social exchange theory for prosocial behavior

-what we do stems from desire to maximize rewards and minimize costs -in relationships with others, try to maximize the ratio of social rewards to social costs -helping can be costly (physical danger, pain, embarrassment, time) -but norm of reciprocity so long-term reward (also social approval and increased self-worth, relief of bystander distress)

Conformity and the brain

-when participants conform (gave incorrect answer) - vision and perception areas active -when they failed to conform? -amygdala (negative emotions) -Right caudate nucleus(modulating social behavior)

The jigsaw classroom

-•One of the most effective ways of improving race relations, improving empathy, and improving instruction -classroom setting designed to reduce prejudice and raise the self-esteem of children -children placed in small, desegregated groups where they had to work together to learn course material and do well

Imperfect decoding

1. Affect blends 2. People mask emotions (micro-expressions) (Ekman) 3. Cultural differences in displaying emotion

Implications of the contingency model

1. Leaders must understand their own style and their leadership situation 2. leaders should focus on changing their leadership situation to match their style rather than try to change their style.

Why are we aroused

1. Mere presence of others causes arousal 2. evaluation apprehension - concern for how others are evaluating us 3. distraction

3 types of covariation information

1. Consensus - how other people behave toward the same stimulus 2. distinctiveness - refers to how a person responds to other stimuli 3. consistency - frequency with which the observed behavior between the same person and the same stimulus occurs time and circumstances

The experimental method: 2 criteria

1. Research randomly assigns participants to different conditions 2. Conditions are identical except for independent variable (the variable that is thought to have a casual effect)

Condom study (aronson)

1. group merely composed arguments 2. group filmed videos for high schoolers telling them importance of condoms to protect for STDs -reasons they were giving made them think mayebe they should do the same Those aware of their lack of use of condoms reduce dissonance by changing behavior

Cognitive dissonance theory

1. human beings have a need to maintain a positive view of ourselves 2. cognitive dissonance occurs 3. if cognitive dissonance is strong enough and it threatens our self esteem we will be driven to reduce it

how to increase self-control

1. implementation intentions- in advance of situation, make specific plans about where, when and how you will avoid temptations 2. arrange environment to avoid temptations in first place 3. might help to be well-rested (depletion effect) contraversial..

Generalizability across situations

1. mundane realism 2. experimental realism 3. psychological realism

5 steps of helping in an emergency

1. notice the event 2. interpret the event as an emergence (pluralistic ignorance) 3. assume responsibility 4. know appropriate forms of assistance 5. implement decisions

Motivation to pay attention

1. personal relevance of topic, more personally relevant, the more attention paid 2. Need for cognition, a personality variable. The extent to which people engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive activities High -> central route low-> peripheral

Why does self-serving attribution occur

1. self esteem bias 2. want other people to think well/admire us 3. know more about situational factors that affect our own behavior than we do about other people

How to change attitudes

1. self esteem is threatened 2. behavior cannot be explained with external justifications - cognitive dissonance is experience often leads to finding internal justification - to make attitudes and and behaviors more consistent

How to resist informational social influence

1. slow down 2. ask yourself critical questions

the situational favorableness variables

1.Leader member relations 2. Task structure 3.Position Power

The trait era of leadership

1800s-mid 1940's -The great person theory -Assumed: Leaders are born, and have special characteristics/traits that are different from followers -Findings: no set of traits clearly define leaders Conclusion: traits are not the dominant factor in leadership

Task Structure

2nd most powerful determinant of overall situational favorableness. Leaders in a structured situation have more influence -do employees perform repetitive, routine, unambiguous, standard tasks that are easily understood?

Self-affirmation intervention (cohen 2006)

7th graders given list of values group 1: what is most important to you and why? group 2: control, what is least important to you but important to somebody else affect: creates great results for low performing individuals

Conformity

A change in one's behavior due to the real or imagined influence of other people -a subtle form of influence -that depends on us coming to see the conformity as in our best interest

Obedience

A change in ones behavior due to the direct influence of an authority figure -a direct form of influence -Resulting in feeling pressure to obey

The Prisoners Dilemma

A situation in which two (or more) actors cannot agree to cooperate for fear that the other will find its interest best served by reneging on an agreement.

Correlation coefficent

A statistic that assesses how well you can predict one variable from another.... ranges from -1 to 1.

Unconditioned stimulus

A stimulus that automatically triggers an unconditioned response without previous conditioning ex. seeing food

Neutral stimulus

A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning ex. Bell

Attribution theory

Addresses how we infer the causes of other people's behavior we can make 1 of 2 attributions -Internal (dispositional) attribution - -External (situational) attribution -

Power Posing

Amy Cuddy successfully refutes criticism and finds support that power posing helps. It probably won't change your cortisol levels, but it'll make you feel more powerful.

Milgram's Obedience Study

An experiment in which Stanley Milgram found that people will usually obey an authority, even if they might think what they are doing is wrong. 62.5% delivered 450 volt shock 80% after learner said heart was bothering him Average max shock delivered 360 volts Critiques: psychological and mundane realisim?

Positive Correlation

An increase in the value of one variable is associated with increases in the value of the other variable. (1.00 is a perfectly positive correlation)

6 major emotions

Anger, Happiness, Surprise, fear, disgust, and sadness

implicit attitudes

Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious -can be tested using Implicit Attitudes Test -maybe rooted in people's childhood experiences -exist separately from explicit attitudes

Automatic thinking

Automatic low effort thinking -quick -non conscious -Unintentional -involuntary -effortless

When does the relationship between testosterone and aggression weaken?

Dual hormone hypothesis - conditions are stressful Challenge hypothesis - when chances for reproduction are low

Sources of construals

Basic human motives

What must happen before an observational study begins

Behaviors must be concretely defined!

Free will

Belief that -people have the capacity to act freely -a person could have chosen to do otherwise

Breaking up roles

Breakers: high level of responsibility -least painful, upset, stressed Breakees: Low level of responsibility -miserable lonely, depressed, angry Mutuals: same level of responsibilty -not as upset as breakees but more stressed than breakers (so try to end it mutually to its less traumatic)

Pluralistic ignorance

Bystander assumes nothing is wrong in an emergency because nobody else looks concerned

Lee ross

Came up with fundamental attribution error. researched Palestinian/Israel compromise (or lack thereof)

Self affirmation theory

Claude steele, 1988. the idea that people reduce threat to their self esteem by affirming themselves in areas unrelated to the source of threat. When view of ourselves as good is threatened: -we prefer to deal directly with the threat (change behavior) but will self-affirm through indirect domain if cant directly deal with it

3 components of prejudice

Cognitive: Stereotypes Affective: Emotions Behavioral: Discrimination

covariation model: When do you form an internal attribution

Consensus :LOW -behavior is unique to the person Distinctiveness:Low -person displays same behavior with different targets and in different situations Consistency: high -the persons behavior occurs reliably across occasions

covariation model: when do we form an external attribution

Consensus: High -other people behave similarly in situation Distinctiveness: High -the persons behavior is specific to that target or situation Consistency: High -the persons behavior occurs reliably across occasions

Darley and latenes's study

Cover story: group discussion of college life (over intercom) IV: number of people in the group DV: percentage of participants who attempted to help the seizure victim

Cover stories (generalizability across situations)

Deception. -A description given to participants that is different from its true purpose -to make people feel involved in a real event

What determines which schema you use

Depends on accessibility, which depends on priming -past experiences ("chronic Priming" -Related to current goal -recent experiences

4 behavior types in troubled relationship

Destructive behaviors- 1. harming relationship 2. passively allowed deterioration Constructive behaviors- 3. trying to improve relationship (therapist,discussion) 4. remaining loyal (optimistic it will get better)

Display rules

Dictate what kinds of emotional expressions people are supposed to show. Are specific to cultures

Behavioral component

Discrimination: -an unjustified negative or harmful action toward the members fo a group simply because of their membership in that group -institutionalized discrimination -Everyday discrimination

Why are mild punishments more lasting?

Dissonance aroused by insufficient external justification creates greater need for internal justification. Change attitudes via self-persuasion: a longlasting form of attitude change that result from attempts at self-justification.

Small reward/threat results

Dissonance results in long-term internal change. for counter-attitudinal behavior - now i like it! for avoiding temptations - i really dont like it after all

John Watson

Early behaviorist; famous for the "Little Albert" experiments on fear conditioning

Crivelli et al (2011, 2016) study

Embedded with indigenous trobrianders (off the coast of Papua New Guinea) -9-15 year olds -a lot of disagreement within group -asked to pick face that showed anger, chose fear face

The affective component

Emotions: -particularly negative ones about groups are often ingrained -difficult to dispel

Social norms

Expectations about which behaviors are acceptable

Archival Analysis

Form of observational method in which researcher examines the accumulated documents (diaries, magazines, newspaper, tweets) of a culture. ex. Twitter research porn study

Relative deprivation theory

Frustration caused when expectations shift faster than conditions. so in social movements people are inspired to expect equal treatment, but that does not happen quickly

Group's and culture

Greater conformity in collectivist cultures -but value of conforming with strangers vs. Nonstrangers Japan little expectation to conform to strangers

The Ben Franklin Effect

He who has once done a favor for you will be more ready to do you another. dislike someone? do them a favor. why? -behavior dissonant with attitude therefore change attitude

Aronson and mills (1959) effort justification

IV: severity of group initiation 1. extremely demanding and unpleasant initiation 2. mildly unpleasant initiation 3. no initiation then all admitted to the group and listened to boring tape DV: liking of group after admitted people who went through severe condition convinced themself it was interesting and rated it higher

Summary of Fiedlers contingency model

If the leadership styles does not match the situation, the leader may be ineffective. -Task-oriented style is best when situational control is high or low - Relationship- oriented style is best when situational control is moderate

Negative correlation

Increases in the value of one variable are associated with decreases in the value of the other variable (-1.00 perfectly negative correlation)

Base rate info

Info about the relative frequency of members of different categories in the population what is "typical" Ex. See a guy at UVA.. assume instate because more common (percentage-wise)

Transformational leadership

Inspire followers to focus on common, long-term goals (by articulating to followers the problem in the current system and a compelling vision of what a new organization could be) -confidence in followers ability -clear vision -creativity encouraged -high performance expectations -establish personal connections with followers -- best when goal is to change the status quo

Decoding

Interpreting emotions

Examples of display rule differences

Japanese people - display fewer facial expressions -cover up negative expressions with smiles, laughter -hide wide smiles American: women- nearly harassed for not smiling -Gaze: Americans suspicious when person doesn't look them in the eye -personal space: Americans like a bubble of open space, a few feet in radius

Kurt Lewin

Jewish-german prof. came to America during nazi time and now considered the father of modern social psych. - focused on prejudice and ethnic stereotyping -said only subjective (your construals) should be taken into account when predicting behavior.

What do we do when we don't have a schema available or we have too many?

Judgemental heuristics

Latene and Darley were influenced by

Kitty Genovese's murder -38 witnesses failed to call the police (kevin cook recently said that there were not exactly witnesses and reports that people did call the police

Fiedler's Contingency Theory

Maximizing performance by matching leadership style with situational contingences 1. Assess whether a leader is task-oriented or relationship-oriented 2. assess the situation 3. match the leader style to the situation or Engineer the situation to match the leader style

Free will within psychology

Less concerned about whether we actually have it, and whether we believe that we do.

Sociology

Level of analysis: group/society/institution at large -one of social psychs closest cousins

evolutionary perspective

Males are aggressive -to establish dominance/secure high status -sexual jealousy; ensure their paternity Females are aggressive -to protect offspring

Social Facilitation in Humans

Markus (1978) - Participants dressing in unfamiliar clothing Micheals (1982) - good pool players made more shots when they were watching, and bad players made less when being watched Kotzer (2007) - experienced bb players made more free throws in the presence of others than when alone, novice players made more when alone than when watched

Three methods of research

Observational, correlational, experimental

Why are attitudes important?

Often determine what we do (ex. what we eat, buy, who we vote for etc.)

Mood on prosocial behavior

People are more likely to help if they are in especially good moods (feel good, do good effect), but also if they are in especially bad moods (feel bad, do good/ feel guilty do good) - negative state relief hypothesis

Disadvantages of surveys

People may not know the answer (but they think they do)

Descriptive norms

People's perceptions of how people actually behave in given situations, regardless of whether the behavior is approved or disapproved of by others

Affective Component

Peoples emotional reactions towards the object. Based on personal feelings ex. positive towards sushi because you like the taste (not because its good for you) -hardest to change (because must also change our values)

Random selection (generalizability across people)

Random selection of participants from the population -impractical and expensive for most social psychology experiments -study basic, fundamental, psychological processes that may be universal or -replication (different samples/populations, different settings, different methods)

Disadvantages of schemas as memory guides

Remember info that was never there -marriage proposal study (carli 1999) details not in the story but consistent with marriage proposal schema were often recalled

Experimental Method

Researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions and ensures that these conditions are identical except for the IV. -Only way to determine causality

Pavlov

Russian physiologist, studied digestion and reflexive salivary responses -Established the tenets of classical conditioning

Functions of schemas

Schemas can be used to organize what we know, interpret new situations, enhance memory, however, they are not perfect! become stronger and harder to change with time

Stereotypes

Schemas that are applied to members of a social group such as a gender, race, fraternity

Transactional Leadership

Set clear, short-term goals and reward people who meet them -the leader meets followers desires -followers perform certain duties -followers receive rewards; leaders benefit from task completion -- Best when goal is to maintain stability within organization

Social psychology is an empirical science because..

Social influence can be studied scientifically -develop theories -derive hypotheses from theories -test hypotheses -based on results, revise theory -formulate and test new hypotheses

The cognitive component

Stereotype: -a generalization about a group of people. Certain traits assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation -cognitive provess we use to simplify our world (Cognitive misers) -can be adaptive or mal adaptive, -positive or negative

Petty Et. al

Students asked to listen to speech arguing that all seniors must take major exam. some told university was implementing this year, others told implementation was in 10 years. - credible/ noncredible source, strong/weak argument route to persuasion depended on personal relevance. high - good arguments were good arguments regardless of speaker low- prestige of speaker mattered

Edward and harris (1967) essay study

Students asked to read essay about whether to support or oppose fidel castro. students had to guess how they really felt, some know students had no choice, even then internal attribution

Social Cognition motive

Study of how people select, interpret, remember and use info to make judgements and decisions -not perfect because you almost never know all the facts

Correlational method

Technique whereby two or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them is assessed. -used to predict social behavior

Self-Evaluation Maintenance Theory

Tesser - the idea that people experience dissonance when someone close to us outperforms us in an area that is central to our self-esteem must: 1. feel close to person 2. he/she must be outperforming in a particular area 3. that area is central to our self-esteem

Milgram replications by Burger 2009

The 150v solution ("point of no return) -only slightly lower rates of conformity -no gender differences -non-conforming confederate had no effect? Dolinski et al. -used a polish sample

Hypocrisy induction

The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior. The purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior. -make person aware of conflict between attitudes and behavior which creates dissonce, then they reduce dissoannce by changing behavior

Ethnocentrism

The belief that your own culture, nation or religion is superior to all others

Internal Validity

The degree to which a study allows you to draw casual inferences

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

The hypothesis that emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify. Fake it till you make it

Social Impact Theory (Latané)

The idea that conforming to social influence depends on: 1. Strength 2. Immediacy 3. Number

Weapons Effect

The increase in aggression that can occur because of the mere presence of a gun or other weapon

interjudge reliability

The level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data.

`Propinquity effect

The more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends due to mere exposure effect

Attitude accessibility

The strength of the association between an attitude object and a person's evaluation of that object, measured by the speed with which people can report how they feel about the object. - based on the degree of experience person has with object. The more direct the experience, the more accessible the attitude, the more likely their spontaneous behavior will be consistent with their attitude

Social perception

The study of how we form impressions of and make inferences about other people.

Schemas and culture..

The use of schemas is universal the content of schemas are not.

Nonverbal Communication

The way in which people communicate intentionally or unintentionally, without words Channels of NC: -facial expressions -tone of voice -gestures -body positions/movement -the use of touch -Gaze

Position Power

Third most powerful determinant of overall situational favorableness. Leaders with position power have more influence - Does the leader have the power to assign work, reward and punish, hire and fire, give raises/promotions?

Basic dilemma of social psychologists

Trade off between internal and external validity -increase internal, external (generalizability) is sacrificed -increase external (field experiments), internal is sacrificed

limits of experimental method

Tremendous control but there is a trade off: artificial and distant from real life

How to address the basic dilemma

Use a program of research -1st lab experiment to maximize internal validity and identify cause 2nd- establish external validity through replication (field experiments)

Cultural differences in emotion

Variance in rigidity/overlap in emotional categories -ingroup vs. outgroup -different labeling of emotion

Anderson and dill 2000 (current conclusion)

Viewing violence has strongest effect on those already inclined to violence

How did teachers act towards "bloomers"

Warmer emotional climate, personal attention, encouragement, support, more challenging material, more and better feedback, more opportunities to respond.

Independent Variable

What researchers manipulate to see if it has a casual effect -the thing that I change

Dependent Variable

What researchers measure to see if it is affected (by the IV) -everything measured on this variable

self-fulfilling prophecy

What you believe to be true will come true ex. Bloomer study (rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968)

Free will study by Vohs & Schooler, 2008

When students were primed with 'no free will statement more likely to cheat. Disbelief in free will: -less likely to help "katie Banks" -more likely to aggress against an innocent partner

Festinger

When the two basic human motives pull in opposite directions that we gain most insight into the mind ex. presidents taking troops out.. bad pres? said they would win but lost war?

Body+mind metaphors

When we think about something or someone, we do so with reference to how our bodies are reacting. -smell something clean..more likely to help -heavy clipboard... leads to thinking students opinions should be given more weight

Yale Attitude Change Approach

Who says whats to whom - who: the source of the communication (credible, attractive, sleeper effect) - What: the nature of the communication (present both sides, not evidently trying to influence, Primacy vs. Recency effect) - Whom: nature of the audience (distracted, culture, individual differences)

Subliminal messages

Words or pictures that are not consciously perceived but may nevertheless influence people's judgments, attitudes, and behaviors -no evidence that the types of subliminal messages encountered in everyday life have any influence on peoples behavior

Cohen (1962) police essays

Yale students that have negative opinons about new haven police had to write essays why police were justified in their actions -those paid less had a greater attitude change

Culture of honor (nisbett 1993)

a culture defined by its members' strong concerns about their own and others' reputations, leading to sensitivity to insults and a willingness to use violence to avenge any perceived wrong -tend to distrust government and believe they have an obligation of retaliation

Sleeper effect

a delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective, such as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it

Belief in a just world

a form of defense attribution where in people assume that bad things happen to bad people and that good things happen to good people

Prejudice

a hostile, negative attitude towards people in a distinguishable group based solely on their membership in that group

Conditioned response

a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus. (UR becomes CR) ex. salivating at bell

Representativeness Heuristic

a mental shortcut we use to classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case When we don't know. We use this over Base rate info ex. Lee with hill billy at bank

Deindividuation

a psychological state occurring in group members that results in loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension results of social facilitation (arousal) and social loafing (diffusion of responsibility) "Mob mentality"

external justification

a reason or explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside of the individual ex. harmless lie to spare friends feelings

foot in the door technique

a social influence technique that involves making a small request before making a large request Works because if they say no to the latter request it creates dissonance

situations that increase conformity through informational social influence

a. when situation is ambiguous - the more uncertainty the more reliance on others b. when the situation is a Crisis - the situation is ambiguous, no time, scared panicked. you see how others are reacting (problem: others are just as panicked) c. when others are experts - usually great expertise positively correlated with accurate information (not always reliable)

behavior self-handicapping

act in ways that reduce chances of success (partying the night before a test)

Counter-attitudinal behavior

acting in a way that runs counter to ones private belief or attitude -includes doing a favor for someone you don't like

positive punishment

addition of something unpleasant

two step attribution process

analyzing another person's behavior first by making an automatic internal attribution and only then thinking about possible (consciously) situational reasons for the behavior, after which one may adjust the original internal attribution

Empirical Question

answered by collecting data from observation and experience (derived from experimentation/measurement rather than personal opinion) OBJECTIVE

prosocial behavior

any act performed with the goal of benefiting another person

Punishment

any consequence that decreases a response

Reinforcement

any consequence that increases a response

Current leadership ideas

any leader can: -pay attention to nonverbal behavior -develop skills such as listening, empathy, cooperation and collaboration Leadership is a set of skills to be developed not an innate gift or quality

Brehm (1956) study

asked women to rate kitchen appliances.. later gave them choice between two (group 1 choose b/n 2nd and 3rd). person rated thier chosen appliance higher and the one they didn't choose lower.

Boomerang Effect

attitude change in the opposite direction of what the message advocates; listeners driven away from rather than drawn to an idea. ex. drinking statistics on college campuses sometimes increase drinking for those that did not drink a lot before

reasons generated attitude change

attitude change resulting from thinking about the reasons for one's attitudes; people assume that their attitudes match the reasons that are plausible and easy to verbalize - but difficult to verbalize exactly why we feel the way we do and what we verbalize is different from our gut feelings

Explicit attitudes

attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report -rooted in recent experiences

Life cycle of love

attraction, Love, Break-up

What are the two types of judgmental heuristics

availability and representativeness heuristic

Diffusion of responsibility

each bystander sense of responsibility to help decreases as the number of witnesses increases

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others -When task is complex, worse performance in the presence of others

We form initial impressions

based solely on facial expressions in less than 100 miliseconds starting as young as 3 years old.

B.F. Skinner

behavior is understood through rewards and punishment

Edward thorndike

behaviorism; Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence

negative state of self awareness

can make you feel bad and turn off the internal spotlight -no pictures/videos of self -alcohol abuse -binge eating -sexual masochism 0r religious/spiritual expression

Zojanc and cockroaches

cockroaches preformed faster when other cockroaches were watching then when alone -additional experiment: cockroaches had a more difficult runway and the cockroach took longer to solve it when other roaches were present

upward social comparison

comparing to people who are better on a particular ability -goal: to know what is possible

downward social comparison

comparing to people who are worse on a particular trait or abliity; self protective or enhancing -goal is to feel better about yourself

Greitemeyer and sagioglou 2017

comparitive discretionary income -bogus results presented in comparison to others

cognitive component

component of attitude based on beliefs about the objects properties -derived from a rational examination fo the issues and are governed by logic -Classify pros and cons to determine attitudes ex. attitude towards car not based on emotional consideration, rather miles/gallon, safety features etc.

Private acceptance

conforming to other people's behavior out of a genuine belief that what they are doing or saying is right

public compliance

conforming to other people's behavior publicly without necessarily believing in what the other people are doing or saying

Number/ Group Size

conformity and group size is positively correlated to a point (optimal number 3-6) after that additional people do not add to conformity

Impression Management

conscious and unconscious efforts to control how people see you -the attempt by people to get others to see them the way they want to be seen ex. handshake quality related to hiring

Gestalt Psychology

construal emphasis study subjective way in which an object appears in people's minds (not objective physical attributes) -how object appears to you (duck vs. rabbit)

Limits of the correlational method

correlation does not equal causation!! -Method tells us thinks are related not that one variable causes the other

The contigency era

early 1960's- present -assumed: no one best way to lead, simple traits or behaviors do not explain or predict leadership -understanding both leader traits/behavior and situation is needed -personal and situational factors affect leadership effectiveness

Schacter and singer 1962 experiment

cover story: injection of suproxin IV 1: psychological arousal explanation -group 1: epinephrine and informed that they will shake/ have heart pound/ face will flush -group 2: epinephrine and epinephrine ignorant told that mild, harmless, no side-effects -group 3: no-epinephrine (placebo), informed told mild, harmless, no side effects IV2: environmental cues (mood of stooge) -euphoric/happy -Angry DV- participants mood

Festinger and carlsmith (1958) counter-attitudinal behavior

cover story: the effect of expectancy on boring task you must lie to next participant -IV = 20$ or 1$ for telling lie DV- enjoyment of task -if payed 20$ rated task as dull and boring (sufficient external justification) -if payed 1$ rated task as significantly more enjoyable (external justification insufficient, so reduced dissonance by changed attitude about task and believe the lie they told)

self-handicapping

creating obstacles and excuses for ourselves to make ourselves look better -behavior self-handicapping -reported self-handicapping

Justifying cruelty

cruel behavior is dissonant with view of self as a decent human being -resolve dissonance by changing thoughts about victim

Spontaneous behavior

decide on the spot, attitudes will predict spontaneous behavior only when they are highly accesible

how do you decide who to compare yourself with

depends on goal

study on evolutionary approach to mate selection

desirable marriage partner characteristics amongst 9,000 adults, 37 countries -results: women valued ambition, industriousness, and earning capacity more than men. (when women are near ovulation, greater preference for men who are reproductively fit) men: valued attractiveness more than women TOP characteristics for both the same: honest, trustworthiness, pleasant personality

Member of individualistic cultures prefer

dispositional (internal) attributions.. like personality psychologists

post decision dissonance

dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluating the rejected alternatives

Thinslicing

drawing meaningful conclusions about another persons personality or skills based on extremely brief sample of behavior

Social exchange theory

economic model of benefits and costs (based on benefits/rewards, costs, outcome, and comparison level) -how people feel about a relationship depends on their perceptions of the rewards, their perceptions and their beliefs regarding what relationship they deserve and probability of finding a better relationship.

Controlled thinking

effortful and deliberate thinking of self and environment -carefully selecting the right course of action

Schachter and singer experiment results

epinephrine-informed group: -did not become euphoric or angry (dependent on the stooges mood) because explained drug for their arousal Epinephrine ignorant grop: -became euphoric or angry (depending on the stooges mood) make a misattribution for cause of emotion

Comparison level

expectations of benefits and costs come from relationships with other people/allternatives -some have high____ and so expect high rewards and low costs.

Evolutionary psych

explain social behavior in terms of genetic factors. (natural selection) impossible to test with scientific method therefore best guess

Telling more than we can know

explanation for why we feel a certain way

Self-serving attribution

explanations for ones successes that credit internal, dispositional factors and explanations for ones failures that blame external situation factors

Encoding

expressing functions of NC

Situation as a source of influence

extremely powerful.. can sometimes override personality. in the absence of situational information, we explain behavior in terms of personality

Cognitive dissonance and the Brain

fMRI research -dissonant info encountered? -anterior cingulate cortex: executive control -insula (negative emotion) -dorsolater prefrontal cortex (if zapped, less attitude change) Dissonance reduced? -posterior part of the medial frontal cortex

Cultural standards of beauty

facial attractiveness perceived similarly across cultures -symmetry is preferred

Social identity threat (AKA stereotype threat)

feeling evaluated as a member of a group, rather than as an individual -particularly problematic when evaluation is on the basis of a negative stereotype

ingratiation

flattering, praising, and generally trying to make outselves likable to another person, often of higher status

covariation model ...When consistency is high

follows specific consensus and distinctiveness pattern to determine if internal or external attribution

Operant conditioning

freely chosen behaviors increase or decrease when followed by reinforcement or punishment

Difference between frustration and deprivation

frustration is goal attainment deprivation is not having something

Alternative perspectives on Sex differences

gender differences are status differences (social constructions) -women often have less power and wealth -gender differences due to dating paradigms where men approach and women are approached -infidelity gap

compare to someone who is similar

goal is self-knowledge

group polarization

group-produced enhancement of members' preexisting tendencies; a strengthening of the members' average tendency. -strengthens the average inclination of group members -discussion strengthens initial (individual response) ex. teenage driving

Allies in the group

having just one person agree with you can break the urge of conformity. in asch's additional study, conformity dropped to 6% of trials.

Advantages of schemas as memory guides

help fill in the blanks when trying to remember -particularly information to which our schemas led us to pay more attention -pay attention to things that align with our schemas ex. notice desk in office because duh it's there

Mate selection

heterosexual men and women are attracted to different characteristics in each other that maximize reproductive success -women look for man's resources: greater resources increases chances of survival -men look for women's appearance: maximize number of offspring, symmetrical faces indicates positive health and "good genes"

immeadiacy

how close the group is to you in space and time

Individual construals

how people perceive, comprehend an interpret the world. -how you _______ situation= how you interpret it -often more important than the actual situation

Social Cognition

how people think about themselves and the social world The social info that you select, interpret, remember, use to make judgements and decisions

Growth mindset

idea that our abilities are malleable qualities that we can cultivate and grow -after failure, more likely to work harder and do better the next time around

fixed mindset

idea that we have a set amount of an ability that cannot change -more likely to give up

Kids with game study

if children initially enjoyed the game then got rewards for it, when you take rewards away.. now they no longer enjoy it

Group Cohesion

if high, members are likely to like the group, stay, participate and recruit however, cohesion does not always translate into performance. Can backfire (groupthink) -if social group - the more _____ the better (want like-minded people) -if workgroup - _____ can be good for football/ military groups but bad when maintaining good relations among group member is more important than optimal solution

Diener (1976) Children and halloween candy

if identified before hand, whether in a group or alone, they took less candy than when they were anonymous. Still in group more likely to take more candy

How to preserve intrinsic interest

if interest is initially high, avoid external rewards!

Snyder et al 1977

if men talking to women on the phone believe she is attractive -responded to her in a warmer, more sociable way -elicited warmer, friendlier responses

Korsokov's syndrome

inability to form new memories and must approach every situation 'from scratch.' -no schemas

Social neuroscience

increasingly interested in connection between biological processes and social behavior; hormones, behavior, immune system

Western cultures with self concept

independent view of self -define self in terms of one's own throughts, feelings and actions

Probability value (p-value)

indicates likelihood results of experiment occurred by chance instead of due to the IV(s) -consider results significant when p-value is < or = 5 in 100 -p< or =.05

external attribution (situational)

infer a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation (assume most people would respond the same way in that situation)

internal attribution (dispositional)

infer a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person (attitude, character, personality)

Aggresion

intentional behavior aimed at causing physical harm or psychological pain to another person -must be intended to do harm because fighting alone is just being assertive

non-western cultures

interdependent view of self: defining self in terms of one's relationships to others. (i am..family/tribe)

Steinberg's Triangular Theory of Love

intimacy, passion, commitment

Judgemental heuristics

mental shortcuts people use to make judgements quickly and efficiently -don't usually have time to fully search options -good decisions quickly

Leader-member relations

is the most powerful determinant of overall situational favorableness. Leaders with good relations have more influence. -Is the relationship cooperative/friendly? -do the followers trust/respect/accept leader? -is there tension?

Morality

is viewed as central to self concept, more so than cognitive processes or desires

why does belief in just world occur?

keeps our own anxiety at bay. make yourself feel better about a disturbing attack by blaming victim

Forbidden toy study (aronson and Carlsmith, 1963)

kids not allowed to play with favorite toy. Some were mildly punished others severely punished. None played with toy, then rated toys again. Those in severe punishment group rated toy the same or higher. Other group rated toy less appealing.

Banduras bobo doll

kids watched video of adult being aggressive towards bobo doll, so when their turn came they were also aggressive -children who did not see adult before did not harm doll (the more respected a person is the greater the influence)

Social comparison theory

learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people -predicts when we compare and with whom

Group Diversity

less cohesive, less enjoyable, but performance quality is more creative, information sharing and flexible and effective problem solving

Cultural differences in prosocial behavior

long history of discrimination and prejudice against out-group members but some go out of way to support out group -we feel more empathy towards in group (altruism) but help out groups based on social exchange theory

How do you increase internal validity

making sure that nothin in the study besides the IV affects the DV -control extraneous variables -random assignment -same protocol and procedures across conditions

Dissonance reduction and personal values (mills, 1958)

measured 6th graders attitudes towards cheating. Competitive nearly impossible exam and gave opportunity to cheat. measured attitudes about cheating again next day -cheaters: changed attitude about cheating, became more lenient -noncheaters: changed attitude about cheating became less lenient explanation: post decision dissonance

Infidelity gap

men are more likely to be unfaithful in monogamous relationships -seems to be shrinking but still significant gender differences

dutton and aron study

men walk across 450 suspension canon bridge then take a questionnaire with a hot girl.. more likely to call because misattribution of arousal.

Ethnography

method of observation where researchers attempt to understand a group or culture by observing it from the inside, without imposing any preconceived notions they might have ex. Festinger's study of the seekers believing the world was going to end.. became a member to view them.. cognitive dissonance

The behavior era of leadership

mid 1940's- 1970's -Assumed: behaviors rather than traits matter and behaviors are observable, measurable and can be taught -Findings: no clear findings as to which behaviors are most effective -Conclusion: Behaviors alone do not determine effective leadership

Deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of the study of the events that will actually transpire -not all research in psych involves deception

Religious differences in pro social behavior

more likely to help than other people if the other person shares religious beliefs (in-group)

based on covariation model... if consistency is low...

most of the time we will say it is a fluke (no attribution)

Advantages of counterfactual thinking

motivates people to work harder next time

Positive consequences of counterfactual reasoning

motivation to improve in future

Belmont report

must have Beneficence, autonomy, justice establishes International Review Board to review research in advance(responsibility to participants, not researcher)

When does one engage in social comparison?

no objective standard exists to measure against -when you experience uncertainty

Emblems

nonverbal gestures that have well understood definitions within a given culture (not universal) -usually have direct verbal translations ex. Okay sign, peace sign, thumbs up

The bystander effect

number of bystanders increases, liklihood of helping decreases

Automated goal pursuit

often our non-conscious minds choose the goal based in part on which has been primed ex. on way to church more likely to donate

Clinical/Personality psych

one of social psychs closest cousin -focus on individual differences and what's normal. -Level of analysis: individual Focus on the individual and individual differences (i.e., the universal ways in which people are different)

Affect blinds

one part of the face displays one emotion and another part, a different emotion

Primacy effect

other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence if there is a delay in making up mind

effects of pain and heat

pain and discomfort increase aggression

Social identity theory

part of our identity that stems from our membership in groups

Davis and jones (1960) justifying cruelty

participants were told to tell a young man (confederate) they thought he was shallow, untrustworthy, boring then participants convinced themselves they didnt like the victim -he deserved to be hurt

The justification of kindness (jecker and landy 1969)

participants won money: -1/3 asked to give back winning money as a favor to psych department (impersonal) -1/3 asked to give back as a favor to experimenter (personal) -1/3 could keep after survey showed experimenter group generally liked experimenter

Holistic thinking style

people focus on overall context, relation between objects -eastern cultures ex. if classmate is crying, scan whole groups face to judge how classmate feels

Analytic thinking style

people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surroundings context. -western cultures ex. see someone crying, focus on their face

Sherifs study

people in dark room staring at light asked to say how many inches it moves (does not actually move, but auto kinetic effect, so ambiguous) some said 2 inches others said 10. Then put into group and people converged to common estimate - Informational social influence

Self-perception theory

people infer their attitudes from their behavior when - initial attitude is weak or ambiguous -no other plausible explanation for behavior

Social cognitive learning theory

people learn social behavior through observation and imitation of others -Both positive (altruism) and negative (aggression) social behavior

self esteem motive

people often put a slightly different spin on things to put them in the best possible light -self-esteem is important but you should still learn from actions (do not impede improvement) ex. frat brothers (hazing) but self-justification (frat rocks!)

Frustration aggression theory

peoples perception that they are being prevented from attaining a goal will increase the probability of an aggressive response -the closer the goal, the greater the expectation of pleasure that is thwarted and the greater the aggression

Comparison level for alternatives

perception of the likelihood that you could replace it with a better one

Recent experiences schema

person just thought or did something

Fear-Arousing Communication

persuasive message that attempts to change people's attitudes by arousing their fears ex. Smoking ads works if moderate amount of fear are used and information for how to reduce fear is provided

Higher rates of violent TV watching lead to...

physiological numbing to difficult, violent and unpleasant events (cline et. al 1973)

Baron et al.

picking perpetrators out of a police lineup Iv: imporance of task -high importance - expect to receive $20 for accurate identification, used to develop real task -Low importance - just another psych experiment -confederates gave incorrect answer -more conformity when important result: police questioning done independently

too much self esteem causes

problems like less academic success, more violent/aggressive, disliked by others, very good at reducing dissonance, so bad at fixing self

Priming

process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait or concept

Fritz heider

proposed the attribution theory -person reacts to what he/she thinks another person is perceiving, doing, feeling, thinking

reported self-handicapping

ready-made excuses -less extreme (complaining about not feeling well before you take a test)

Repliation

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

Negative consequences of counterfactual reasonings

repetitive focus on negative things (rumination) -can be associated with depression

Research begins with....

research begins with a hunch/hypothesis -often inspired by previous theories (ex. dissatisfaction with behaviorism -Festinger) or personal observation (kitty Genovese - latané and Darley)

Do people always conform?

research shows that most people resisit conforming some of the time and some people resist all of the time

Negative reinforcement

response followed by removal of an aversive stimulus

positive reinforcement

response followed by rewarding stimulus

performance contingent rewards

rewards that are based on how well we perform a task (grade of a A for doing well, MVP) -not damaging to IM (may even increase) so long as eval is not too intense. convey positive feedback without adding extra pressure / making them feel nervous or apprehensive

Task contingent rewards

rewards that are given for performing a task regardless of how well the task is done (math games played, everyone gets trophy) -damaging to intrinsic motivation

Justice (Belmont Report)

risks and benefits of research shared equally by all members of population

what is beneficence (Belmont report)

risks minimized, benefits maximized; cost-benefit analysis

disadvantages of counterfactual thinking

rumination - people repetitively focus on negative things in their lives

field experiments

same design as a lab experiment but use real-life setting -participants may be unaware they are in an experiment

Equity theory

satisfaction depends on whether rewards and costs are roughly equal for partners overbenfited- lots of rewards, low costs, devotes little to relationship underbenefitted - (seen as more of a problem for underbenifitted individual) few rewards, high costs, devotes a lot to relationship matters less in long-term relationship because moves from exchange to communal

terror management theory

self-esteem serves as a buffer, protecting people from terryfying thoughts about death

Safe sex speech (aronson 1997)

sexually active college students made a speech to encourage safe sex among high school students 1. dissonance condition (hypocrisy)- think about times you did not practice safe sex 2. no dissonance -those that were in dissonance condition bought condoms after study , others help homeless

social roles

shared expectations in a group about how particular people are supposed to behave ex. Zimbardo's prison experiment

Members of collectivistic cultures prefer

situational explanations ... like social psychologists -but greater situational focus is matter of degree -they make dispositional attributions but are more likely to go on to the 2nd step

Door in the face technique

social influence strategy in which first asking people for a large request that they will probably refuse makes them more likely to agree later to a second, smaller request works because feelings of reciprocity... its the last you can do if they are willing to negotiate

elaboration likelihood model

specifies when people will be influenced by what the speech says (logic of arguments) and when they will be influenced by more superficial characteristics (who gives speech/length) -two central routes to persuasion - which to uses depends on audiences a. motivation to pay attention b. ability to pay attention

belief perserverance

standing by initial conclusions even when subsequently learned info suggests we shouldn't -once we make up our mind we are inclined to keep them that way

applied research

studies designed to solve a particular social problem

Basic research

studies that are designed to find the best answer to the question of why people behave as they do and that are conducted purely for intellectual curiosity

cross cultural research study

study the effect of culture on social psych processes -hard because preconceived views and IV and DV must be clearly understood

Observational method

technique whereby researcher observes people and records measurements or impression of their behavior (don't change anything, just watching and making assumptions later) -Observer systematically looks for behaviors and records behaviors

Current goal schema

temporarily available because test (short term)

fundamental attribution error

tendency to explain our own and other peoples behavior entirely in terms of personality traits and to underestimate the power of social influence and the immediate

Recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well if you must make decision right after

New theory on origins of implicit attitudes

text corpora contain recoverable and accurate imprints of our historic biases, whether neutral, problematic or veridical, reflecting the status quo. There are patterns in ordinary human language resulting in semantic biases. ex. associating specific occupation with female gender

Halo effect

that which is beautiful is also good

minority influence

the case where a minority of group members influences the behavior or beliefs of the majority -must have consistency (people with minority views must express the same view over time) - agreement (members of the minority opinion must agree with one another)

Narcissism

the combination of excessive self-love and a lack of empathy towards others

companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined (intimacy and affection)

Extrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because of external reasons (good grades, compliments, candy, gold star, toys)

Intrinsic motivation

the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting

Cognitive dissonance

the discomfort that people feel when two cognitions conflict or when they behave in way that are inconsistent with their conception of themselves

social influence

the effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior

self control

the executive function of self. Ability to subdue immediate desires to achieve long term goals

Norm of reciprocity

the expectation that helping others will increase the likelihood that they will help us in the future

Adult attachment styles

the expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationships they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants assumption: attachment style learned in infancy becomes schema for all relationships

Mundane realism

the extent to which an experiment is similar to real-life situations ex. Staged emergency like Latené and Darley's study may be unlike everyday life_____ low

psychological realism

the extent to which psychological processes triggered by experiment are similar to the psychological processes in real-life ex. If people have the same types of perceptions and thoughts and decisions as they would in real life then high _________

Accesibility

the extent to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of the mind and are therefore likely to be used when making judgements about the social world.

Theory of planned behavior

the idea that peoples intentions are the best predictors of their deliberate behaviors, which are determine by 1. their attitude toward behavior - the more specific the better the predictor of behavior (ex. really specific question) 2. subjective norms - beliefs about how other people they care about will view their behavior 3. perceived behavioral control - the ease with which people believe they can perform the behavior

Batson's empathy-altruism hypothesis

the idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will attempt to help that person purely for altruistic reasons, regardless of what we have to gain -high empathy -purely altruistic motives -if we don't feel empathy then resort to social exchange theory

Level of analysis (focus) in social pysch

the individual in the context of the situation

Avoidant attachment style

the infant does not react when caregiver leaves or returns -desire to stay close but know it will be rejected (aloof/busy parent) less likley to trust others and avoid intimate relationships so less relationships overall

Informational social influence

the influence of other people that leads us to conform because we see them as a source of information to guide our behavior. others interpretation is more correct that ours. Leads to private acceptance -basic need to be accurate

Normative social influence

the influence of other people that leads us to conform in order to be liked and accepted by them -do what others are doing so we dont get made fun of or criticised -leads to public compliance

acquisition

the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

Dehumanizing the enemy

the military propensity to make enemies less than human; aids in creating a killing atmosphere ex. germans = krauts causes of PTSD = inability to reduce dissonance over killing innocent

Mere exposure effect

the more exposure we have to a stimulus (the more familiar they are to us), the more likely we are to like them... unless they are a jerk.

Irrevocability Hypothesis

the more permanent and irrevocable the decision, the stronger is the need to reduce dissonance

Self concept

the overall set of beliefs that people heave about their personal attributes -changes as we age -less emphasis on physical characteristics and more on throughts/feelings and how others judge us

Classical Conditioning

the phenomenon whereby a stimulus that elicits an emotional response is repeatedly paired with a neutral stimulus that does not, until the neutral stimulus takes on the emotional properties of the first stimulus

Social tuning

the process whereby people adobt another persons attitudes

Introspection

the process whereby people look inward and examine their own thoughts, feelings and motives

Misattribution of Arousal

the process whereby people make mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel the way they do. ex. caffeine can leads to feeling of attraction to someong

Altruistic personality

the qualities that cause an individual to help others in a wide variety of situations

internal justification

the reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (ex. one's attitude/behavior) -If you cant come up with a good external justification try to look for something that you genuinely like about friends outfit

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

social psychology

the scientific study of the way in which people's thoughts, feelings and behaviors are influenced by the entire social situation

perceptual salience

the seeming importance of info that is the focus of peoples attention -we watch people, think about people and assume they alone cause their behavior

Justification of effort

the tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain Ex. military, fraternities, marching bands

Social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable -when arousal decreases, performance on simple tasks decreases -when arousal decreases, performance on complex tasks increases ex. diffusion of responsibility research in tug of war and shouting/clapping

Planning fallacy

the tendency for people to be overly optimistic about how soon they will complete a project even if they have failed to get similar projects done in that time

overjustification effect

the tendency of people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons -causes rewards to backfire

Bias blind spot

the tendency to think that other people are more susceptible to attributional biases in their thinking than we re

Self esteem

the way in which we try to maintain positive views of ourselves

self-control

the way we make plans and execute decisions

impression management

the way we present ourselves to other people and get them to see us the way we want to be seen

Self knowledge

the way we understand who we are and formulate and organize this info

Casual theories

theories about the causes on ones own behaviors; often we learn such theories from our culture ex. people are blue on mondays

No correlation

there does not appear to be a relationship between two sets of data

Attractive people are more likable?

they develop good social interaction skills and report having more satisfying interactions with others - due to self-fulfilling prophecy the beautiful receive a great deal of social attention which helps develop good social skills

social media study at UPenn

those in experimental group had to cut down on social media use. The group that cut down and started out depressed became less depressed.

Ability to pay attention

those unable to pay attention swayed more by peripheral cues

Peripheral route

through superficial cues -attitude change temporary

Central route

through the message - when people have both the ability and motivation to listen carefully, and think about the arguments presented -attitude change long-lasting

Kelleys covariation model

to answer "what explains his/her behavior" the data we use relies on how a persons behavior "covaries"/changes across time, place and depending on target of behavior

Goal of social psychology

to identify universal properties of human nature that make everyone susceptible to social influence

Mirror test

to see if rudimentary sense of self exists -chimps and orangitangs touched red spot on self (recognized self) -lesser apes did not

Behaviorism

to understand human behaviors, one need only consider the reinforcing properties of the environment -rewards= continued behavior punishment= stopped behavior

Free choice paradigm

two equally attracitve options = hard decision once decision is made leads to post decision dissonance

The contact Hypothesis (sherif et. al 1961)

two groups of boys in conflicting groups. then introduced problem where they had to work together in order to solve it (ex. damage in water supply) this led to a diminution of hostile feelings and negative stereotyping.

improving external validity

use of field experiments (takes place in real world)

social neuroscience

using fMRI to examine where in brain cultural expereince predicts perceptual processing. -East asian Americans paid more attention to context -european americans paid more attention to targets/goals of task

Commonsense psychology

viewed people as amateur scientists who piece together information to figure out cause

Autonomy (Belmont Report)

voluntary decision to participate, given enough info to make the decision

Multichannel nonverbal communiation

we can use more than one channel to decode which increases the ability to make accurate judgments

naive realism

we perceive things "as they really are" underestimating how much we are interpreting or spinning what we see ex. other are bias.. I am right

Predicting deliberate behaviors

we take our time, so accessibility is not critical because given enough time, everyone digs up even the most inaccessible attitudes

Injunctive norms

what we Think other people approve or disapprove of -motivate people by promising rewards/punishments -more powerful than descriptive norms in producing desirable behavior

Primacy effect

what we learn first about another person colors how we see the next info Asch - described individuals, order matters because first impression is so powerful

self-perception theory

when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs -task is to decide fi behavior really reflects how we feel or if the situation made us act that way

Availability heuristic

when people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind ex. assertiveness (Schwarz 1991) ex. white vans b/c news

Relative deprivation

when people perceive a discrepancy between what they have and what they should have. outcome of social comparison

Hidden prejudices

when situation becomes safe, their prejudices will be revealed -choosing less obvious ways of expressing their prejudice: ex. questioning Obama's nationality

When do we not ride on others coattails

when task is -Challenging -appealing -involving -performed with friends (or people who will see eachother again) -individual effort is observable (peer evalutation, but if evaluation apprehension opposite effect)

Flings

will sometimes choose someone dissimilar. it is an adventure...

gender differences in prosocial behavior

women more likely to provide social support to their friends and to engage in volunteer work that involves helping others -men more likely to be chivalrous and heroic

Glass Cliff

women picked to lead an organization through crisis and change which leads to a higher failure rate and a perception that women are not good leaders

Carol Dweck

world expert on mindset and motivation

Are facial expressions universal?

yes (darwin and Ekman/frieson) 6 major emotions are cross cultural but some differences also exist

Self-awareness theory

your attention becomes focused on yourself -you evaluate and compare your behavior to your internal standards and values (introspection) if they don't match: -can you change your behavior? -yes? do that no? feel horrible and flee form SA