Social Psychology - Ch. 6/Mod. 5 - Justification - still needs work

Benjamin Franklin

"He that has once done you a kindness will be more ready to do you another than he whom you yourself have obliged."

Self-Persuasion, pg. 175

- A long-lasting form of attitude change that results from attempts at self-justification. - Is more permanent than direct attempts at persuasion precisely because the persuasion takes place internally and not because of external coaxing, threats, or pressure.

Basic idea of Cognitive Dissonance Theory

- Behaving in a way that is inconsistent with one's attitudes leads to an unpleasant state of tension - We are motivated to reduce dissonance by changing attitude or behavior - People are motivated to be consistent in their attitudes and behaviors

Amount of Dissonance Experienced

- Dissonance is felt most acutely by someone who has high self-esteem and does something cruel, foolish, or incompetent... not someone who does the same with low self-esteem - Psychopaths also are fairly immune from dissonance: the cognition "I just treated that person in a cold and heartless way" is consistent with "I'm really good at manipulating all those stupid people who can't see through me"

Irrevocability Hypothesis, Permanence of the Decision

- Finality of a decision makes one happier with the end result - The more important the decision, the greater the dissonance. - Imagine you are going to make any important decision, such as whether to stay with a romantic partner or break up, use illegal drugs or not, do something unethical or be honest. Keep in mind that once you make a decision, you are going to justify it to reduce dissonance, and that justification may later make it hard for you to change your mind... even when you should.

Cognitive Dissonance - Self-Affirmation

- In the context of dissonance theory, a way of reducing dissonance by reminding oneself of one or more of one's positive attributes - If people experience ______ following an attitude-discrepant behavior, they often do NOT exhibit the typical attitude change that follows from cognitive dissonance.

Conditions under which dissonance will occur:

1) Free choice - behavior must not be forced 2) minimal justification - no large external incentives for the behavior 3) minimal threats to not do something 4) forseeable consequences

What are the three major sources of dissonance:

1) Insufficient Justification 2) Post-decision Dissonance 3) Effort Justification

Three basic ideas of Cognitive Dissonance Theory:

1) People are motivated to be consistent in their attitudes and behaviors 2) Behaving in a way that is inconsistent with one's attitudes leads to an unpleasant state of tension: cognitive dissonance, 3) We are motivated to reduce dissonance by changing our attitude or behavior.

Five ways to reduce dissonance?

1) convince self that behavior is consistent with attitude 2) minimize importance of inconsistency 3) change behavior to bring it inline with attitude 4) add in consonant cognitions or subtract dissonant cognitions 5) Change attitude to bring it in line with behavior .

Three reasons why lowballing works:

1)commitment still exists although it is an illusion-->honorable person 2) feeling of excitement building and emotion (triggered anticipation 3) what the heck, I'm already here, price is higher but not that different from other places

Cognitive Dissonance - Three Basic Ways of Reduction

1. By changing our behavior to bring it inline with the dissonant cognition 2. By attempting to justify our behavior through changing one of the dissonant cognitions 3. By attempting to justify our behavior by adding new cognitions

External Justification

A reason or an explanation for dissonant personal behavior that resides outside the individual (e.g., in order to receive a large reward or avoid a severe punishment, not hurting peoples feelings).

Lowballing, pg. 164

An unscrupulous strategy whereby a salesperson induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price; frequently, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price

Praise

Choose the correct option: Self verification theory says that if you believe you are a poor student, having a teacher constantly [praise/criticize] you might lead to discomfort and embarrassment.

Postdecision Dissonance

Dissonance aroused after making a decision, typically reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and devaluing the rejected alternatives. - Attitude becomes more extreme

Insufficient Justification

Doing something counter-attitudinal or attitude-discrepant with little pressure

Theory of Cognative Dissonance

Feeling of discomfort caused by performing an action that runs counter to ones customary (typically positive) conception of oneself. (Festinger, 1957)

Self-Affirmation

For self-affirmation to be effective, it must be grounded in reality

71, 33

In Freedman's forbidden toy experiment half the students were threatened with a severe threat and other half mild threat for playing with a forbidden toy. Two weeks later, _____ % of children who received a severe threat were playing with the toy. ___ % of children who received a mild threat were playing with the toy.

Cognitive Dissonance, cont'd.

In short, understanding dissonance explains why so much of human thinking is not rational, but rationalizing. No matter how smart they are, people who are in the midst of reducing dissonance are so involved with convincing themselves that they are right that they frequently end up behaving irrationally and maladaptively.

Hypocrisy Induction

Making people aware of the dissonance between what they are doing and what they are preaching to others... - "The arousal of dissonance by having individuals make statements that run counter to their behaviors and then reminding them of the inconsistency between what they advocated and their behavior. The purpose is to lead individuals to more responsible behavior."

Lowballing

Marketing technique that relies on post-decision dissonance An unscrupulous strategy whereby a sales person induces a customer to agree to purchase a product at a very low cost, subsequently claims it was an error, and then raises the price; frequently, the customer will agree to make the purchase at the inflated price.

Effort Justification

Source of dissonance resulting from Going through an unpleasant procedure to attain something of value

Counterattitudinal Advocacy

Stating an opinion or attitude that runs counter to one's private belief or attitude. - how saying becomes believing - the smaller the incentive, the more we have to justify the action, thereby actually changing our attitude toward the action

Cognitive Dissonance

The discomfort that people feel when to cognitions (beliefs, attitudes) conflict, or when they behave in ways that are inconsistent with their conception of themselves

Insufficient Punishment (a good thing) pg. 174

The dissonance aroused when individuals lack sufficient external justification for having resisted a desired activity or object, usually resulting in individuals' devaluing the forbidden activity or object.

Internal Justification

The reduction of dissonance by changing something about oneself (e.g., one's attitude or behavior).

Justification of Effort

The tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they worked hard to attain.

Impact Bias

The tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of our emotional reactions to future or negative events. Reason: reducing dissonance is mostly unconscious.

"maintain high self-esteem"

We rationalize instead of having rational thought in order to____________. We process information so that it fits with pre-exsisting beliefs

Dissonance is aroused and reduced by self-persuasion.

When external justification for resisting an object or activity is insufficent:

"external justification"

____________encourages compliance but prevents real attitude change. When there is large________ we don't have to think as much.

How is cruelty justified?

because cruel behavior is dissonant with view of self as a good person; resolved by changing thoughts about victim = DEHUMANIZING

attitudes and behavior

inducing hypocricy makes a person aware of conflict between______&________.

"external justification"

insufficient ___________ for counter attitudinal advocacy may result in attitude change. Saying becomes believing when being done with little of this....

self-justification leads to self-persuasion

self-justification leads to self-persuasion

Self-Affirmation

way of reducing dissonance by reminding oneself or others of more of ones positive attributes. Adding a cognition about other positive attributes

Ben Franklin Effect

when we dislike someone, if we do them a favor we will like them more. Because: behavior is dissonant w/attitude--> change attitude to resolve dissonance

Basic Premise of Cognitive Dissonance

• "The basic premise of cognitive dissonance theory is that people have a fundamental need to maintain a stable, positive sense of self."

Severity of Initiation Effect

• "The tougher the initiation, the more we like the group." • Why? • In the severe initiation group we must justify our unpleasant experience by liking the group more • The person thinks, "why would I put myself through this discomfort if it wasn't such a great group?"

Insufficient Punishment Effect

• Aronson and Carlsmith (1963) - Five year olds played with fun toys - The supervising adult got ready to leave the room • Before the adult left, he told the the children - "I would be annoyed with you if you play with the toys" (Mild Condition) - "I would be angry with you if you play with the toys. I would take the toys home" (Severe Condition) • None of the children played with the toys - In which condition did the children change their attitudes about the toys to a negative attitude? - In the mild condition

Ways to Deal with Dissonance

• Change attitude - "I don't like smoking" • Change perception of behavior- "I don't smoke that much" • Add consonant cognitions- "I bought Phillip Morris stock" • Minimize importance- "You only live once" • Reduce perceived choice- "I tried to quit and can't" • Change behavior- "quit smoking"

Insufficient Punishment Effect - Explanation

• Children in the mild condition told themselves- "I didn't play with the fun toys and for no good reason." • "Well, maybe I didn't play with the toys because I don't like them" (attitude change)

Cognitive Dissonance Classic Study - Festinger and Carlsmith

• Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) • Subjects asked to tell a lie (tell other subjects that they enjoyed the boring study when they did not) • This behavior was incongruent with their belief that they are honest people • Some paid $1 to tell a lie and some paid $20 • Attitude changed in one condition because there was an insufficient justification for telling a lie • Which one? • $1 subjects told themselves- "I told a lie and I was only paid $1 to do it. That's not a good enough reason" (insufficient justification). • $20 subjects told themselves- "I told a lie but at least I was paid $20 to do it." • $1 subjects next told themselves- "I do not like the way I feel" (the experience of dissonance). • $1 subjects finally convinced themselves- "I didn't really tell a lie because in fact I enjoyed the study" (attitude change).

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• Proposed by Festinger (1957) • The theory states that when we hold an attitude that is incongruent with our behavior, we will experience cognitive dissonance • Known also as the insufficient justification effect

Motivation to Reduce Dissonance

• Reduce unpleasant arousal state

Factors which Amplify Dissonance

• The behavior Is seen as freely chosen • Cannot be justified as due to strong rewards or threats • Cannot be withdrawn • Produces negative consequences that were foreseeable

Postdecisional Dissonance

• You have a child who will pick a dog as a pet • Your child cannot decide • Eventually your child picks the Dalmatian over the other types • Your child takes the Dalmatian home and becomes attached to the pet • Later your child sees a poodle • What will your child think of the poodle? • "I'm sure glad I didn't get one of those poodles." • After making a decision people come to view their decision more favorably, other selections less favorably when feel highly committed

Evidence of Motivational Arousal

• Zanna and Cooper (1974) placebo pill study • Participants given placebo pills • One group told pill would arouse, one group told nothing, and the last group told the pill would relax • In which group did the subjects not experience dissonance and hence not change their attitudes? • The group in which the subjects were told the pill would arouse them • The "told pill would arouse" group missattributed their arousal to the pill and not to the dissonance. • Therefore, they were not motivated to change their attitude as a way to reduce arousal.

Cognitive Dissonance Study- Zimbardo

• Zimbardo et al. (1965) - Subjects were asked by a friendly or a cold/arrogant person to eat fried grasshoppers and they complied. - Which condition did they come to like grasshoppers most? • When asked by the cold/arrogant person • Why did they change their attitude in the "cold/arrogant" condition? • These subjects told themselves- "I just ate a nasty fried grasshopper and did it because I was asked by a jerk" (insufficient justification). • These subjects then told themselves- "Really, the only reason why I ate the fried grasshopper is because I like them" (attitude change).