Socio Exam 3
Changes in the organization of work and family since the 1970s
-increasing divorce rates -decreasing marriage and fertility rates -increasing participation of women in the workforce
Functions of the family as a social institution
1. Provide for the rearing of children 2. Provide sense of identity or belonging among its members 3. Transmit culture between generations
Patterns re: divorce and remarraige
American Marriage Paradox: most politically and religiously conservative states have highest divorce rates. Blanket condemnations of divorce are dangerously naive, as are those who say it's no big deal. Continued parental conflict and role reversals in which children "play parent" make divorce potentially destructive. On the other hand, parents who leave high conflict marriages spare their children from ongoing family feuds, hostilities, or abuse.
Evangelicals vs fundamentalists
Can be members of any denomination distinguished by four main beliefs: The Bible is without error, salvation comes only through belief in Jesus Christ, personal conversion is the only path to salvation (the "born again" experience), and others must also be converted. They proselytize by engaging with wider society. Religious adherents who follow a scripture (such as the Bible or Qur'an) using a literal interpretation of its meaning.
Boundary work
refers to research conducted on the border between legitimate and non-legitimate science Either within a specific scientific discipline or between disciplines Sometimes, experimenting with something that seems like it is not legitimate leads to a new discovery
Weber
from a functionalist perspective the Protestant work ethic served a function to capitalism system Protestantism was necessary for capitalism bc it states that a person fulfilled the duty to God through hard work Making money wasn't frowned upon although spending that money on pleasure and personal enjoyment was Believed religion played a significant role in how people interact w/ one another
Durkheim
functionalist perspective: religion helps brings people together symbols themselves aren't powerful, but become powerful when many people invest in them. process happens collectively, as in religion
Feminism
Suggests that gender roles are learned in the family. The family can be a battleground for power over decisions about chores, housing, raising children, spending money, and so on Women's income devalued as "fun money" to spend on nonessentials.
Why/how sociologists are interested in science/technology
Many people argue that without science, tech, or invention, there would be no social change Sociologists are entered in seeing how these kinds of changes impact people and social interactions And there are lots of potential impacts Society invents technologies to minimize dangers from nature, but those same inventions create new risks that need to be managed
Sacred vs profane
Many people associate profane with "profanity" and things that are bad But profane is ANYTHING THAT ISN'T SACRED (e.g., a shirt, a rubber band, a toothbrush)
The Matthew effect
(coined by Robert Merton) refers to the notion that certain scientific results get more notice and have more influence based on the existing prestige of the researchers involved. So if Einstein were alive today and claimed that he found something important, the finding might be given more credence just because it was Einstein who made the discovery.
The Coleman Report
1966 Coleman Report showed 2 primary factors [family background and peers] explained the main differences in achievement among schools, rather than different in-school resources
global warming
A strong majority of scientists agree that the roots of global warming can be linked to human activity such as deforestation and the burning of coal, gas, and oil. They also agree that global warming is predicted to have a strong impact on human society, primarily through devastating natural disasters such as prolonged heat waves, more and bigger hurricanes, and debilitating droughts In other worlds, humans are impacting their natural environment and the environment is impacting humans as well
Tracking
A way of dividing students into different classes by ability or future plans. Explains large differences of academic performance within schools. Privileged backgrounds are more likely to more likely to be in college tracks even after variables that should predict track placement (achievement; etc). Higher-class whites are overrepresented in academic tracks while black, hispanic, and lower-class students are overrepresented in non-college tracks. Middle-class parents actively intervene in school matters to obtain the best advantages for their children. Might request their child be placed in highest track despite mediocre achievement because the parents are more likely to be college graduates and know how important the college track is for their child's future. Parent's desire to see kids succeed academically could be responsible for the non-Catholic students performing particularly well at Catholic schools.
Pros and cons to SAT and similar standardized tests
Admissions counselors only looking at high-school records would accept the same students 84% of the time. The other 16% would be rejected only because of their low SAT. SAT accurately predicts college outcomes only for white students Scores don't necessarily reflect the abilities that should matter. Consistently correlated with race, ethnicity, and class. Bias. Stereotype threat: particular form of test anxiety. Using a numerical cut off substantially reduces college admissions workloads.
Patterns in various American families (African American, Latino, Headed by poor single mothers, etc.)
African American communities tend to have expanded notions of kinship, including even non-blood relatives. •African American women have often taken a leading role in providing for their families. •In the 60s, some social scientists presented this as a negative, arguing that this strong role for women undercut the role of the father in black families •DuBois argued that the high rate of female-headed families in the African American community was a result of racial oppression and poverty, not a cause of it. •William Julius Wilson argued that there is an outright shortage of employed, un-incarcerated black men with whom black women could hope to form a stable family unit (thus leaving them with little choice in terms of taking responsibility for their families). Latinos come from many different countries and cultural backgrounds, but some characteristics can be identified as common to Latino families, including: •strong family and community ties, adherence to traditional gender roles, devout Catholicism, high marriage rates, and low divorce rates Single, nonworking mothers (of any race/ethnicity) face many challenges, among them the attitude of critics of welfare, who think that they prefer being on welfare to working. •Most women would prefer not to be on welfare, but the system is such that often they end up with less income and fewer benefits when they move from welfare to work.
Patterns in various American families (African American, Latino, Headed by poor single mothers, etc.)
African American mothers are often the primary breadwinners so statistically work 3 jobs when the average women works 2. Matriarchal. Single mothers rely on familial and community ties with other women to help care for children. Latinos often define their own self-worth in terms of their family's image and accomplishments. Traditional authority. Women listen to mean, children listen to elders. Devout Catholicism. High rates of marriage, low rates of divorce. Young marriage and children born "out of wedlock" Poverty single mothers. Media myth of "lazy welfare mother", in reality many of these mothers work hard (often off the books) and want to escape poverty. Majority get off welfare in 2 years and hardly any stay on for more than 8. Employment options are often limited to low-wage work that rarely provides benefits. Mothers on welfare can cover 3/5s of their expenses. Leaving welfare for work only covers 2/3s. Welfare makes a savings account virtually impossible to maintain- arguably the real reason behind the trap of dependency. Often must sacrifice responsible parenthood. Forcing welfare moms to enter workforce without providing adequate childcare encourages women to abandon children in their unsupervised home.
Types of social movements
Alternative social movements seek limited social change and tend to be focused on a narrow group of people (seek to change individuals' behavior) Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) Redemptive social movements are also focused on a narrow group of people, but they advocate for more radical changes in behavior (are often affiliated with religious groups/efforts) Alcoholics Anonymous Reformative social movements advocate for relatively limited/focused social change but seek to effect that change across an entire society (The movement to obtain marriage rights and benefits for same-sex couples) Revolutionary social movements seek to make radical changes across an entire society (Anti-war movement of the 1960s)
Patterns re: volunteerism in America and the role (and potential) of the Internet
America is a "land of joiners". We frequently come together to join voluntary associations. Citizens enjoyed greater equality than citizens in aristocratic societies. That's great, but it also makes democratic citizens independent and weak, so that they were politically powerless without voluntary organizations. It's a way for independent citizens to assist one another. Activism has moved online. Makes it easier to create groups and connect without being face-to-face. It's also common and much easier to fund-raise for relief aid, among other things.
The commercialization of religion
Americans donate billions of dollars per year to religious organizations, and in addition to donation, there is a huge market for religious products, particularly Christian products This interests sociologists for many reasons, but it is fascinating to consider the consumption of religion In many ways, religion has become commodified (something that can be bought and sold) It is interesting to think about some of the ways that religion has transformed from a public, shared resource to a consumer item Some critics argue that America's religious pluralism has created a kind of religious marketplace, where people can shop around for the brand of faith that best suits them and churches feel compelled to compete for these customers Pros and cons to this model: -great that people can select a place of worship that makes them feel comfortable and happy -However, if these organizations have to compete for membership (and resources), are they forced to alter their messages or their services simply to attract more "customers"? In a society that is largely driven by money, sociologists ask how much individuals or organizations will bend or change to gain more revenue This can be viewed positively or negatively, but either way, the high level of religious freedom of choice in the United States may be one reason there is such a high level of religiosity as compared to other industrialized countries If there were only one religion to choose from, people would simply have to decide whether they believed Young People In an effort to appeal to a wider audience, esp young people, many churches have incorporated elements of pop culture into their services and messages and added more secular activities to attract members Today churches are using popular culture and new media to reach out to people, which helps to attract new members
Secularism
a general movement away from religiosity and spiritual belief and toward a rational, scientific orientation the separation of church and state is a secular idea
Race/ethnicity inequalities in school outcomes
Black families, on average, fall into the lower levels of the four social class indicators. Many of the black-white achievement gaps can be explained by class and the advantages it brings. Factoring out class differences, African Americans had a greater chance of graduating from high school, were 44% less likely to be held back a grade, and were equally as likely to be suspended or expelled from school as white students. Equal achievement during the school year, but upper-class continue to make gains over the summer. Carrying the "burden of the race" can stop some minority students from challenging themselves in an academic setting Stereotype Threat: when members of a certain race are placed in a situation in which they fear they may confirm those stereotypes. Idea that racial differences in intelligence refuses to die out. Research mostly focuses on white-black, but there are notable differences between white-other minority groups, as well. Hispanics- some can be attributed to language difficulties, but low-class and negative stereotypes also contribute. Highest drop-out rate in the nation. Asians- "model minorities" better math, higher GPA, more college. Intriguing line of research: some Asian groups are no more socioeconomically advantaged than other immigrant groups, their communities contain a high degree of social capital. Extremely close ties exist between adults and they support each other's parenting roles.
Cultural capital and its effect on educational outcomes
Cultural capital: the symbolic and interactional resources that people use to their advantage in various situations. Embodied- Skill that rests in our body. (play piano) Objectified- significant investment of money and time (buy a piano and take lessons) Institutionalized- cultural capital legitimized through a formal system (accepted to elite music conservatory because of piano playing ability) also: the ability to deal with bureaucracies, confidence in public social settings, sense of entitlement. Behaviors rewarded by schools are not necessarily what are right or correct. Varies by historical period. Teachers also reward middle-class knowledge obtained outside of school.
How inequality exists within families
Eldest and youngest children often have better outcomes, especially in large families because they have a period of time when they are the sole recipient of the parents' time and resources. Love is infinite, resources are finite. Birth order only matters in the context of larger families and finite resources. Sibling disparities are much more common in large families and single-parent homes than in rich, in tact families. In fact, when families have limited resources, the success of one sibling often generates a negative backlash among the others. As the parents unwittingly put all their eggs- and their hopes and dreams- in just one basket, the other siblings are inevitably left out in the cold.
The Coleman Report
Differences in resources at public schools don't affect learning outcomes of students. Most differences can be attributed to family background and the other peers with whom students share the school. (Black students fared better in majority white schools, lower-income children did better in middle-class schools) But they refined their research methods and data collection tools. Then, new and improved studies showed links between student's achievement outcomes and school characteristics.
Pre-industrial family life and the effect of the Industrial Revolution
Early modern families depended heavily on kinship networks (systems of relationships between people related by blood and marriage The preindustrial family functioned like a miniature economy - everyone worked to produce the food, clothes, and other items the family needed to survive, and this work took place in or right around the home The industrial revolution created a division between work and home. Work started taking place outside of the home, for a paid wage. This is when "housework" became unvalued, because it was not associated with a wage. Men were associated with the public world of wage earning work. Women were relegated to the private world of managing a household and raising children, work for which they were not paid.
Patterns across Catholic vs. non-Catholic private vs public schools
Elite schools have a "legitimating function" - converting birthright into credentials. But they can also allow for advancement of many people who weren't born with such advantages. Catholic schools most successful in preparing students academically, esp disadvantaged backgrounds. Followed by secular private, then public. Private schools may have an impact, but not necessarily according to how expensive they are. Comes down to academic and behavioral differences. Private did more homework, greater chance of being enrolled in academic program, took more college prep courses. Better attendance, less fights, threatened teachers less. Alternatively, families who value education the most and are able to get their kids into a private school are the families whose kids would succeed no matter what school. The schools act as a sorting machine rather than having important effects of their own.
Endogamy, exogamy, monogamy, polygamy, and polyandry
Endogamy - more common because we still have de facto segregation in our society (segregation as a result of housing patterns, economic patterns, etc), so we tend to meet and get to know people of similar backgrounds There are also social pressures to marry people of similar backgrounds Exogamy - becoming more commonly acceptable now, but is still less common than endogamy Interracial marriage was never illegal at the federal level, from 1913-1948, 30 states enforced anti-miscegenation laws, primarily aimed at black-white unions. Many until 1967, Supreme Court finally declared them unconstitutional in Loving v Virginia Monogamy - only legal form of marriage in modern Western cultures Polygamy - practiced among some subcultures around the world, but is not widely acknowledged as a legitimate form of marriage About 8 percent of all households are occupied by couples who are cohabitating (living together as a romantically involved, unmarried couple).
Endogamy, exogamy, monogamy, polygamy, and polyandry
Endogamy- marriage to someone within one's social circle Exogamy- marriage to someone outside one's social group Monogamy- the practice of having only one sexual partner or spouse at a time Polygamy- the practice of having more than one sexual partner or spouse at a time Polyandry- the practice of having multiple husbands simultaneously Polygyny- the practice of having multiple wives simultaneously
Trends in higher education: (1) the expansion in college education and (2) credentialism
Expansion in college over past 100 years = huge Functionalists have argued that the rise in education rates is a response to the demands of the marketplace, though there are many critics of this theory Conflict theorists claim that the educational boom is due to the expansion of the education system and the general view held by Americans that education is a mark of elite status Credentialism Overemphasis on credentials As more people meet the qualifications for certain types of jobs, employers upgrade the requirements in order to weed out more people. In The Credential Society, sociologists Randall Collins argues that reproducing society's existing class structure is the true function of education
Pre-industrial family life and the effect of the Industrial Revolution
Families stopped being mini-economies for the barter system and instead became strictly sites for consumption. Women made choice of what and how much families would consume. Women in charge of spending, not earning. "Women's work" devalued. Kinship networks changed from grapevine to beanpole. As life expectancies increased, up to 5 generations could be alive at once but lateral ties (cousins) weakened because of longer distances separating kin. Beanpole particularly taxing on women- parents need assistance just as their kids are leaving home. Cult of Domesticity - the notion that true womanhood centers on domestic responsibility and child rearing
Illiteracy and innumeracy
Functional illiteracy: inability to read or write well enough to function Innumeracy: having insufficient math skills to function in society
The depiction of traditional family in "Ozzie and Harriet"
Gay. Also a 1950s TV show.
Gender inequalities in school outcomes
Girls outperform boys in education. Does not translate to workplace. Boys score higher in calculus and science and make up larger proportion. Boys score higher on every AP test except foreign languages, though girls represent a larger proportion of those taking certain tests. (smaller, more select group of boys may contribute to their higher scores) Boys born before 1960s seem to do equally well regardless of parent's education, girls did better when both parents were college educated. Students born after the 1960s, the opposite pattern emerged. Girls from all backgrounds started to do better in school. Boys living with single mothers or household where dad had high school education or less started doing much worse "Girls catch up, while boys from lower-class backgrounds lose ground"
organic farming
Historically, most human farming has been considered organic But the in 20th century we (esp in the US) started using more sophisticated mechanisms and new compounds like fertilizers and pesticides to increase production. Now, many people are wanting to return to a kind of farming that is less devastating to the environment. The organic food market creates satisfaction in two ways (1) Organic farming is expensive. Many smaller farmers cannot afford to farm in this way, so mega-farms dominate the market and use their influence to change policies and guidelines to their advantage (2) Organic products are expensive, so high-income individuals are much more likely to purchase them and reap their benefits than low-income people So organic farming is not without controversy Small farmers and lower-income individuals often feel excluded or unable to participate in this market, and this results in questions about fairness and equality of access
Effect of teacher expectations and peer influence on student performance
In US where schooling is not nationally standardized, individual teachers have profound impacts on the intellectual dynamics of the classroom. Self-fulfilling prophecy. When students are in a classroom with others of high ability, all students benefit.
Family forms
In sociologists' definition of family, people may or may not share a household, but its members are interdependent and have a sense of mutual responsibility for one another's care This more open-ended definition takes into account the diversity among today's families.
Trends in cohabitation and childbearing
Living together in an intimate relationship without formal legal or religious sanctioning. 2/3 either break up or marry within 3 years. Higher rate bc type of person is likely to disregard social conventions anyway. 40% of women born in the 80s will never be married with children. 25% of US households are headed by single moms Women who do have children do so at a later age. 25.6 compared to 21 in the 70s. Average marriage age is 27 White professional women postponing motherhood = more fertility treatments in white women = more twins and multiples In 2010, approx 1% of children in US were adopted. International adoption rates falling because of more rigorous qualifications. Single parent families in US as result of death or desertion 1960 - 9% 1986 - 25% 2013 - 31% 80% of those children lived with single moms. Also becoming more common worldwide- 1990s 1/5 of all children lived in single mother home
Manifest and latent functions of education
Manifest Function (obvious)- transmission of knowledge Latent Functions (not obvious)- learning to follow society's rules and to respect authority and being socialized to develop other qualities that will make us obedient workers
Domestic abuse
Most frequent is sibling on sibling but they pick it up from the adults (monkey see, monkey do). But, abuse transmission is not genetic- only about 1/3 of abused kids go on to abuse their kids. Poverty, single-parent households, low levels of educational attainment are associated with higher levels of all types of abuse. IPV = Intimate Partner Violence. Elder abuse.
Trends re: religious attendance
Most people in the US attend small congregations (generally with less than 200 members) Stricter religious institutions are more likely to grow faster than are more lenient or open groups because members of stricter groups are likely to be more committed and to buy more completely into the group's overall mission In other words, the kinds of people who would seek a stricter place of worship are also the kinds of people who would attend every service, follow the demands of the institution more closely, and dedicate more time (and possible resources) to the mission of the organization Members at these kinds of religious institutions value the high demands of a stricter organization and are willing to spend more time and effort supporting it
Family forms and changes (nuclear, extended, blended, etc. families)
Nuclear family- familial form consisting of a father, a mother, and their children Extended family- kin networks that extend beyond the nuclear family Blended family- reconfigures the aftermath of divorce into step-relations
Effect of teacher expectations and peer influence on student performance
Numerous studies show that teachers influence students performance through the expectations they set and their instructional methods Low achieving students placed in a classroom with mostly high achieving students tend to improve rather than fall behind Also a class with more problem students tends to have more disciplinary problems overall and lower test scores
Levels of religiosity in the United States vs. the world
Persistence of religious belief and even a rise in spirituality, but decline in service attendance in more than 20 advanced industrial countries. (The opposite is happening in former communist countries, where people attend church in greater numbers, perhaps to make up for lost time under Communism)
Patterns across Catholic vs. non-Catholic private vs public schools
Private school students perform better academically than their peers at public schools some scholars argue that most private school students would also do well at public schools, so the education they are receiving may not in-and-of-itself be the explanation for their better academic performance
Patterns in the development of religions
Religions that demand the most from members often grow the fastest But as religion becomes large and successful, they tend to be less strict
Churches vs. sects vs. cults
Religious bodies that coexist in a relatively low state of tension with their social surroundings. They have mainstream, "safe" beliefs and practices relative to those of the general population. Sectarian groups- high-tension organizations that don't fit well within the existing social environment. They are usually most attractive to society's least privileged- outcasts, minorities, the poor- because they downplay worldly pleasure by stressing otherworldly pleasure religious movement that makes some new claim about the supernatural and therefore does not easily dit within the sect/church cycle.
Trends in higher education: (1) the expansion in college education and (2) credentialism, as well as conflict and functionalist perspectives about these trends
Rise of college graduates has potentially contributed to a nation of over-credentialed workers.
Pros and cons to SAT and similar standardized tests
SAT been shown to accurately predict a student's potential for college success. However, critics argue that there are other equally good predictors that don't share the downsides Many suggest that standardized tests include cultural biases which influences the outcomes Although IQ tests have been updated to try and be more fair and accurate they still: -Measure only one kind of intelligence -Face concerns about being culturally biased -Can't truly measure innate intelligence
Education as a stratification agent
Schools described as sorting machines that place students into programs and groups according to their skills, interests, and talents Critics argue that this sorting process is not based solely on merit and that ultimately it serves to reproduce social inequalities School is supposed to be an institution in society that provides equal opportunity Ends up sorting students by the backgrounds from which they come, and thus in many ways serves to reproduce the existing social order
Effect of smaller class sizes on student performance
Since the 80s it had been shown that the smaller class sizes have a positive impact on student performance
Effect of smaller class sizes on student performance
Smaller classes significantly benefited their students compared to schools with larger classes. Significantly fewer disciplinary problems and significantly higher test scores. Long lasting effect: continues even if students are places back into a large classroom. Particularly strong for minority students and low-income families.
Social class inequalities in school outcomes
Social class or Socioeconomic status (SES): parental education attainment, parental occupational status, family income, family wealth. Higher-class get more years of edu, better grades, graduate high school before 19, score higher on cognitive tests, and are placed in higher tracks. Benefits of money = tutoring, SAT prep courses, college consultants, buy a house in better school district, pay for private school, pay for college.
Pluralism
Some critics argue that it has created a kind of religious marketplace, where people can shop around for the brand of faith that best suits them, and churches feel compelled to compete for these customers Great that people can select a place of worship that makes them feel comfortable and happy. However, if these organizations have to compete for membership (and resources), are they forced to alter their messages or their services simply to attract more "customers"? In a society that is largely driven by money, sociologists ask how much individuals or organizations will bend or change to gain more revenue This can be viewed positively or negatively, but either way, the high level of religious freedom of choice in the United States may be one reason there is such a high level of religiosity as compared to other industrialized countries If there were only one religion to choose from, people would simply have to decide whether they believed
Kinship networks
Strings of relationships between people related by blood and co-residence (marriage)
Definition of and commonalities across religions
System of beliefs and practices around sacred things, a set of shared "stories" that guide belief and action Religious beliefs help shape social behavior by setting expectations and helping people distinguish between right and wrong Almost all religions have the same tents: -Have a creation myth, or story about where people come from -Have an explanation about what happens when people die -Have guidelines for people to follow to ensure they are rewarded for dedication -But the differences are in the details Religion has a huge impact on individual and group behavior and on personal identity
Paradigm
The framework in which scientists operate. There are particular paradigms for particular branches of scientific research It is a pattern of thought perspective on a topic, which is shared by a group of people. When people change their way of thinking, this is a paradigm shift, or a scientific revolution They share the assumptions on which those things are built. If you don't have shared assumptions on the way people or social life or science work it's hard to communicate and therefore hard to produce research
biotechnology and the Human Genome
The goal of the Human Genome Project, an international scientific research project, was to identify and map all of the genes in human DNA It began in 1990 and was declared complete in 2013. World's largest collaborative biological project Most of the government-sponsored sequencing was performed in 20 universities and research centers in the US, the UK, Japan, France, Germany, and China A parallel project was conducted outside of government by the Celera Corporation or Celera Genomics (launched in 1998) Researches involved in the project recognized that it raised many social, ethical, and legal issues, like privacy, stratification, and stigmatization. DNA testing is not simply a straightforward scientific process but one that is closely intertwined with social factors DNA testing is now marketed for a variety of purposes, one of which is to determine a person's racial origin However, there are still questions about the accuracy of the testing and how this information might be used Genetic testing is helping to change the way people think about race
Normative science
The idea that science follows objective rules of evidence and is unaffected by the personal beliefs of values of scientists In practice, however, social factors like funding, government policies, interest groups, and international pressure or competition can affect choices about what scientific research is pursued. Scientists generally want to be objective and keep personal bias out of their research, but sometimes their research agenda (the topics they pursue) is influenced by these social factors
Role of religion in social movements, historically vs. now
The mid-19th century was a time of rapid growth in the US, and the development of formal, national institutions did not always keep pace Religious orgs were also growing quickly and provided an important infrastructure for the development of social movements such as the antislavery and temperance campaigns Religious institutions were the communities that were charged with "getting the word out" about important events Churches propelled the civil rights movement forward by disseminating information These territorial communities are still significant, but their role isn't as strong as it once was Politicians, for example, no longer campaign through any religious institution. Now they campaign online, through social networking sites This demonstrates how much the flow of information has changed in our society in the past couple decades Religious affiliation and practice can be closely connected to elements as varied as family structure, gender, social status, age, educational attainment level, type of involvement in the church, geography, and politics
Three categories of the world's religions
Theism - worship of a god or gods (Monotheism = one god, Polytheism = many gods) Ethicalism - adherence to certain principals to lead a moral life Animism - spirits roam the natural world
Tracking
Tracking is dividing students into different classes according to ability or future plans Intended to tailor to students educational experience more directly to their particular goals, but in practice, tracking has a number of negative effects and may be more beneficial for those who are already privileged Tracks include divisions like "low performing", "dropout prevention", "honors student", "advanced placement"; etc. Once a student is placed, it's difficult to change tracks The Pygmalion Effect, or self-fulfilling prophecy, process that occurs when behaviors is modified to meet preexisting expectation
Collective action
a collaborative effort that takes place in groups and diverges from the social norms of the situation crowd collective action = takes place when members of a group are face to face mass collective action = collective action in which close physical proximity is not necessary (e.g., a letter-writing campaign) Collective action draws attention to a cause and works to bring about social change
The "second shift"
Women today have two jobs: paid labor outside the home and unpaid labor inside the home The second shift refers to unpaid (often disproportionate) labor inside the home that is often expected of women after they get home from working at paid labor outside the home This inequality plays out in terms of the time women spend on household tasks, the types of tasks they take on, and in the perception of the tasks or work Studies show that a more equal distribution between men and women of the responsibility for domestic chores makes for happier and more stable marriages.
The gender revolution in work and family
Women's participation in labor force soared, fertility rates plummeted. End of 70s: more women working than not working for the first time. Marriage rates dropped, people waiting until later. Divorce rates rise, threatening the sanctity of marriage.
The "second shift"
Women's responsibility for housework and child care- everything from cooking dinner to doing laundry, bathing children, reading bedtime stories, and sewing Halloween costumes.
Marx
argued religion was used to keep workers from questioning their OPPRESSED position in everyday life by promising them riches in the afterlife conflict theorist: -Interested in the conflicts in society and how those conflicts influence the way that people interact with each other
Changes in the organization of work and family since the 1950s
post war: many women quit their jobs, divorce rates dropped, fertility boomed. People moved to the suburbs. Rampant teen pregnancies.
GMOs
products whose genetic structures have been altered, usually to make them produce higher yields Proponents argue that GMOs help bring down food prices, reduce dependence on pesticides and herbicides, reduce waste, and even provide vitamin and mineral content that may be missing from a population's diet all of which is particularly significant for developing countries But critics of GMOs argue that they create risks to the environment and human health that have not been adequately evaluated Some argue that genetically modifying foods is not natural and could lead to problems with the food chain, including antibiotic resistance Currently, there is no law against GMOs and foods that have been modified do not have to be labeled as such, so many people consume GMOs without even knowing it
the Green Revolution
refers broadly to two agricultural trends of the 20th century- the time between the 1940s to the 1970s in particular, when industrialized agriculture production increased significantly (1) The introduction of high-yield crop varietals in developing countries (2) Improvements in agricultural technologies such as irrigation systems, fertilizers, and pesticides The green revolution is widely credited with increasing agricultural productivity throughout the developing world, thus: -increasing incomes -increasing the value of formal schooling -making farming more of a collective, community endeavor But critics of the green rev argue that it makes farmers more dependent on a smaller number of crops. This can: -increase risks if crops fail -reduce variety in the diet -deplete the soil of nutrients -increase pressure on water resources
Latour and Woolgar's claims re: scientific facts
scientific facts don't just reveal themselves through experiments and research, but are socially constructed as scientists debate findings, discuss results, and work through disagreements All of which is influenced by unequal power relations between researchers There are hierarchies. The more senior a researcher is, the more power they have to influence the results. They can constrain the results of the junior researchers, who are typically working under them. They also control whether the junior researcher's results get published. In other words, the findings are influenced by the people who found them: Science is interpreted by scientists, and scientists are people who are influenced by various aspects of society and social life
The "hidden curriculum"
serves to form a more cohesive society but has also been used to impose the values of a dominant cult. on outsiders or minorities clear it does benefit everyone, but not benefit everyone equally
Affirmative action
set of policies that grant preferential treatment to a number of particular subgroups within the population- typically women and historically disadvantaged racial minorities. Levels the playing field, balances structural inequalities. Does not take away opportunities from deserving white students.
Daniel Patrick Moynihan's argument re: "pathological matriarchy"
the relative absence of nuclear families (those having both a father and mother present) in Black America would greatly hinder further Black socioeconomic progress