Socialism 2.0

Common Ownership (general meaning) and why it's supported by Socialists

A form of collectivism, common ownership is where everybody collectively shares resources and produce through the state, as opposed to people owning public private property. Socialists claim that it is actually a Christian belief, due to Jesus calling on his followers to pool their resources and share them equally. They also believe that it will help impose economic equality, and commonly owned property will serve the interests of the whole community, not just the owners of property under the private system.

Utopian Socialism (+ it's response to capitalism)

Advances a moral critique of capitalism. It portrays socialism as morally superior to capitalism, because human beings are able to be ethical creatures, bound to one another by the ties of love, sympathy and compassion. Therefore, while businessmen as individuals are still able to make money, they have to do this ethically, and not through exploitation, like under capitalism. This reasoning is based on the positivity of these ideals, rather than on historical trends or current conditions

What Socialists all agree about on equality

All socialists agree that we are born with equal rights, a belief shared with liberals. This means we are all equal in our ability to access justice and power. Socialists also reject "natural aristocracy" or natural order that those such as Conservatives believe in, as everybody can take up the position for which they may aspire to. In addition, all socialists support equality of opportunities, because again everybody should have parital life chances, and finally, equality is a core value - whatever form it comes in, it is essential to ensuring social cohesion and fraternity.

Positive Discrimination

Also known as "affirmative action", this refers to the belief that some sections of society, especially women and ethnic minorities, suffer systematic discrimination due to who they are. This applies mainly to employment, but also to education and government. The solution to this under positive discrimination therefore is to give a positive advantage to such groups through methods such as minimum quotas (eg a minimum quota of female workers). This counterbalances discrimination and allows for equality of opportunity, whilst also stopping the advancement of other individuals simply because they are in the favoured group.

Capitalism

An economic system whereby means of production are privately owned (people can make profits), and the distribution / trade of goods and production of these goods are determined by a free market, rather than the state.

Anthony Giddens

Anthony Giddens, who founded the Third Way, argued that reformist governments couldn't rely on socialist programmes alone in a democratic system, in the face of powerful capitalist financial forces. Instead, Giddens argued that it would be better to campaign from the centre right on the economy, whilst began radical on social policy. He believed that this was a "Third Way" after Socialism and Neo Liberalism

Tony Benn

Benn (who was very closely linked to Jeremy Corbyn), believed that large scale free market capitalism was preventing more even distribution of wealth due to the unfairness of then system. Public ownership was essential, and production and distribution should be controlled by the state, not the markets. This would stop unemployment completely. While Benn clearly supported statism, he was no Soviet-style politician, and he respected the role of parliamentary democracy within the state. He was also an opponent of dangerous concentrations of power.

Eduard Bernstein

Bernstein was a German theorist and a member of the Social Democratic Party. He is regarded as a founder of Evolutionary Socialism. It should be noted that Bernstein was a politician during the 1878 assassination attempts on Kaiser Wilhem I, which resulted in socialist political parties being banned by Chancellor Bismarck. However, socialists could stand as independent candidates if they wished. Bernstein himself chose not to do this, he instead moved to Switzerland, and later London. After the Socialism Ban in Germany was repealed in 1890, this convinced Bernstein that a peaceful transition from capitalism to socialism could be achieved

The Difference Between Evolutionary and Revolutionary Socialism

Both movements want to seize power in order to achieve socialist principles including raising the equality of the working classes, endorsing common ownership, cooperation, etc. However, they differ in the way they want to seize power, as evolutionarily want to do it legitimately within democratic systems, while revolutionaries believe that it has to happen through revolution and violence, presumably including a force of arms and a new dictated constitution by the proletariat. Revolutionaries believe that it is impossible to bring about socialism from within capitalism or democracy - it has to be forced, unlike evolutionaries.

Similarities between Socialism and Communism

Both socialism and communism support the economy being controlled by the state, particularly that ownership is owned by the public. They also both support the destruction of social classes. They also both support equality - socialism will make new laws when necessary to protect people from discrimination (1970 Equal Pay Act) while all members of a communist state are considered as equal by default.

How the Third Way is Non-Socialist

Class analogy was virtually abandoned, as New Labour accepted that people are mainly individual selves who pursue their own goals, and thus they don't really identify with "class". It therefore instead supported "communitarianism", in the sense that the community should be maintained as a social entity (through individuals maintaining society, even if they do mainly have their own goals to think about). Meanwhile, even if it was maintained, the welfare state for Third Way politicians was seen as a way of entering the job market as opposed to living off the state, and under New Labour, Welfare benefits were altered to be most aimed at the most needy in society (Social Exclusion). Meanwhile, some charges did creep in under New Labour to the system, particularly some medical charges, and tuition fees. In addition, Third Way thinkers believe that one of the major failings of Old Labour had been to allow benefits, yet not asking citizens for responsibility in return. For this reason, New Labour encouraged citizens to perform civic duties, uphold law and order, and encouraged participation with activities such as voluntary groups, as well as elections. Meanwhile, whilst still supporting equality, a number of extremely authoritarian bills were passed by New Labour as a result of the War on Terror. Law and Order policy has also been somewhat authoritarian, with longer prison sentences, and greater use of custodial sentences (lock em up style). It also ditched nationalisation.

Incentives of Cooperation

Cooperation is seen as a natural relationship among humans by socialists. Humans can be motivated by moral, as well as material incentives. The moral incentive to work hard contributes to the common good, which develops from a sense of responsibility for fellow human beings. This is totally against Conservative pessimism of human nature.

Cooperatism

Cooperatives are groups in which members work together to achieve a common goal, and they usually are the ones who own the projects and manage the money, not the state. This is in contrast to collectives, whereby the priorities of the group come before the individual, with projects often controlled by the state.

The Cons of Socialism

Critics argue that socialism is too tainted by it's association with statism - that the state has complete control over economic affairs. Most socialists and communists like Lenin and Marx believe in this to ensure that common ownership can prevail. Secondly, there is confusion within modern socialist theory, especially as there are clear differences within the particular factions of the ideology, thus while socialism has been talked about as the alternative of capitalism, but few have been able to conceive it as a reality. Finally, Russian socialism can be seen as flawed due to it's later support for market principles in the Gorbachov Glasnost Era. With socialism suffering from many reverses, many now proclaim that socialism is "dead", especially due to the collapse of communist Russia.

Syndicalism

Derived from the French word "syndicat" (Trade Union). This group of socialism thrived at around the turn of the 19th century. They believed in outright revolutionary activity by groups of workers, directed specifically at capitalist enterprises like factories. The objective was that the workers would eventually take over their own industries and run them for common benefit, resulting in the collapse of the bourgeoise as capitalism would have become defunct. They were notorious for violent methods. This faction therefore supports revolutionary and functionalist socialism. Georges Sorel believed that by taking decisive action, the working class would defeat capitalism together, and create new bounds for cooperation and equality. Trade Unions were a great form for this due to the fact that they were internally democratic. Sadly, Syndicalism fell apart after it became associated with Mussolinist Fascism, because Mussolini admired and used syndicalism as a way of building a fascist "corporate state".

Types of Equality supported by Socialists

Equal Rights (born equal) Equality of Opportunity Equality of Outcome - mainly held by fundamentalist socialists: rewards should be based on the value of each person's contribution. Equality of welfare - everybody should have a minimum standard of living (mainly supported by social democrats as they believe inequality is inevitable.

How a collective system works

In a collective system, people would be assigned to groups which they are expected to be loyal to, and the priorities of the group come before the individual. The state usually owns the project

How support for Common Ownership declined in the 20th Century

In modern times, the importance of common ownership has declined due to the failings of socialist experiments in places like Russia, where common ownership was managed by the state (a prominent example perhaps being seizing of land for collective farms / agriculture collectivisation) and as a result, socialists now tend to see it as a complement to private property as opposed to a replacement, because while people can still own property, that shouldn't mean that other people can't use it.

Do Socialists Accept inequality (by faction)

Inequality had increased under capitalism. Marxists believe that everybody is equally deserving of their labour rewards, earning what they have worked for. However, less radical socialists such as democratic socialists believe that because humans have varying abilities, there are inevitable differences in rewards. Meanwhile, modern social democrats accept that inequality is natural, simply seeking to reduce the effects of this by ensuring equality of opportunity and examining the nature of inequality - what parts of it can be justified and what parts cannot?

What's so important about Class Conflict?

It is so important to socialists because it is the most basic problem for modern societies that needs to be solved. Socialists believe that people define their position overall by their class, finding common interests and purpose with other members of their own class - Marx called this "class consciousness". For example, the middle classes might see a need to protect private property, while the working classes would be more interested in welfare issues. However, with more and more societies having effective welfare systems in the 20th Century, as well as due to working classes becoming more affluent, the idea of class conflict has become reduced, especially in the eyes of Social Democrats, who believe that class is simply not important: a national consensus can be achieved which isn't based on any class at all. They simply refer to class in terms of the differences between non-manual workers (who they call the middle classes), and the manual working classes.

Is the Third Way Still Socialist?

Labour still supported the welfare state, and still provided a minimum standard for all, both through the welfare state and equality of opportunity: one example in practice is the introduction of the minimum wage. Labour also still supported social justice, with a new drive on education by Tony Blair (his famous phrase, as he saw it as the most effective way of improving opportunities for all) and SureStart by Gordon Brown as examples. Redistribution of wealth was also achieved under New Labour through the tax system. Meanwhile, New Labour also retained support for equality, through introducing "civil partnerships" for homosexuals, and repealing "section 28" a law introduced by Thatcher which banned schools and other institutions from encouraging homosexuality. Although capitalism was endorsed, the idea is that it funded socialist policies (thus as Anthony Giddens believed, it was a "third" way after socialism and Neo-liberalism). Examples of this in practice include all sizeable employers contributing to the welfare state

The significance of abandoning Clause IV

Labour's Clause IV was abolished in 1994, which eliminated it's commitment to common ownership. The party was now committed to the free markets (as part of letting capitalism roam free), whilst still being dedicated to equality of opportunity and social justice for all through efforts such as the welfare state (as one of the roles of the state under Social Democracy / Third Way is to protect the poorest in society).

Labour Party Clause IV

Labour's Clause IV was the official notion of the party which declared it's support for wealth redistribution, common ownership, social justice, nationalisation, and welfare for all. These values would be upheld through a mixed economy and through redistribution of wealth via the welfare system. However, high public spending had caused inflation in the 1970s, leading to the end of the "Post War Consensus" under Thatcher's Neo Liberalism.

Ideologies Against Socialism

Liberalism - Classical Liberals don't support class equality, unlike Socialists. In addition, Socialists support statism, while Classical Liberals support laissez faire and limited government. Liberals have accused socialism of trying to curtail Liberty, especially in the revolutionary faction, where the state has a high management role - something classical liberals would be especially against. This has been countered by democratic and third way socialists on the basis that expansion of welfare and opportunities has increased people's freedoms to their own life choices, a good example perhaps being third way social mobility. Conservatism - Conservatives are strongly against sudden change and revolution, unlike Revolutionary Socialists. Neo Liberal conservatives have supported the free market, which again socialists are generally against (except Social Democracy). Authoritarian Conservatives are against democracy, unlike Evolutionary and Democratic Socialists. Anarchism -

Levels of Common Ownership by Faction

Marxism - all property common, no private enterprise Leninism - all production and distribution means publicly owned and run by the state. Perhaps some small private enterprise allowed (NEP) Syndicalism - industries run collectively by their own workers Cooperativism - producers distribute their goods in common. Worker cooperatives are owned by the workers themselves. Retail cooperatives owned by the consumers. Democratic Socialism - Welfare is all controlled by the state. Meanwhile, other industries are publicly owned through nationalisation, so that they can benefit the whole community, not just the owners. Social Democracy / Third Way - welfare services controlled. However, very few enterprises are nationalised.

How Gradualism Didn't Work?

Modern socialists like Social Democrats and Third Way Politicians have long accepted the existence of capitalism. Therefore, gradualism cannot lead to it's total overthrow. With that said, it can be used to achieve more limited goals, such as redistribution of wealth or the welfare state

Social Democracy

Originally, Social Democracy stood for a a commitment to collective (common) ownership of wealth, and a classless society. However, this meaning changed considerably due to the peaceful parliamentary tactics that were opted for by most socialist parties in electoral systems: it now became synonymous to reformist socialism. The final change of meaning took place after some socialists decided to totally revise their goals - the aim was now to "tame" capitalism, not destroy it, and thus it now supports economic and social interventions to promote social justice within the framework of a market economy, with policies including welfare state provisions, collective bargaining arrangements, economy regulation, distribution measures and a commitment to representative democracy.

Robert Owen

Owen was a mill manager in Scotland between 1800 and 1825, and he advocated a system of society based on small collectives, although he owned the factory. His ideas were used to transform the village of New Lanark, and many initiatives were taken which were many years ahead of their time; corporal punishment and child labour for example were abolished. He also provided his workers with proper education and housing opportunities. His form of Utopian Socialism therefore came in the shape of experimental committee based on cooperation

Other Differences between Socialists and Communists

Political System - Socialism can coexist within different political systems (evolutionary socialists support democracy for example, while Third Way supports capitalism). Communism on the other hand is built on a stateless society, which is classless, and governed directly by the people. Property - Socialists believe there is two types of property: personal (eg- houses, clothing which is owned by the individual) or public (factories, means of production owned by the state with worker control). All property is abolished under communism, replaced with "common ownership". Choice - Under socialism, people can choose what their jobs are, and are paid for the work they do in that job, as opposed to rich businessmen making their profits from other people's work. Production decisions are mostly made by the state rather than consumer demand (as they control means of production). Under communism, there is either a collective vote, or state's rulers dictate economic decisions.

Why the Fabian's supported Gradualism

Political equality would be guaranteed by gradualism, because it would extend the voting franchise to the point where there was universal suffrage. This worked mostly for the interests of the working classes, the numerical majority of any society. Socialism is the "natural home" of the working classes, and thus working class voters would support socialist parties - this is shared with Evolutionary Socialists Once in power, parties could carry out a fundamental transformation to socialism through social reforms such as to improve the conditions of the workers or social justice. In short, socialism would have been voted in through the ballot box.

Fundamental Socialism

Rejects capitalism entirely and seeks to abolish it. Usually attributed the flaws of capitalism to private property for private profit, and therefore wants socialism in the former of common ownership and substantial equality of outcome. The clearest example of fundamentalist socialism is Marxism. However, there are some fundamentalists who prefer to achieve their aims the democratic way. Evolutionaries for example, support the principles of socialism, but "through the ballot box" as opposed to force.

Class Conflict Solutions by Faction

Revolutionary Socialism - Marx believed that one's life chances were determined by what class they belonged to. That was why the wealthy had owned the factories, while the poorer people were the workers. The wealthy thus controlled all elements of society, including lower class livelihoods, because the lower classes had to work for hourly wages on the owners land. The workers would thus become poorer and poorer, whilst also becoming alienated from their work. Capitalism was therefore exploitative, and needed to be stopped. This could only be achieved through revolution. Evolutionary Socialism - Evolutionaries believe that as the working class are a numerical majority, they could therefore become an electable majority, and revolution is thus unnecessary. People would vote for socialist parties as it is the "natural home" of the working class. When in power, socialism and economic / social equality would be achieved through democracy, but the interests of the working class would be most at heart. There would almost certainly be major modifications to capitalism as a result. Democratic Socialism - Class is less important, because while they respect the differences between classes, they prefer to work in the "national interest" as opposed to class interest, thus serving as a neutral arbitrator - practical examples of the state working for all includes nationalisation, and the role of the state in establishing a basic platform for all on healthcare and education (eg NHS). While they want to modify capitalism, they don't want this to the extent where there is a working class state. Social Democracy - Social Democracy in its original form had been committed to a classless society, like revolutionary socialism. However, after a final revision of the term to accommodate New Labour, class analogy had virtually been abandoned, due to the acceptance that people have individual goals which they seek without concerning themselves with "a class". Therefore, class was distinguished between non manual workers (middle class) and manual workers (working classes). New Labour Social Democrats thus supported communitarianism instead, where individuals can still achieve their separate goals, yet be active in the community collectively.

Revolutionary Socialism

Revolutionary socialists believe that the capitalist system must be destroyed by force as it will inevitably attempt to defend itself. Democracy cannot bring about socialism because democratic institutions are dominated by capitalist classes. Revolution therefore is essential, and the only way to bring about socialism, as well as to stop counter-revolutionary capitalist forces from reasserting themselves.

Scientific Socialism

Scientific Socialism bases its beliefs in socialism through scientific thinking - basing it's ideas on historical and social development, unlike Utopian Socialism which is simply based on people's ideals without consideration for their practicality. Historical developments and trends are closely observed to predict probable outcomes, making their theories (such as Marx's revolutionary socialist ideas) often very reactionary.

Differences between Socialism and Communism

Socialism supports the idea of "to each according to his ability, to each according to his deeds", meaning that people will receive what they deserve based on the quality and quantity of their work, and this applied to everybody equally. Workers are paid their wages based on this, being allowed to spend them as they chose, while the government manages means of production. Communism on the other hand supports "to each according to his ability, to each according to his needs", which means that the community will satisfy the workers needs equally with other workers needs if they do their bit, and in order to do this equally, everybody will be satisfied on a parital level if they provide the same amount of work - meaning that they won't get extra through taking on extra hours voluntarily, unlike with socialism whereby you would earn extra for those hours. In addition, means of production is controlled by the workers. Communism is seen as a "higher form" of socialism.

Similarities and Differences on Equality with Liberals

Socialists and Liberals agree in the principle of being "born equal", and Third Way / Democratic Socialists agree with Liberals on equality of opportunity for all. However, Classical Liberals rejected the idea of class equality, even if they supported other equalities, because of the harm it would cause to economic incentives. Revolutionary Socialism meanwhile supports absolute equality between the classes, due to the oppression faced by the lower classes as a result of capitalism and the bourgeoise. Later Socialists also support class equality through less extreme means, in particular Third Wayism, which believed in using education to improve equality for all, and social mobility to allow people to get into a higher class and out of poverty.

Why Socialists Support Equality

Socialists believe that humans are social creatures united by common humanity, and thus equality is a core function of socialism. It is sometimes portrayed as a form of egalitarianism (human equality socially politically and economically), with an emphasis on equal rights under the law, with the right to vote, physical security, freedom of speech, and the right to own property. They also support economic and opportunity equality - supporting the right to same educational access, health care, social security, employment, housing etc, often (especially in a communist sense) to the extent where everybody has exactly the same. Socialists believe that a measure of equality is the guarantee of social stability and cohesion, and that it promotes freedom in the sense that it satisfies people's needs, and the provision needed for personal development, which everybody can have equal access to.

Why Socialists Are Against Private Property

Socialists believe that the earth is given to humankind generally, and thus no individual has the right to claim that part of it belongs to them only. Claiming private property can also stop other people from using it, such as historic houses. It is a form of inequality, due to some people being able to own property and others not being able to due to their wealth. Meanwhile, the private ownership of public property like factories allows the owners to exploit the workers.

How Has Capitalism been criticised by Socialists

Socialists criticise capitalism because the increasing division of labour created an army of workers who are unskilled, with traditional skills being in decline. The wages paid by the owners to the workers was consistently low, and while capitalism clearly created wealth, the workers were unable to share in these fruits. Workers rights were not recognised, as ruthless methods were used to put down strikes when the workers were unhappy with things like wages, and the industrial revolution resulted in living conditions becoming increasingly squalid, because of the huge numbers of people in cities and towns.

How Socialists disagree over economic equality

Socialists disagree on how social and economic equality should be brought about. Marxists believe that inequality springs from the existence of private owned public property, and therefore endorses common ownership, as public privately-owned property results in an unequal distribution of economic power (public property relating to factories). However, social democrats believe in taming capitalism to the extent that people's wages and salaries become more equal - this is the real cause of inequality, not the fact that some people own factories and others don't.

Socialists on Property

Socialists distinguish properties into two types. "Public" property is facilities that are used in production or work, such as factories farms etc. The other type is personal property, things belonging to individuals and are only used by them, mostly they can't really be shared (eg houses, clothes etc). Socialists respect people's rights to owning personal property, but believe that public property should come under common ownership.

Fabianism / Gradualism

The Fabian Society was set up in 1884, named after the Roman General Fabius, who apparently won battles through wars of attrition rather than a decisive blow against the enemy. The Fabians were against revolution, and they believed that it would come about through "gradualism": the belief that change could take place peacefully and gradually, rather through dramatic upheaval. They applied this to achieving socialism, which they believed could take place gradually through the parliamentary route

Revisionism / Reformism

The belief that gradual changes within existing institutions can ultimately change a society's political structure. Originally, the term referred to those who proposed a more peaceful transition to capitalism, developing in opposition to revolutionary socialism. Today, it also refers to any movement that contradicts a class analysis to the extent where they try to change it (such as Social Democracy with the welfare state - impact on the poor).

Third Way Response to Individualism

The final meaning of social democracy has resulted in a consensus among centre leftists that there is a place for individualism, even if the state should have a role in ensuring that public interest is served (through economic regulation, distribution, rep democracy etc). This is because Third Wayist politicians realised that people have their own individual goals which they seek, regardless of their social position. Because of the need to endorse individualism, Neo Liberal privatisation was accepted by Social Democrats

The Origins of Socialism

The ideology is defined by it's opposition to capitalism and attempts to provide a more worthwhile alternative. It arose as a reaction against the social and economic conditions growing in Europe as a result of industrial capitalism, becoming closely linked to the development of a new growing class of workers, which suffered the poverty and degradation of industrialisation. It is for this reason that socialism has particularly articulated the interests of the working classes, which they believe are oppressed by capitalism. One of socialism's main goals therefore is to abolish class divisions

Social Justice - How Socialists Disagree over it's implementation

The meaning of Social Justice is the same as it is under Liberalism. However, there is debate within socialism over how it can be achieved. Marxists and other revolutionary and fundamentalist socialists believe that inequality is contained within the capitalist system, and thus it can never produce a just distribution, and Capitalism cannot work once inequality is removed. Therefore, just remove capitalism. However, others such as Social Democrats have suggested that social justice can be achieved under capitalism, but with measures including interference in the wage system (such as through things like the minimum wage to reduce inequality), having significant Trade Union rights to give workers more leeway to negotiate, through the role of the state in looking after the poorest in society (eg the welfare state) and redistribution of wealth through the tax system.

The Pros of Socialism

The moral strength of socialism derives not from it's concern with what people are like, but with what they have the capacity to become. This had led socialists to envision a world where human beings can achieve genuine emancipation, and fulfilment as a members of a collective community, with various left wing groups forming during the 20th Century

Labour's Socialist Leanings under Jeremy Corbyn

The new Labour Leader has adopted a considerable number of positions which lean more towards old democratic socialism-style policies (he himself identifies as being in this ideology). In particular, he supports nationalisation of the railways, and of the parts of the NHS which are now privatised, Bank of England money printing for things like house building, and having a "National Education Service" like the NHS. He also supports wealth distribution through higher taxes on the rich.

State Socialism

This faction of Socialism supports the central state playing a major role in achieving socialist ends. Henri de Saint-Simon, proposed that the state should govern in the interests of all, not merely for the wealthy few, and should advance the interests of the deserving poor. However, as opposed to being totally controlling of economics, Simon's version of the state would be more of a regulatory body, consisting of the great and the good who would "supervise" capitalism to create more equality.

Reformist / Evolutionary Socialism

This faction of socialism support "socialism through the ballot box", as they feel that rather than having a potentially violent revolution, socialism can be gradually achieved through liberal democratic principles, particularly consent, constitutionalism and party competition.

Democratic Socialism

This form of socialism advocates a democratic political system whilst there is a socialist economy. It champions nationalisation of major industries, as opposed to common ownership, because they believe that state control of large industries will stop their owners using them against the national interest, and will allow for the industries to benefit both the whole community, and its employees through state supervision. Democratic Socialists also support state planning, believing that the output and input of important goods and services should again be under popular control. While they respect the differences between classes, they prefer to work in the "national interest" as opposed to class interest, thus serving as a "neutral arbitrator" - using policies such as the welfare state to provide equality of welfare and a minimum standard for all. In addition, while they are against capitalist monopolies being exploitative, they also don't want to remove the positive achievements that free market capitalism provided either.

Fraternity

This is a group of people who share a common profession or interest. Members of the fraternity offer mutual support and assistance towards one another (it's very similar to a brotherhood). As a term, it also suggests that members of the working classes have a common bond which is strong as a family link, making all members of the working classes effectively brothers.

Social "Class"

This is a way of dividing society into economic and social groups, based upon their standings in these areas. Historians have often used "classes" to analyse society. The most important socialist class analysis is by Marxists, who believe that the class distinctions are based on economic circumstances at the time, and this determines the character of society overall. Contemporaries have based class on lifestyle and occupation

Collectivism

This is the view that humans are social creatures capable of overcoming social and economic problems by drawing on the power of the community rather than simply individual efforts only. Collective action should come over personal self interest, and can be used for the good of all when it comes to public services. For example, collectivism would endorse free health, education etc, whilst individualism results in people having to separately pay for this, due to the emphasis on self help.

Distributive Justice

This refers to any conception of justice that seeks to establish a fair and just principle of how rewards should be distributed. The communist example would be "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs".

Primitive Socialism

This was the form of socialist leaning philosophies that existed before the onset of capitalism. There were two main forms: Thomas More, Henry VIII's famous Chancellor, wrote "Utopia" in 1516, where he imagined an island where there was no private property and no money, and where everyone received goods according to their needs. Because it eliminated greed and competition, it was utopian. While the work was only fictional, it may have inspired others later on, Including the second main form, created by Gerrard Winstanley. He created the "Leveller Movement", which echoed More'a utopia as it was totally against inequality - Winstanley believed that people "saw their freedom in plenty and their poor in bondage", leading people to take other's property. The Levellers thus believed in abolishing private property, with all men having a say in how common property would be organised. This movement was crushed by Cromwell.

Social Exclusion

This was the term coined by New Labour for societies that suffer multiple deprivations, and thus cannot enjoy the usual rewards, choices and opportunities. They are therefore "excluded" and thus social and economic policy should be directed at these groups.

Labour's Third Way Under Gordon Brown

Under Gordon Brown, capitalism under the free market was still used to have social policies through the profits, but with a slightly different emphasis. There was more of an objective towards greater "social mobility", the ability for people to move out of deprivation.