Social/Cultural Diversity (Purple Book)

Social exchange theory postulates that a. a relationship will endure if both parties are assertive. b. a relationship will endure if the rewards are greater than the costs. c. a relationship will endure if both parties are sexually attracted to each other. d. men work harder to keep a relationship strong.

b. a relationship will endure if the rewards are greater than the costs. Social exchange theory assumes that rewards are things or factors we like, while costs are things we dislike. The theory assumes that a positive relationship is characterized by "profit." Reward minus cost equals profit. Some counselors are understandably turned off by this "vest-pocket definition of relationships" based on behavioral psychology and economic theory. An alternative explanation of relationships is provided by the "complementarity theory," which states that a relationship becomes stronger as the two people's personality needs mesh. The word complementary indicates that one personality can make up what is lacking or missing in the other personality.

In the United States, each socioeconomic group represents a. a separate race. b. a separate culture. c. the concept of color blindness. d. a separate national culture.

b. a separate culture. Choice "a," race, refers to the identification of individuals via distinct physical or bodily (somatic) characteristics such as skin color or facial features. The assumption is made that a given race is based on genetic origin. Many racial groups can be distinguished from others by virtue of biological attributes such as their looks. Social scientists have questioned whether race is a valid concept since it is sometimes questionable as to what constitutes a given race. Choice "c," color blindness, is said to take place when you ignore the person's race, culture or color. Choice "d," national culture, is a term used to describe the cultural patterns common to a given country. There is the "ideal culture," which is the way individuals are supposed to behave, as well as the "real culture," which encompasses all behaviors within the culture. When a group of persons vehemently opposes the values of the culture, they are said to be members of a "counterculture."

A counselor who is seeing a client from a different culture would most likely expect ________ social conformity than they would from a client from their own culture. a. less b. more c. the same d. more realistic

a. less We demand more rigid standards from our own culture.

The client who would most likely engage in introspection would be a a. 52-year-old, single, African American male school administrator. b. 49-year-old, white homeless male. c. 40-year-old, divorced white female who is out of work and has three children. d. 19-year-old Latina mother on welfare with two children.

a. 52-year-old, single, African American male school administrator. The key to this question is to focus on social class rather than acculturation (i.e., integrating one's own cultural beliefs and behaviors with the dominant culture), minority status, or sex. Clients in higher social classes have more time to "look within themselves" (introspect) since they need not dwell as much on external survival needs.

________ is associated with obedience and authority. a. Stanley Milgram, a noted psychologist b. Arthur Janov, who created primal scream therapy c. A. T. Beck, a cognitive therapy pioneer d. Robert Harper, a pioneer in the REBT bibliotherapy movement

a. Stanley Milgram, a noted psychologist In one of the most shocking and frightening investigations of all time, Milgram discovered that people who were told to give others powerful electric shocks did so on command. Subjects were told that they were to punish a learner strapped to an electric chair when he gave an incorrect answer. Out of 40 experimental subjects, only 14 refused to go to the highest level of shock (i.e., in excess of 435 volts)! And get this—in some of the experiments the persons administering the shocks (which, unbeknownst to them, were unreal) were actually given a 45-volt shock themselves so they could feel the intensity of this punishment. So much for accurate empathy! Even when the subjects heard the person receiving the shocks screaming they often continued to raise the level of voltage when told to do so. This principle is often used to explain "obedience to authority" in social situations such as the Salem witch hunts or Nazi war crimes. Fortunately, follow-up research indicated that most of the individuals who participated in the Milgram experiment did not feel they were harmed by the experience.

It's easiest to empathize with a. a client who is similar to you. b. a client who is dissimilar to you. c. Latino/a clients. d. Asian American male clients.

a. a client who is similar to you. Clients who have counselors of the same ethnicity tend to stay in counseling longer. And for exam purposes please do not forget that when we speak of Latino/a clients, we need to include individuals from the Dominican Republic (Dominicans) who now number nearly a million and a half people in the U.S.

In terms of diagnosis, a. a client's behavior could be sane and appropriate in one culture, yet disturbed and bizarre in another. b. culture is irrelevant in children under 14. c. culture is an issue with males, but not with females. d. culture is an issue with females, but not with males.

a. a client's behavior could be sane and appropriate in one culture, yet disturbed and bizarre in another. The concept of "cultural relativism" implies that one's behavior can only be evaluated in relation to the culture. Behavior in one culture cannot be judged by that which is considered normal in another culture. Behavioral scientists have thus attempted to create "cultural-free" diagnostic instruments, but as of this date none has been totally effective.

Parents who do not tolerate or use aggression when raising children produce a. less-aggressive children. b. more-aggressive children. c. passive-aggressive children. d. passive-dependent children.

a. less-aggressive children. Children who are abused by their parents are more likely to be abusers when they have children of their own. Remember that counselors are legally required to report child abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, or exploitation.

The word personalism in the context of multicultural counseling means a. all people must adjust to environmental and geological demands. b. the counselor must adjust to the client's cultural mores. c. a counselor who personalizes the treatment is most effective. d. biologically speaking, there is no reason why humans must adjust to environmental demands.

a. all people must adjust to environmental and geological demands. Culture must mold itself such that individuals can best thrive and survive in a given environment. Personalism implies that the counselor will make the best progress if they see the client primarily as a person who has learned a set of survival skills rather than as a diseased patient. Fierce environmental conditions, such as living in a desert or a poverty-stricken neighborhood, cause individuals to cooperate with each other more and stick together as a group. This, nevertheless, can cause problems for the counselor who has never lived in an impoverished neighborhood or a desert and hence is seen as an outsider. The "person," who has lived in a poor area or the desert, will want to check out the counselor's authenticity as a "person," and a counselor who keeps their "professional distance" runs the risk of being seen as superficial. A comment such as, "You don't care about me, you just care about your paychecks (or "the agency," or "the court," or "your stupid report," etc.) indicates that the multicultural counselor is being perceived as remote and not very personal. This could create problems for the counselor since (a) in the United States "professionalism" is stressed more than "personalism" in the sense that a good counselor is not "supposed" to get very close to clients and if (b) the counselor has not necessarily grown up in a culture that stresses such a high level of interpersonal cooperation.

A male client tells his counselor that he is attracted to "a gorgeous woman who is violent and chemically dependent." This creates an a. approach-avoidance conflict. b. avoidance-avoidance conflict. c. avoidance of life space. d. approach affiliation.

a. approach-avoidance conflict. The approach-avoidance conflict presents a positive factor (a woman he finds attractive) with a negative factor (she is a substance abuser prone to violent behavior) at the same time. Most counselors would agree this is the toughest type of conflict for the client to tackle as it generates the highest level of frustration.

Counselors can more easily advise a. clients from their own culture. b. clients from a different culture. c. clients of a different race. d. clients utilizing ethnocentric statements.

a. clients from their own culture. To persuade someone is easiest when they have similar views, ideas, and background to one's own. It is entirely possible that a client of a different culture has been taught not to trust persons with the counselor's cultural background.

A statistical norm measures actual conduct, while a cultural norm a. describes how people are supposed to act. b. has little to do with expectations. c. is irrelevant when counseling a client. d. all of the above.

a. describes how people are supposed to act. Choice "b" is the direct antithesis of the correct alternative choice "a." Some multicultural practitioners suggest that culture is really a system of norms. A statistical norm measures actual conduct, while a cultural norm describes the expectations of how one should act.

Multicultural counseling promotes a. eclecticism. b. rigidity. c. psychodynamic models. d. neurolinguistic programming (NLP).

a. eclecticism. Most experts would insist that choice "a" is best as intercultural counselors need to be flexible. An "eclectic" position (selecting treatment intervention strategies from diverse counseling models) would generally come closest to meeting this requirement.

A counselor is confronted with their first Native American client. Native Americans (also called American Indians on some exams) are descendants of the original inhabitants of North America. After the initial session, the counselor secures several books which delineate the cultural aspects of Native American life. They discover that there are over 560 federally recognized tribes in the United States. This counselor most likely believes in the a. emic viewpoint. b. alloplastic viewpoint. c. etic viewpoint. d. autoplastic viewpoint.

a. emic viewpoint. The "emic" view holds that an approach which is culturally specific is generally the most effective.

According to assimilation-contrast theory, a client will perceive a counselor's statement that is somewhat like his or her own beliefs as even more similar (i.e., an assimilation error). He or she would perceive any dissimilar attitudes as a. even more dissimilar (i.e., a contrast error). b. standardization. c. similar to his or her own. d. paraphrasing

a. even more dissimilar (i.e., a contrast error). In any case, if a counselor is highly regarded and trustworthy, their statements will be better accepted than if the helper has poor credibility.

Counselors who have good listening skill a. facilitate therapeutic surrender. b. hinder therapeutic surrender. c. often have a monolithic perspective. d. are too nondirective to promote therapeutic surrender.

a. facilitate therapeutic surrender. A monolithic perspective indicates that the counselor perceives all the people in a given group (say African Americans or Latino/a Americans) as being identical. Counselors are urged to adopt an individualistic, rather than a monolithic, perspective. Good listening facilitates any type of helping.

Good multicultural counselors are a. flexible. b. rigid. c. utilize Eric Berne's transactional analysis (TA), Fritz Perl's gestalt therapy, and/or William Glasser's reality therapy in nearly every case. d. generally behavioristic.

a. flexible. Although choices "c" and "d" are not the best choices, a case could certainly be made for using these modalities in an intercultural helping relationship. Transactional analysis (TA), reality therapy, and behavioral interventions all stress "contracting." The process of contracting has its merits in crosscultural situations because it keeps the counselor from shoving a dose of their own cultural values down the clients throat (the client has input before signing or agreeing with the contract). Furthermore, TA has been praised for illuminating cultural and ethnic injunctions. On the other hand, TA lingo is often complex for a client with a different background. Quite unlike behaviorism, gestalt therapy is a superb modality for cultures that need to liberate their feelings. In addition, it is helpful when working with a population which emphasizes nonverbal communication. The danger in utilizing gestalt comes from pushing techniques (trying to insist upon them before clients are ready for them) that emphasize the expression of feelings on a cultural or ethnic group which views the expression of feelings as a sign of weakness. Practitioners are warned that behaviorism (choice "d") is not a panacea in multicultural work inasmuch as some cultures do not value assertiveness. Every brand of therapy has its merits and its disadvantages: It is therefore best if the multicultural counselor remains flexible.

Regardless of culture, the popular individual a. has good social skills. b. values race over ethnicity. c. dresses in the latest styles. d. never possesses a modal personality

a. has good social skills. The only thing which might have made the question difficult was the introduction of the term modal personality in choice "d." The term—derived from the statistical concept of the mode, used to describe the score which occurs most frequently—refers to a composite personality, which is the most typical profile of a given group of people. A modal personality is the personality which is characteristic or typical of the group in question.

Doing cross-cultural counseling a. makes counselors increasingly aware of cultural differences. b. allows counselors to see that culture is merely a matter of semantics. c. is different since clients are more likely to return for help after the first session. d. allows counselors to ignore the concept of pluralism.

a. makes counselors increasingly aware of cultural differences. Choice "c" is incorrect. Preliminary studies indicate that clients from other cultures do not use counseling as often as they could. Moreover, the dropout rate is premature, perhaps 20% higher after the initial session than relationships which are not intercultural. The concept of "pluralism" literally means that an individual exists in more than one category. A condition known as "separatism" exists when a group of people totally withdraw from the political majority. Pluralism presents a less-extreme option. Cultural pluralism occurs when persons of a cultural heritage retain their traditions and differences, yet cooperate in regard to social, political, and economic matters. In counseling per se, the term suggests that certain categories of individuals (e.g., women, older adults, minorities, alternative cultures, or the disabled) often need special services. An Asian American, for example, could feel torn between adhering to Asian culture while trying to become more Americanized. The counselor must show respect for these individuals in order to do effective treatment; hence, the notion of pluralism cannot be ignored.

Most countries have an official language, a stated viewpoint, and a central government. This is reflected mainly by a. national culture. b. human culture. c. regional culture. d. ecological culture.

a. national culture. The above statement best describes national culture. Big business and high-tech media are lessening the gap between national cultures. In this day and age an individual living on the opposite side of the earth could be wearing the same prestigious pair of designer jeans as you. Thus, some experts have suggested that traditional cultures will eventually be supplanted by a "unified world culture" or a "unified global culture." As of late, the term third culture kid (TCK) has been used to describe children raised primarily in a culture that is different than their parents' culture during their formative years.

A client remarks, "Hey, I'm African American and it's nearly impossible to hide it." This is illustrative of the fact that a. race is not the same as ethnicity. b. race and ethnicity are virtually identical. c. a connotative impediment exists. d. severe ambivalent transference exists.

a. race is not the same as ethnicity. The assumption here is that you can generally see racial differences since they are the result of genetics. If a client really made this type of statement, the counselor might wish to deal directly with the racial issue. The counselor could inquire, "In what way do you feel that the fact that I'm white and you're African American will affect the counseling process?" Experts often assert that a question of this nature should be asked no later than the second session. Choice "d" would not be totally outlandish, although the question does not provide enough information to make it the best choice.

When a counselor speaks of what he or she believes must transpire from a psychotherapeutic standpoint, he or she technically is referring to a. recommendations. b. the diagnosis. c. the prognosis. d. the notion of transference.

a. recommendations. One difficulty with formal diagnosis (using the DSM) is that a given diagnosis does not imply or recommend a given treatment process.

Mores are beliefs and social customs a. regarding the rightness or wrongness of behavior. b. which should be the central focus in multicultural counseling. c. that are conscious decisions made by persons in power. d. that are identical with the folkways in the culture.

a. regarding the rightness or wrongness of behavior. Mores—the plural of mos—develop as a given group decides what is good and bad for the welfare of the people. People are generally punished for violating the mores. May be asked to distinguish "folkways" (choice "d") from mores. Folkways, like mores, describe correct, normal, or habitual behavior. The difference is that breaking folkways generally results in embarrassment, while breaking mores causes harm to others or threatens the existence of the group. Some of the literature does not attempt to describe mores as a separate entity but rather as a type of folkway, and thus choice "d" isn't really that far off the mark. Mores are behaviors that are based on morals. A behavior can only be judged within the context of a person's culture.

A monolingual U.S. counselor a. speaks only English. b. speaks English and Spanish. c. works as a counseling interpreter. d. fits the definition of bilingual.

a. speaks only English. Mono literally means "one" or "single." Persons who are bilingual (speak two languages) can be employed as counselors or interpreters to facilitate efficacious intervention. In order to reduce the difficulty introduced by "semantic differential" and "connotative errors", the bilingual counselor would ideally be bicultural (have familiarity with the culture of the counselor and the client).

The APGA, which became the AACD until 1992 and is now the ACA, contributed to the growth of cross-cultural counseling by a. the 1972 formation of the Association for Non-White Concerns in Personnel and Guidance, later known as the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development. b. the 1972 ethic which made it unethical to see culturally different clients without three hours of relevant graduate work in this area. c. the 1972 ethic which required a 3,000-hour practicum in order to work with culturally different clients. d. urging nonwhites to take graduate counseling courses.

a. the 1972 formation of the Association for Non-White Concerns in Personnel and Guidance, later known as the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-352) prohibiting discrimination for reasons of gender, race, religion, or national origin was instrumental in terms of setting the stage for minority concerns.

According to Charles Osgood and Percy Tannenbaum's congruity theory, a client will accept suggestions more readily if a. the client likes the counselor. b. the client dislikes the counselor. c. the client distrusts the counselor. d. the counselor is in a higher economic bracket.

a. the client likes the counselor. The tendency is based on "balance theory." If you like your counselor, your tendency to accept a suggestion would be balanced (consistent with your opinion). If you did not like or trust the counselor, then accepting his or her suggestions would produce an imbalance (an inconsistent attitude).

In order to diagnose clients from a different culture a. the counselor ideally will need some information regarding the specifics of the culture. b. the counselor will find the DSM useless. c. the counselor should rely heavily on cultural epoch theory. d. NBCC ethics prohibit the use of DSM diagnosis.

a. the counselor ideally will need some information regarding the specifics of the culture. Some of the literature in this area distinguishes "material culture" or "artifacts" (books, paintings, homes, tools) from what is termed "nonmaterial culture" (customs, values, humor, social ideas, traditions). Counselor must understand cultural factors. This trend is known as "cultural awareness" and it is contrasted by a position of "cultural tunnel vision." Another term is culture epoch theory, which suggests that all cultures—like children—pass through the same stages of development in terms of evolving and maturing. Recently, multicultural experts have come to believe this is not a valid notion. In regard to choice "d," ethics stipulate that counselors must incorporate "culturally relevant techniques into their practice" and should acquire "cultural sensitivity" to client populations served. The appropriateness of a given DSM diagnosis is not specifically addressed. Nevertheless, experts seem to agree that the DSM is most applicable to those of European descent.

When a counselor speaks of a probable outcome in a case, he or she is technically referring to a. the prognosis. b. the diagnosis. c. the intervention. d. attending behavior.

a. the prognosis. Prognosis refers to the probability that one can recover from a condition. When charting in a client's file the counselor would do well to discuss the length of treatment and the status expected at the end of treatment.

Ethnocentrism a. uses one's own culture as a yardstick to measure all others. b. means race. c. is a genetic term. d. all of the above.

a. uses one's own culture as a yardstick to measure all others. Statements like "superior race," "savages," "backward people," or "the chosen few" capture the essence of the concept of ethnocentrism. In short, all societies are ethnocentric in the sense that they use their own views as a standard of reference and view themselves as superior.

According to the cognitive dissonance theory of Leon Festinger, a woman has an approach-approach conflict. She has her choice of a beautiful silver watch and an equally stunning gold watch. Both are different brands. She feels the silver model will be perfect for some of her jewelry and outfits while the gold is ideal for other jewelry and modes of dress. She chooses the silver watch. a. She will feel intense guilt. b. She will read positive reviews on the silver watch—and possibly negative reviews about the gold model—after the purchase to justify her behavior and reduce post-decisional dissonance. c. According to the theory she will remain a tad ambivalent about her choice. d. She will be angry because in reality she wanted both watches, but could not afford them.

b. She will read positive reviews on the silver watch—and possibly negative reviews about the gold model—after the purchase to justify her behavior and reduce post-decisional dissonance. Although all the choices are plausible, choice "b" best expresses the tendency to justify behavior to create a state of "consonance" (a fancy word for harmony) between attitudes and behavior. Hence, if a test report states that the watch is a good buy, the belief and the behavior are consistent.

________ helped to popularize the multicultural counseling movement. a. Arthur Jensen's views on IQ testing (also known as Jensenism) b. The civil rights movement c. Jung's feeling that all men and women from all cultures possess a collective unconscious d. The Tarasoff duty

b. The civil rights movement Jensen, choice "a," tried to prove that African Americans had lower IQs due to genetic factors, while the Tarasoff case, mentioned in choice "d," resulted in the counselor's duty to warn and protect an intended victim who might be the target of danger or violence.

In social psychology, the sleeper effect asserts that a. sleep learning facilitates social skills. b. after a period of time, one forgets the communicator but remembers the message. c. after a period of time, one remembers the communicator but forgets the message. d. REM sleep facilitates insight.

b. after a period of time, one forgets the communicator but remembers the message. Perhaps more importantly, the so-called sleeper effect asserts that when you are attempting to change someone's opinion the change may not occur immediately after the verbal exchange. In other words, when a counselor provides guidance to a client a delay may occur before the client accepts the message. The communication may have more impact after some time has passed.

An Asian American counselor says to an African American client, "If you're unhappy with the system, get out there and rebel. You can change the system." This is the ________ viewpoint for coping with the environment. a. emic b. alloplastic c. etic d. autoplastic

b. alloplastic The "autoplastic" view asserts that change comes from the self such as thoughts and behaviors, while the "alloplastic" conceptualization is that the client can cope best by changing or altering external factors in the environment.

A young Latino male is the victim of discrimination. His counselor remarks, "I hear what you are saying and I will help you change your thinking so this will not have such a profound impact on you." In this case the counselor had suggested a. an alloplastic method of coping. b. an autoplastic method of coping. c. the emic-etic distinction. d. the emic viewpoint.

b. an autoplastic method of coping.

A client tells his counselor that he has a choice of entering one of two prestigious PhD counseling programs. Kurt Lewin would call this an a. approach-avoidance conflict. b. approach-approach conflict. c. avoidance-avoidance conflict. d. avoidance vector.

b. approach-approach conflict. Choices "a," "b," and "c" indicate the three basic categories of conflict which result in frustration. In the approach-approach format (suggested in this question) the individual is presented with two equally attractive options simultaneously. Of the three types, counselors believe that approach-approach is the easiest to help clients cope with since in most cases (unlike the situation presented in this question) the client can attempt both options: first one, then the other. Moreover, approach-approach conflicts typically instill less anxiety than the other two types.

A client whose counselor pushes the alloplastic viewpoint may believe his counselor is simply a. too Rogerian. b. attacking the system. c. too Freudian. d. too cognitive.

b. attacking the system. The salient point here is that generally a synthesis, rather than a pure alloplastic or autoplastic position, will be the most effective

The term contextualism implies that a. multicultural counseling is the oldest subspecialty in the profession. b. behavior must be assessed in the context of the culture in which the behavior occurs. c. the notion of worldview is highly inaccurate. d. projective tests are more accurate than objective measures when performing cross-cultural counseling.

b. behavior must be assessed in the context of the culture in which the behavior occurs. Let's dispense of choice "a" by pointing out that although Frank Parsons, the father of guidance, acknowledged the significance of culture, it did not really begin to emerge as a true, accepted subspecialty until the 1970s. A person's perception of his or her relationship to the world as a whole is often termed a worldview. Choice "b" is a textbook definition of contextualism.

The three factors which enhance interpersonal attraction are: a. assertiveness, anxiety, ego strength. b. close proximity, physical attraction, similar beliefs. c. culture, race, assertiveness. d. ego strength, anxiety, race.

b. close proximity, physical attraction, similar beliefs. Proxemics, or the study of proximity, relates to personal space, interpersonal distance, and territoriality. Leon Festinger discovered that friendship and attraction were highest for apartment dwellers living next door to each other. Social psychologists refer to the tendency for people who are in close proximity to be attracted to each other as propinquity. The attraction waned even among people living two or three doors away. Although we like attractive people, research shows that we generally end up with mates who are on our own level of attractiveness. Studies have shown that voters prefer attractive candidates though they are unaware of their bias. Studies also indicate that attractive people fare better in legal altercations. Moreover, they are more likely to receive help during a time of need, and they are better able to sway the opinions of an audience. Compliments, or "rewardingness" (a genuine caring), could also help to intensify attraction. Finally, reciprocity of attraction or liking suggests we are attracted to people who like us and find us attractive. For long-term relationships, the matching hypothesis asserts we very often pick a partner who roughly matches our level of attractiveness.

Cognitive dissonance research deals mainly with a. attraction. b. cognition and attitude formation. c. cognitions and emotion. d. none of the above.

b. cognition and attitude formation. The notion is that the discrepancies or inconsistencies that create tension are caused by cognitions and attitudes.

Six persons attend a counseling group. After the group, five members praise the merits of a group activity assigned by the group leader. The sixth person, who has heard the opinion of the other five people, felt the activity was useless and boring. According to studies on social behavior, about one third of the time the sixth individual would most likely tell the other five that a. he totally disagreed with their assessment. b. he too felt the group activity was very helpful. c. he really wasn't certain how he felt about the activity. d. a and c.

b. he too felt the group activity was very helpful. Experiments by Solomon Asch and Muzafer Sherif would predict that the person would most likely "sell out" and agree with the other five. In one study Asch discovered that approximately 35% of the persons tested in a perceptual activity gave an answer which was clearly incorrect in order to conform! Social researchers consistently have discovered that people will conform to an obviously incorrect unanimous decision one third of the time. Moreover, studies indicate that as few as three other people can produce conformity in a social setting. Who conforms the most? The answer includes individuals who are authoritarian and thus are heavily influenced by authority figures, people who are external approval seekers, and persons who feel that outside external factors control them.

In the 1920s, Emory Bogardus developed a social distance scale, which evaluated a. socioeconomic trends. b. how an individual felt toward other ethnic groups. c. disadvantaged youth. d. language barriers between African Americans and Asian Americans.

b. how an individual felt toward other ethnic groups. Ethnicity can be defined as that which pertains to a large group of individuals who are categorized by national, religious, linguistic, or cultural attributes. Measurement of attitudinal attributes began in the 1920s. The Bogardus data were indicative of negative attitudes toward a number of groups, including African Americans, Jews, Mexicans, and Turks. A replication of the study in 1947 revealed that the negative attitudes still prevailed. Wanting to keep a social distance from a certain group of people is seen as a form of prejudice.

The statement "Even though my car is old and doesn't run well, it sure keeps my insurance payments low" a. is displacement. b. is an attempt to reduce dissonance via consistent cognitions. c. is projection. d. would never reduce dissonance in an individual.

b. is an attempt to reduce dissonance via consistent cognitions. This could be described as the "sweet lemon" variety of rationalization

When counseling a client from a different culture, a common error is made when negative transference a. is interpreted as positive transference. b. is interpreted as therapeutic resistance. c. is interpreted as white privilege. d. none of the above.

b. is interpreted as therapeutic resistance. White privilege has been used to focus on the special advantages, privileges, and opportunities that nonwhites don't have. Since transference relates to incidents which occurred prior to treatment, such issues must be distinguished from the current helping relationship. This is sometimes difficult to accomplish.

Most experts would agree that a multicultural counselor's diagnosis a. must be performed without regard to cultural issues. b. must be done within a cultural context. c. a and b. d. none of the above.

b. must be done within a cultural context. The "cultural approach to normality" suggests that the behavior of the majority of the people defines what is considered "normal." An important point to note, however, is that deviant behavior, such as in the case of a very powerful leader or a genius, may be lauded.

Floyd Henry Allport created the concept of social facilitation. According to this theory, an individual who is given the task of memorizing a list of numbers will a. perform better if he or she is alone. b. perform better if he or she is part of a group. c. perform better if he or she has undergone psychotherapy. d. perform better if he or she is an auditory learner.

b. perform better if he or she is part of a group. This is indeed an interesting phenomenon. The presence of other persons (coworkers, other athletes, fellow students) improves an individual's performance even when there is no verbal interaction!

The statement "whites are better than African Americans" illustrates a. a weakening of the caste system in the U.S. b. racism. c. sexism. d. codependency.

b. racism. Choice "a" is definitely wrong since the view that whites are better than African Americans is indicative of a caste system mentality. Choice "d," codependency, is a term which grew mainly out of the chemical dependency and addiction treatment movement. The word has various definitions, although it mainly refers to an individual who is emotionally involved with a chemically dependent person (perhaps even members of his or her family) and/or is addicted to a relationship with another person or drugs. "Racism," the correct answer, occurs when an assumption is made that some races are better than others. Hence, the race which feels superior can deny the other race rights and respect. Sexism is an analogous term. In sexism, one sex assumes that the other is inherently inferior.

The literature suggests these factors as helpful in promoting therapeutic surrender: a. an analysis of cognitive dissonance. b. rapport, trust, listening, conquering client resistance, and self-disclosure. c. paradoxing the client. d. analyzing flight-to-health defense mechanism variables.

b. rapport, trust, listening, conquering client resistance, and self-disclosure. Choice "d" is an analytic concept which asserts that the client has improved too rapidly and the real difficulty (unconscious conflicts) has not been resolved. A similar term, flight from reality, is used when the client resorts to psychosis (losing touch with reality) to avoid dealing with current life difficulties.

A client from another culture will a. talk to the counselor the same as they would to a peer. b. speak to the counselor differently from the way they would when speaking to someone of their own background. c. generally use slang on purpose to confuse the counselor. d. generally play dumb to receive the counselor's sympathy.

b. speak to the counselor differently from the way they would when speaking to someone of their own background. Often individuals are courteous and polite with those who are of the same cultural origin, but are suspicious and don't trust outsiders.

A woman who is being robbed a. would probably get the most assistance in a crowd with a large number of bystanders. b. would find that the number of people who would respond to her distress actually decreases as the number of bystanders increases. c. would rarely have a bystander from a different race try to help her. d. none of the above.

b. would find that the number of people who would respond to her distress actually decreases as the number of bystanders increases. The number of people who will help a victim in distress decreases, and the time it will take to intervene increases, as the number of bystanders increases. This phenomenon is billed as the bystander effect or bystander apathy. Everybody assumes somebody else will step in and take charge. This is referred to as diffusion of responsibility. The converse, or helping an individual in distress, is generally called "altruism" or basically an unselfish concern for others. Altruism could conceivably apply in a psychological sense when you are working with groups and a client is the victim of scapegoating and you step in as the leader to emotionally protect this client.

A(n) ________ client would most likely have the most difficulty with self-disclosure when speaking to a white counselor. a. white female b. African American female c. African American male d. upper-class white male

c. African American male Males in general sometimes have difficulty expressing feelings. According to the literature, African American males are especially hesitant about revealing themselves to whites.

A popular cognitive consistency or balance theory in social psychology is ________ cognitive dissonance theory. a. Dollard and Miller's b. Crites and Roe's c. Festinger's d. Holland and Super's

c. Festinger's Choices "b" and "d" are primarily associated with the career counseling movement. The concept of balance theory suggests people strive for consistency/balance in terms of their belief systems. Individuals attempt to reduce or eliminate inconsistent or incompatible actions and beliefs. A state of incompatibility is known as "dissonance". Leon Festinger, in 1957, suggested that individuals are motivated to reduce tension and discomfort, thus putting an end to the dissonance. People don't like inconsistency in their thoughts or attitudes versus behavior. Dissonance is often reduced using denial.

________ and ________ would say that regardless of culture, humans have an instinct to fight. a. Maslow; Rogers b. Ellis; Harper c. Freud; Lorenz d. Glasser; Rogers

c. Freud; Lorenz Freud believed that man was basically driven by the instincts of sex and aggression. Lorenz—partially basing his theory on the fact that certain tropical fish will attack an alternate target even when the actual target of aggression is removed—is another believer in the so-called "innate aggression theory." P.S. McDougall could also join the ranks of Freud and Lorenz as an "instinct theorist."

________ believe that aggression is learned. Thus, a child who witnesses aggressive behavior in adults may imitate the aggressive behavior. a. Instinct theorists b. Innate aggression theorists c. Social learning theorists d. Followers of Erik Erikson

c. Social learning theorists The social learning theory contradicts the "innate/instinct aggression theory" by emphasizing the environment rather than genetics or inborn tendencies. This model is generally associated with the work of Albert Bandura and his associates, who noted that children who viewed live or filmed aggression imitated the behavior. This is known as social learning theory or observational learning. The phenomenon is greatest when the adult is admired, powerful, or well liked. Adolescents often model angry or aggressive parents, even in homes where the parents discourage hostile behavior.

When a person has two negative alternatives, it is called an a. approach-approach conflict. b. approach vector. c. avoidance-avoidance conflict. d. avoidance cohesiveness.

c. avoidance-avoidance conflict. When a client says, "I don't know whether to pay the hefty fine or go to jail," he is struggling with an avoidance-avoidance conflict in which both choices are undesirable, to say the least. Clients in this position often daydream, flee from the situation, or regress instead of confronting the choices. The client also may waver or vacillate when he or she comes close to making a choice.

In the United States, middle- and upper-class citizens seem to want a counselor who a. will give them "a good talking to." b. gives a specific and steady stream of advice. c. helps them work it out on their own. d. is highly authoritarian and autocratic.

c. helps them work it out on their own. The theory here is that most middle- and upper-class citizens are taught that independence is a virtue. The person would not want to be dependent on a therapist, parents, or others, as is implied in choices "a," "b," and "d."

Our culture is more diverse than in the past. Multicultural counselors often work with persons who are culturally different. This means the client a. is culturally biased. b. suffers from the diagnosis of cultural relativity. c. belongs to a different culture from the helper. d. presents problems which deal only with culturally charged issues.

c. belongs to a different culture from the helper. Multicultural counselors work with the entire range of human difficulties just like other counselors. Yes, multicultural counselors do indeed deal frequently with cultural issues and therefore choices "a" and "b" could be true, but they are decidedly not the best answers. Choice "d" is easy enough to eliminate if you read it carefully and noted the word only. Let's zero in for a moment on the term noted in choice "b," cultural relativity, also described as cultural relativism on some exams. Cultural relativity connotes that a behavior cannot be assessed as good or bad except within the context of a given culture. The behavior must be evaluated relative to the culture. In the United States, for example, teen pregnancy prior to marriage is sometimes considered a negative behavior and viewed as a difficulty. In other parts of the world premarital pregnancy may be seen as something which is positive because it establishes the woman's fertility. Such a woman may even be described as more "marriageable." The multicultural counselor must assess the client's behavior based on the client's own culture—not merely based on the counselor's culture. The meaning or desirability of a given behavior, trait, or act is based on the culture. It is said that effective counselors must transcend the "culture-bound values" barrier in which the counselor is "bound" to his or her own values and tries to impose them on clients.

An African American client tells a white counselor that the dance she went to last night was "bad," though she literally means it was good. The counselor's misunderstanding could best be described as a a. client of color error. b. cognitive dissonance error. c. connotative error. d. confounding variable.

c. connotative error. According to some experts in this field, the three major barriers to intercultural counseling are culture-bound values, class-bound values, and language differences. Connotation applies to the emotional content of a word, which is different from the true or dictionary definition. The tendency for words to convey different connotations is often referred to as a "semantic differential." Choice "d," a confounding variable, is an extraneous variable which is not purposely introduced by an experimenter conducting research. This difficulty is inherent in correlational data.

Culture is really a set of rules, procedures, ideas, and values shared by members of a society. Culture is said to be normative. This implies that a. one culture will have norms which differ only slightly from another. b. culture excludes customs. c. culture provides individuals with standards of conduct. d. culture is never socially learned.

c. culture provides individuals with standards of conduct. Cultures often differ markedly from each other, and most experts would agree that the customs are nearly always learned and shared with members of the society.

A practicum supervisor who says to their supervisee "You can deal with your Asian American clients the same as you deal with anybody else" is espousing the a. emic viewpoint. b. alloplastic viewpoint. c. etic viewpoint, derived from the term phonetic referring to sounds that remain the same in any language. d. autoplastic viewpoint

c. etic viewpoint, derived from the term phonetic referring to sounds that remain the same in any language. Counselors who espouse the etic viewpoint will use the same strategies and techniques on virtually any client. In this case, for example, the Asian American client will be treated no differently from an American, a Native American, a French Canadian, or for that matter anybody else. The etic distinction also resembles the educational concept of "mainstreaming," which asserts that all children—including those with disabilities—can benefit from placement in a regular classroom.

The statement "All humans, from all cultures, all races, and all nations, are more alike than different" is based on the a. emic viewpoint. b. alloplastic viewpoint. c. etic viewpoint. d. autoplastic viewpoint.

c. etic viewpoint.

Most individuals believe that people whom they perceive as attractive a. are nonassertive. b. are aggressive. c. have other positive traits. d. are socially adept but not very intelligent.

c. have other positive traits. This can cause the professional counselor difficulty if they tend to minimize a client's problems merely because they are good looking. Clients—like books —cannot be judged by their covers, yet this tendency is quite common.

A wealth of research demonstrates that a. surprisingly enough, African Americans generally request Asian American counselors. b. surprisingly enough, Asian Americans generally request African American counselors. c. in most instances, clients prefer a counselor of the same race and a similar cultural background. d. in most instances, clients prefer a counselor of the same race, yet a different culture.

c. in most instances, clients prefer a counselor of the same race and a similar cultural background. In multicultural counseling, "likes attract." Social psychologists who have studied attraction tell us that similarity increases attraction. Research demonstrates that if the other person is a member of a different nationality, race, or culture but is perceived as "similar", then you still will be more attracted to the individual perceived as "similar" despite race or cultural barriers.

Whereas a culture is defined primarily via norms and values, a society differs from a culture in that a society a. is defined as a set of mores. b. has a distinct lack of norms. c. is a self-perpetuating independent group which occupies a definitive territory. d. none of the above.

c. is a self-perpetuating independent group which occupies a definitive territory. The boundaries of a culture and a society are not the same. Cultures operate within societies; however, all members of a given society may not share the same culture.

A counselor reading this book says, "I couldn't care less about passing my comprehensive exam." This a. is displacement. b. is an attempt to reduce dissonance via consistent cognitions. c. is an attempt to reduce dissonance by denial, thus minimizing tension. d. is projection.

c. is an attempt to reduce dissonance by denial, thus minimizing tension. Choices "a" and "d" are ego defense mechanisms. Choice "b" is incorrect since reading this book to pass the exam and not caring about passing are "inconsistent."

The tendency to affiliate with others a. is highest in the middle child. b. is highest in children with DSM diagnoses. c. is highest in firstborns and only children. d. is based on hormonal output.

c. is highest in firstborns and only children. In the behavioral sciences the word affiliation refers to the need one has to associate with others. Choice "c" correctly reflects the landmark research of Stanley Schachter, which concluded that the need to affiliate decreases for later-born children.

Early vocalization in infants a. is more complex in African American babies. b. is more complex in white babies. c. is nearly identical in all cultures around the globe. d. is the finest indicator of elementary school performance.

c. is nearly identical in all cultures around the globe. From one side of the globe to the other, the initial sounds made by babies are very similar. The cultural environment then strengthens certain verbalizations via the process of reinforcement. The first word usually is spoken after approximately one year of life. The child may use one- or two-word phrases (e.g., "me eat" or "I Betty") initially. These are known as "holophrases." Initially, the child's language is egocentric. By the fourth year most children can construct simple sentences. Anne Fernald of Stanford University discovered that by age 2 there can be a six-month language gap between children who are living in poverty and those who are not. This could be dubbed as socioeconomic status or SES on the exam. Clearly, more research is necessary and Fernald is quick to point out that this difference at a young age does not translate to destiny. Lack of environmental stimulation in any socioeconomic bracket (referred to as an "unstimulating" environment on some exams) does indeed hinder vocalization development.

A Japanese client who was reluctant to look you in the eye during her counseling session would most likely be displaying a. severe negative transference. b. positive transference. c. normal behavior within the context of her culture. d. ambivalent transference.

c. normal behavior within the context of her culture. In some Asian cultures children are often brought up to believe that it is a sign of respect to avoid eye contact with an authority figure. In addition, in some cultures it is considered proper to talk no more than is necessary, which of course is not congruent with the way most Americans think. Moreover, some Asian Americans have been taught that it is shameful to brag or to express one's own desires, ambitions, or strong feelings. This background could well present a roadblock for a counselor operating under a paradigm that stresses abreaction. Some Asian Americans have been brought up to believe that all problems are solved only within the privacy of family meetings. If mental illness does exist, it is considered a genetic flaw and a family secret. Hence, some Asian Americans may place a high premium on self-control, which is an issue that can be examined in counseling. Derald Wing Sue and David Sue suggested that Asian Americans may respond best to brief therapy that is directive and structured with specific problemsolving goals. Often our somewhat scientific approaches to counseling really reflect what mainstream American society views as real or scientific. Some Latinos/as may value folk healing, which is very spiritual and can include elements such as going into a trancelike state and talking with God. Approximately 65% of the Latinos/as in the United States are of Mexican heritage according to the 2014 U.S. Census Bureau.

According to the foot-in-the-door compliance technique, which has two distinct steps, a counselor who needs to make a home visit to a resistant client's home a. should conduct the interview from the porch. b. should double-bind the client. c. should ask to come in the home. d. should exude accurate empathy, but never ask to enter the home.

c. should ask to come in the home. Choices "a," "b," and "d" could be utilized; nonetheless, they do not describe the "foot-in-the-door" obedience technique. The phenomenon asserts that when a person agrees to a less-repugnant request (step 1), then they will be more likely to comply with a request which is even more distasteful (step 2). Social science researchers report that trivial commitments lead to a so-called "momentum of compliance." The notion is generally related to a 1966 study by Jonathan Freedman and Scott Fraser in which housewives who were first asked to sign a safe-driving petition were more apt to comply with the request to put a large "Drive Carefully" sign on their front lawns. The moral of the experiment is to always ask for a small favor and you'll have a better chance of getting a person to say "yes" when you ask for a bigger favor.

Experts in the field of multicultural counseling feel that the counselor's training a. must come from an APA-approved graduate program. b. must come from a supervisor who is from a different culture than the graduate student. c. should be broad and interdisciplinary. d. need not include rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT).

c. should be broad and interdisciplinary. Choice "d," rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) certainly can be helpful when counseling clients from another culture because it does not stress mental illness. The perception of the REBT practitioner as a "teacher" makes the process of helping more palatable to some populations. Choice "c" is the best answer. An adept multicultural helper ideally would study topics which go beyond traditional counseling theory. Some educators have even suggested that an exchange program in which counselors study in foreign universities could be beneficial.

In intercultural/multicultural counseling the term therapeutic surrender means a. nothing—it is not a valid term. b. most therapists will give up in 16 sessions or less if progress is not evident. c. the client psychologically surrenders himself or herself to a counselor from a different culture and becomes open with feelings and thoughts. d. the therapist assumes a passive therapeutic stance.

c. the client psychologically surrenders himself or herself to a counselor from a different culture and becomes open with feelings and thoughts. Therapeutic surrender occurs when a client is able to trust the counselor and self-discloses. Contrary to choice "a," the term is used frequently in intercultural counseling.

Positive transference is to love or affection, as negative transference is to hostility, and as ambivalent transference is to a. anger. b. hate. c. uncertainty. d. admiration.

c. uncertainty. Ambivalent transference, a term popular in multicultural counseling settings, occurs when the client rapidly shifts their emotional attitude toward the counselor based on learning and experiences related to authority figures from the past.

Which therapist was not instrumental in the early years of the social psychology movement? a. Freud. b. Durkheim. c. McDougall. d. Berne.

d. Berne. Eric Berne, the father of transactional analysis (choice "d"), is the only answer which makes sense here. Sigmund Freud (choice "a") is known for his influential 1921 book, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, which suggested that the group was held together by a bond between the leader and the group members that was seen as somewhat analogous to a hypnotist and their subject. The Frenchman Emile Durkheim (choice "b") is considered one of the founders of modern sociology. His principles were first outlined in his 1895 work, Rules of Sociological Method. He is also well-known for his research into suicide, which culminated in another literary work, Suicide, two years later. Durkheim is said to have taken group phenomena beyond the armchair-speculation stage into formal research. William McDougall (choice "c") is the father of "hormic psychology," a Darwinian viewpoint which suggested that individuals in or out of groups are driven by innate, inherited tendencies. McDougall is well-remembered for his 1908 landmark work, Introduction to Social Psychology. He also believed in the concept of eugenics or the notion that genetics (selective breeding of those with high intelligence) would improve the gene pool and the human condition. This position has been dubbed as "scientific rascism."

________ was the first pioneer to focus heavily on sociocultural issues. a. Mark Savickas, a major figure in career construction theory relying on narrative therapy, b. Alfred Adler, the father of individual psychology, c. Maxie Maultsby, the father of rational behavior therapy (RBT), d. Frank Parsons, the father of guidance

d. Frank Parsons, the father of guidance Frank Parsons and his associates are considered the first social reformers concerned with guidance in the United States. He wrote Choosing a Vocation.

In the United States, a frequent practice is to see a perfect stranger for therapy. a. This trend seems to be true in any area of the world. b. This is true for Licensed Professional Counselors (LPCs) but not true for Licensed Clinical Social Workers (LCSWs). c. This is true for LPCs and LCSWs but not licensed clinical psychologists. d. In other cultures it would not be the norm to see a stranger and receive pay for providing help.

d. In other cultures it would not be the norm to see a stranger and receive pay for providing help. In E. Fuller Torrey's thought-provoking book The Mind Game: Witch Doctors and Psychiatrists he explains that in Nigeria, helpers have accepted a female client as a wife in lieu of a fee! He also notes that in other cultures a therapist cannot accept a fee unless the treatment is successful.

The frustration-aggression theory is associated with a. Albert Ellis. b. Robert Havinghurst, who created the idea of the developmental task concept. c. Eric Berne, the creator of transactional analysis (TA). d. John Dollard and Neal Miller.

d. John Dollard and Neal Miller. Frustration occurs when an individual is blocked so that they cannot reach an intended goal (or the goal is removed). The Dollard/Miller hypothesis asserts that frustration leads to aggression. Albert Ellis (choice "a"), the father of rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), does not agree with the frustration-aggression theory. He feels that many clients believe that frustration causes aggression. Ellis maintains that this dynamic is due to the client's irrational thought process rather than some automatic response pattern. Some social psychologists believe that when individuals lose their identity ("deindividuation") they are likely to become aggressive or violent. It has been found that the presence of weapons raises the level of violence as well as the probability that violence will occur. Keep this in mind when dealing with suicidal and homicidal clients.

In 1908, books by ________ helped to introduce social psychology in America. a. Moreno and Yalom b. Holland and Roe c. Barber and Salter d. McDougall and Ross

d. McDougall and Ross William McDougall wrote Introduction to Social Psychology, which expounded on his "hormic psychology" position that individual as well as group behavior is the result of inherited tendencies to seek goals. Edward Alsworth Ross authored Social Psychology. Other famous names noted in the alternatives include Jacob Moreno, who pioneered psychodrama and coined the term group therapy; Irvin Yalom, an existentialist, well known for his strides in group work, existential therapy, and death and dying; John Holland, who stressed that a person's occupational environment should be congruent with his or her personality type; Anne Roe, who postulated that jobs can compensate for unmet childhood needs; T. X. Barber, who espoused a cognitive theory of hypnotism; and Andrew Salter, a pioneer in the behavior therapy creating a paradigm dubbed conditioned reflex therapy, and a behavioristic theory of hypnosis, and autohypnosis.

________ was a prime factor in the history of multicultural counseling. a. Frankl's experience in a concentration camp b. Perl's use of the German concept of gestalt c. Freud's visits to the United States d. The 1954 Supreme Court decision, Brown v. the Board of Education, which outlawed public school segregation

d. The 1954 Supreme Court decision, Brown v. the Board of Education, which outlawed public school segregation Choice "a" mentions Viktor Frankl, the father of logotherapy, an existential form of treatment which stresses "healing through meaning." Choice "b" mentions Fritz Perls, the father of gestalt therapy, which attempts to ameliorate a mind/body split supposedly responsible for emotional distress. Gestalt is a German word which roughly means the "whole" form, figure, or configuration. The final alternative is correct. Desegregation created culturally different populations for school counselors.

All of these statements are ethnocentric except a. You can't trust anyone over the age of 40. b. Americans are generous. c. Blue-collar workers are mean and selfish. d. The Gross Domestic Product in the United States exceeds the figure in Mexico.

d. The Gross Domestic Product in the United States exceeds the figure in Mexico. Ethnocentrism is based on opinion while choice "d" is fact. Ethnocentrism was clearly expressed in the World War II joke which suggested that Hitler couldn't build a race of supermen because Superman could only be an American.

In the case of an individual who purchased a $50,000 watch, cognitive dissonance theory postulates that a. they might ignore positive information regarding other models and secure a lot of information regarding the $50,000 platinum model. b. they might sell the $50,000 watch immediately following the purchase. c. they might focus heavily on negative information regarding rival models. d. a and c.

d. a and c. Remember: cognitive dissonance theory predicts that the person will look for things which are consistent with their behavior. Is choice "a" consistent? Of course; yet choice "c" is also possible since the individual could ignore positive attributes of the competition (choice "a") or maximize their negative features (choice "c"). Counselors should keep in mind that consistency is considered a desirable personality trait in most cultures.

A classic experiment in social psychology was conducted by the social psychologist Muzafer Sherif et al. at a boys' summer camp near Robbers' Cave, Oklahoma. The important finding in this study was that a. most people cooperate in a social setting. b. competition plays a small role in most of our lives. c. a and b. d. a cooperative, or so-called superordinate, goal attained only by working in a joint manner, can bring two hostile groups together, thus reducing competition and enhancing cooperation.

d. a cooperative, or so-called superordinate, goal attained only by working in a joint manner, can bring two hostile groups together, thus reducing competition and enhancing cooperation. Sometimes loosely called the Robbers' Cave Experiment, this study set up two distinct groups of 11- year-old boys who were hostile toward each other. The study concluded that the most effective way to reduce hostility between groups was to give them an alternative, a superordinate goal, which required a joint effort and could not be accomplished by a single group.

America has been called the most diverse country on the face of our planet. Counseling a client from a different social and/or cultural background is known as a. cross-cultural counseling. b. multicultural counseling. c. intercultural counseling. d. all of the above.

d. all of the above. Although "b" is the term we hear most often, choices "a," "b," and "c" are roughly synonymous and hence mean approximately the same thing when you encounter them in the literature. Some research indicates that clients from minorities have been misdiagnosed, misunderstood, and found counseling less helpful than those from the majority culture. Clients from minority cultures tend to seek out counseling less and drop out sooner. Nevertheless, a culturally competent counselor can be successful regardless of the client's background. Thus, this is an important area of study. The ACA division that deals explicitly with this topic is the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD). The division is intended to raise cultural, racial, and ethnic understanding and empathy. Multicultural counseling—which emphasizes respect for differences—has been dubbed as the "fourth force of counseling theory." Key exam hint: The term multicultural implies that we champion the idea of celebrating diversity and this can be age, sexual orientation, religion, social class, country of origin, race, and even health status. Some exams use the term cultural pluralism to suggest that a minority cultural group will keep their own unique cultural values, yet they still participate in the wider or dominant culture.

In a traditional culture which places a high premium on authority figures, a. passivity on the part of the counselor would be viewed in a negative manner. b. a client would be disappointed if he or she did not receive advice. c. assigning homework and teaching on the part of the counselor would be appropriate. d. all of the above.

d. all of the above. An active-directive model works best with persons who respond well to an authority figure.

In terms of trust and therapeutic surrender, a. it is easier to trust people from one's own culture. b. lower-income people often don't trust others from a higher social class. c. lower-income clients may feel that they will end up as losers dealing with a counselor from a higher social class. d. all of the above.

d. all of the above. Language barriers, on the part of the client or the counselor, intensify the difficulty of therapeutic surrender. One good technique is to steer clear of slang or fancy therapeutic jargon and try to speak in a clear, concise, and direct manner.

In terms of research related to affiliation a. misery loves miserable company. b. firstborns are more likely to affiliate than other children born later. c. people affiliate in an attempt to lower fear. d. all of the above.

d. all of the above. Stanley Schachter set up an experiment in which subjects were informed that they were going to receive a very painful electrical shock (high anxiety) or a very weak one which would merely tingle. The subjects were told that they could wait alone for 10 minutes before receiving the shock or wait with others participating in the study. Of those subjects who were told they would receive a mere "tingle" only one third chose to wait with others, while over 62% of the high-anxiety group decided to do so. Follow-up research seems to indicate that a person with high anxiety will not choose to be with others unless the other individuals are in a similar situation. Philip Zimbardo discovered in a 1961 study that males placed in extremely embarrassing situations in which they would need to act like infants were much less willing to affiliate with others going through the same thing. One interpretation would be that individuals are more comfortable sharing real fear than anxiety which could result in embarrassment or shame. This research is somewhat similar to Leon Festinger's theory of social comparison, which postulates that people have a need to compare themselves with others to assess their own abilities and options. The theory further asserts that we will compare ourselves to others who are basically similar to us.

Culture refers to a. customs shared by a group which distinguish it from other groups. b. values shared by a group that are learned from others in the group. c. attitudes, beliefs, art, and language which characterize members of a group often passed from generation to generation. d. all of the above.

d. all of the above. The sum of choices "a," "b," and "c" add up to a wonderful little definition of culture. A person's culture can really be delineated by those customs which set him or her apart from another culture. Immigrants or persons who must live in a culture which is different from their native culture often experience "culture conflict." By definition culture conflict manifests itself whenever a person experiences conflicting thoughts, feelings, or behaviors due to divided cultural loyalties (i.e., loyalty to two or more cultures). Culture conflict also can describe the difficulties which arise when persons of different cultures live in the same geographical area. How will you know which definition of cultural conflict applies to a test question? Well, the only good answer is that you must read every question very carefully in order to ferret out the context of the question. Hint: The term macroculture or majority culture on comprehensive exams refers to the dominant culture or the culture that is accepted by the majority of citizens in a given society. When an exam uses the term privilege, it is referring to the fact that some individuals have an unearned advantage, giving that person dominance, access to resources, and therefore power. Ideally, this power should be shared with others who don't have it (i.e., to empower others) rather than discriminating against those who do not.

Milgram discovered that normal people would administer seemingly fatal electric shocks to others when instructions to do so were given by a person perceived as a. a peer. b. an equal. c. an individual from another culture. d. an authority figure.

d. an authority figure. Prior to the experiment, psychiatrists predicted that only 1% would administer the highest level of shock. In reality, 65% dished out "fatal shock punishment" in response to an incorrect answer. If the experimental authority figure was in the room, the tendency to obey was higher than if they were not physically present. In a related study by Leonard Bickman, individuals told to give a dime or a paper bag to a stranger did so twice as often when the person giving the orders was dressed as a guard rather than a peer.

Carol Gilligan, although she was an assistant to Lawrence Kohlberg, was critical of his theory of moral development a. as she felt it was too psychoanalytic. b. as she felt it was too behavioristic. c. as she felt it was not applicable to African Americans. d. as she felt it was more applicable to males than females.

d. as she felt it was more applicable to males than females. According to Gilligan, Kohlberg's theory did not delineate the notion that women place more emphasis on caregiving and personal responsibility than do men, who focus more on individual rights and justice.

Ethnocentrism a. is not universal. b. promotes a sense of patriotism and national sovereignty. c. promotes stability and pride, yet danger in the nuclear age. d. b and c.

d. b and c. According to researchers Robert LeVine and Donald Campbell you can scratch off choice "a," because ethnocentrism is truly a universal phenomenon in which an ethnic group tries to prove it is superior. The U.S. government (as well as others) engages in choice "b" (a form of ethnocentrism) deliberately. Choice "c" reminds us of the ultimate danger in trying to prove sovereignty in a nuclear age.

A counselor who is part of a research study will be counseling clients in the polar regions and then at a point near the equator. Her primary concern will be a. universal culture. b. national culture. c. ecological culture. d. b and c.

d. b and c. Clemmont Vontress suggested that multicultural counselors would do well to remember that we are all part of a universal culture (choice "a"). We all have similar or universal needs (the hierarchy proposed by Maslow) and requirements for food, water, air, and sleep regardless of our cultural affiliation. Vontress noted that universal culture can be distinguished from national, regional, racioethnic, and ecological culture. Ecological culture implies that cultural norms are often the result of practical and survival behaviors related to the climate or the resources in a given physical or geological environment. Eating, drinking, clothing, and shelter behaviors would clearly be different in the polar regions than at the equator, desert region, or New York City. From a personal standpoint the counselor's primary concern would probably be the ecological culture, and choice "b" (national culture) would no doubt run a close second.

Balance theory postulates a. a move from cognitive consistency to inconsistency. b. a move from cognitive inconsistency to consistency. c. a tendency to achieve a balanced cognitive state. d. b and c.

d. b and c. Inconsistent thoughts are often referred to as "dissonance." Most counselors agree that dissonance is a distasteful state of mind which the individual will attempt to change.

Daniel Levinson proposed a controversial stage-crisis view theory with several major life transitions. He a. is the father of multicultural counseling. b. wrote the 1978 classic Seasons of a Man's Life and the 1997 sequel Seasons of a Woman's Life. c. postulated a midlife crisis for men between ages 40 and 45 and for women approximately five years earlier. d. b and c.

d. b and c. Subsequent research indicates that Levinson's theory of a midlife crisis for men or for women doesn't really hold water. Levinson's theory, originally derived by interviewing 40 middle-aged men from different backgrounds, suggested three major transitions. Levinson provides no statistical analysis. The first transition is known as early adult transition and is said to occur between the ages of 17 and 22. In this stage the individual makes decisions about college, the military, and breaking away from one's parents. This is the "leaving the family stage." A dream of the ideal adult life is formulated. Next, he proposes the age 30 transition (ages 28-33) in which the person attempts to make the dream a reality. After this stage the man experiences a settling down period. Next comes the midlife transition (ages 40-45 or approximately five years earlier for women). This stage is seen as stressful. The person questions his dream and acknowledges that goals may not be met. Moreover, one's mortality becomes an issue (being young vs. being old). An age 50 transition occurs. The final transition is later adulthood (ages 60-65) where the individual makes peace with the world. Levinson's theory is now viewed as biased against women (gender bias) since it does not truly deal adequately with women's development proposing that women receive fulfillment by meeting the needs of their husbands and families.

Sex-role stereotyping would imply that a. a counselor would only consider traditional feminine careers for his female client. b. a male counselor would rate a female client's emotional status differently than he would a male client's. c. female clients are treated the same as male clients. d. choices a and b.

d. choices a and b. According to studies, male and female counselors can display prejudice toward women. Prejudice means that we are negative or have a rigid, inflexible attitude toward a given group of people and can often act on our unfavorable thoughts. Moreover, the prejudiced individual often "prejudges" others without substantial evidence. Choices "a" and "b" are illustrative of stereotyping in which the counselor has generalized feelings about a given group (in this case, women). Unfortunately, research would suggest that the response in choice "a" might well be a typical one. In a study released in 1970 by Nancy K.Schlossberg and John J. Pietrofesa, counselor trainees and professors were instructed to help a female counselee choose between an engineering and a teaching career. All the counselor trainees tried to steer her clear of engineering, typically a masculine career. According to the study females were as biased as males. As for choice "b," I can only say "ditto." A 1970 study by Inge K. Broverman, Donald M. Broverman, Frank E. Clarkson, Paul S. Rosenkrantz, and Susan Raymond Vogel found that all the therapists who filled out a questionnaire used a different standard of mental health when rating men from the one they used for women. Women and other minorities are sometimes said to be victims of a "caste system." The term caste system implies that there are fixed layers of superiority and inferiority which you are born into and thus cannot escape.

Overall, Rogerian person-centered counseling a. is rarely utilized in cross-cultural counseling. b. is too nondirective for intercultural counseling. c. a and b. d. has been used more than other models to help promote understanding between cultures and races.

d. has been used more than other models to help promote understanding between cultures and races. In the 1970s, Rogers conducted workshops to enhance cross-cultural communication. People from all over the world participated. Person-centered techniques are popular in Japan. Person-centered therapy is nonjudgmental and thus is considered a superb modality for multicultural/multiracial usage. The exception (mentioned earlier) could occur when counseling an ethnic or racial group that demands structure or authority from a helper. Low-income clients generally view the helper as an advice giver. Estimates indicate that approximately 50% of all ethnic minority clients quit counseling after the first session feeling they will not secure what they want from the helper.

Multicultural counselors often adhere to the emic viewpoint. The word emic a. is associated with the Supreme Court decision of 1954 outlawing segregation. b. suggests that all clients are alike regardless of culture. c. is associated with rational behavior therapy (RBT). d. is a "culture-specific" perspective, from the word phonemic meaning sounds in a particular language.

d. is a "culture-specific" perspective, from the word phonemic meaning sounds in a particular language. J. G. Draguns suggested the emic-etic distinction in cross-cultural counseling. Emic can be defined as an insider's perception of the culture. A researcher or counselor using an emic frame of reference wants to know what somebody participating in the culture thinks. The emic viewpoint emphasizes that each client is an individual with individual differences, while the etic view adheres to the theory that humans are humans—regardless of background and culture—thus, the same theories and techniques can be applied to any client the counselor helps. Hence, a counselor who values the "emic" view will try to help clients by understanding the client's specific culture, while the "etic" counselor emphasizes the sameness among clients—a universalism perspective—that literally transcends cultural boundaries. Universal helping principles transcend culture. The "etic" counselor would not alter their technique when working with a client from a different culture or a minority group.

The 1971 famous Stanford Prison experiment conducted by Philip Zimbardo demonstrated that a. passivity is the norm for most individuals. b. assertive behavior is clearly the healthiest behavioral alternative. c. it takes people several weeks to change their behavior. d. people conform to social roles.

d. people conform to social roles. Zimbardo turned the basement of the Stanford University Psychology Building into a mock prison. Zimbardo randomly picked students to become guards as well as prisoners. Guards hurled insults at prisoners, were mean, hostile, sadistic, and abusive. The prisoners became passive. The experiment, slated to last two weeks, was shut down after six days as prisoners were harassed by guards at such a high level (forced to clean the toilet facilities with their bare hands) they were becoming anxious, depressed, and stressed out. The experiment partially explains how the atrocities of the Holocaust could have been perpetrated and some of the behaviors noted at Abu Ghraib prison. In 1973 the APA ruled the experiment as ethical, but today this would not be the case. Even Zimbardo went on record as saying that nobody in this country should ever be a part of an experiment like this ever again.

You are counseling a client from a different culture. She cannot move her right arm, but has been examined by some of the finest physicians and they cannot find any physical reason for her condition. The irony is that she is there to work on some personal issues but states forthrightly that the total lack of mobility in her arm does not bother her and thus is not an issue to deal with in the counseling sessions. The most likely explanation would be a. she is displaying malingering. b. she was severely abused as a young child. c. she is suicidal. d. she has a conversion disorder with la belle indifference.

d. she has a conversion disorder with la belle indifference. The fact that you are counseling a client from a different culture is irrelevant. A conversion disorder is evident when a person displays symptoms (generally neurological) which cannot be accounted for via medical exams. Clients with conversion disorders sometimes display la belle indifference also called belle indifference, meaning they do not seem to be bothered or concerned by their condition. The person is not intentionally creating the symptoms, hence the implication is the condition is fueled by stress and emotions rather than physical factors. Counseling, biofeedback, and relaxation therapy might be helpful. The psychodynamic perspective suggests the person's symptom serves a purpose. A person who saw a very frightening scene and presently can't see would exemplify this position since the individual is no longer worried she will see something scary. Choice "a", malingering, occurs when a person fakes a physical or emotional illness to avoid work, military duty, or prison. We just don't have the evidence to make that diagnosis in this question. Needless to say, she could be misdiagnosed, but the question fails to address this possibility.

A counselor who works primarily with older adults needs to be aware that a. too many counselors choose gerontology as their specialty. b. individuals over 65 tend to overuse hotline and helpline crisis counseling services. c. surprisingly, attractiveness is a fine predictor of retirement adjustment. d. surprisingly, financial security and health are the best predictors of retirement adjustment.

d. surprisingly, financial security and health are the best predictors of retirement adjustment. Approximately 9.5% of all Americans age 65 and older have an income below the poverty level! Two of the most popular myths are that: (a) IQ scores (intelligence) drops markedly as folks age—in reality, IQ scores remain fairly stable over the life span; and (b) the elderly are incapable of sex. In regard to the former, some exam questions could disagree with this generalization slightly, as the theory of "terminal drop" or "terminal decline" postulates that a dramatic decrease in intellectual functioning does occur, but even according to this theory, it only occurs during the final five years of life. It usually centers around verbal skills.

Biological similarities and sameness are indicated by a. ecological culture. b. mores. c. regional and national culture. d. universal culture.

d. universal culture. The Human Genome Project has verified that biologically we are all more alike than different. The adept multicultural counselor will always keep in mind that he or she—like the client—is a product of universal culture.

An adept multicultural counselor a. generally believes in the melting pot concept. b. has a strong ethnocentric worldview. c. will not ask the client for information related to religion or level of faith development. d. usually supports the salad bowl model of diversity.

d. usually supports the salad bowl model of diversity. Choices "a," "b," and "c" are all characteristics of ineffective multicultural helpers leaving choice "d" as the lone hero. The melting pot concept—that different cultures assimilate or melt into the dominant culture—has been deemed a myth. The ethnocentric position holds that a given culture is the best or superior to others. The concept can also mean that the counselor falsely believes that the client views the world in the same manner as the helper. Efficacious helpers do attempt to elicit information regarding the client's religious and spiritual life. In the salad bowl analogy—preferred over the antiquated melting pot notion—people are mixed together, but like lettuce and tomatoes in a salad, they retain their unique cultural identity.

In cross-cultural counseling, structuring is very important. This concept asserts that counseling is most effective a. when structured exercises are utilized. b. when a counselor takes an active-directive stance. c. when nondirective procedures are emphasized. d. when the nature and structure of the counseling situation is described during the initial session.

d. when the nature and structure of the counseling situation is described during the initial session. Structure has a number of meanings in the field of professional counseling. In the context of multicultural counseling, structure indicates that the counselor will explain the role of the helper as well as the role of the helpee. This helps ward off embarrassment and further enhances the effectiveness of the counseling process. The greater the social/cultural gap, the more important the need for structuring. Despite the merits of the Rogerian model, some would claim that it falls short of the ideal paradigm when a high degree of structure is the treatment of choice. Clients from other cultures can harbor gross misconceptions of what represents the helping process.