SOCIOL 102 Final Exam
Dominant ideals of modern society:
"Potential for scientific knowledge, the universal emancipation and institution of the dignity of the individual, democratic equality, the economic effectiveness of a capitalistic division of labor, and the rational organization of society" (483).
'Reciprocity of perspective'
"We do not actually have identical experiences, but act as if our experiences are... equivalent" (330).
Common sequential reactions to the boarding experiment:
'Righteous hostility' on behalf of the 'offended'
______________________ relationships with ____________________ are based on indirect and impersonal knowledge
'They-oriented' ; contemporaries
_______________________ relationships with _______________ are based on intimate and face-to-face interaction
'Thou-oriented' ; consociates
Each theorist offers an explanation for the ___________ of everyday life — how and why social reality assumes an 'objective' and 'orderly' character
'facticity'
There is a __________ to the taken for granted world
'facticity'
"Science relies on a different type of narrative than premodern ones" (168). These are called 'grand' or _______ narratives as they give coherence and meaning to scientific practices
'meta'
Successful socialization: "What is real ___________ corresponds to what is real __________" (359).
'outside' ; 'within'
Those with institutionally conferred ______ challenged the _______________ of reigning systems of classification — redefining graffiti as 'art'
'titles' ; legitimacy
Bourdieu's theoretical model is based on three interrelated concepts:
- Habitus - Capital - Field
Disembedding mechanisms
Abstract systems that lift out actions from their local contexts and thus make possible the reorganization of social relations across time and space; of two types: "symbolic tokens" and "expert systems"
The Phenomenology of the Social World (1967) is by:
Alfred Schutz
Foucault's first methodological approach to interrogating this power-knowledge dynamic: (i) ____________ involves 'unearthing' the discourses that set the conditions for what counts as knowledge in particular historical periods
Archaeology
The System of Objects (1968), Consumer Society (1970), For a Critique of the Political Economy of the Sign (1972), The Mirror of Production (1973) are written by:
Baudrillard
Postmodernism - theorists:
Baudrillard ; Lyotard
The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge (1966) is by:
Berger + Luckmann
"Outline of a Sociological Theory of Art Perception" (1968) is by:
Bourdieu
The Logic of Practice (1980) and Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (1984) are by:
Bourdieu
"_________________ is not the mere existence of persons or firms producing for sale on the market with the intention of obtaining a profit." Nor is '___________________' a sufficient condition
Capitalism ; wage-labor
Example of exploitive relationship between core and periphery societies
Chile, South America: Colonized by the Spanish in the 16th century
____________ discourse serves the West's imperialist ambitions
Colonial
Giddens: Structuration
Conditions governing the continuity of transmutation of structures, and therefore the reproduction of social systems
"_________ societies are economically diverse, technologically advanced, involve highly capital-intensive economies operated by cadres of skilled, educated laborers, and are centers of manufacturing, commerce, and finance" (Seidman 2013:283).
Core
__________ states: High income, educationally advanced, cosmopolitan
Core
____________ knowledge symbolically marks — or signifies — the ____________________________ that individuals occupy
Cultural ; social positions
Foucault: _____________ from psychological and sexual norms led to the creation of new deviant 'subjects', who became subordinated to disciplinary forms of social control.
Deviations
Madness and Civilization, The Birth of the Clinic, The Order of Things, Discipline and Punish, and The History of Sexuality are by:
Foucault
Poststructuralism - theorists
Foucault ; Said ; Bourdieu
Ethnomethodology - theorist
Garfinkel
Foucault's second methodological approach to interrogating this power-knowledge dynamic: "_________________ articulates the dependence of the production of knowledge on relationships of power."
Genealogy
1815-1917: _____________ replaces Holland as the global power
Great Britain
"Initially, it was __________ that assumed hegemonic status by virtue of its advancements in shipbuilding, textiles, the fishing industry... And its impressive naval power" (Seidman 2013:285).
Holland
1640-1815: Consolidation of the European world economy (e.g., _____________, ________________, ______________, ____________, )
Holland, Britain, Belgium, France
"___________ is objectively defined as location in a certain world... and appropriated only along with that world."
Identity
Said: " ... ________________ of the 'our land/barbarian land' variety does not require that the barbarians acknowledge the distinction" (470).
Imaginative geography
_________________ wrote The Modern World System (1974) — first of four volumes dedicated to the study of the global capitalist world economy
Immanuel Wallerstein
"The transition to modern society is rooted in the ______________________ and the 18th century ______________ period in Europe..."
Industrial Revolution ; Enlightenment
The second order of simulacra "begins with the ____________________ and ends in the early part of the ______________ century" (490).
Industrial Revolution ; twentieth
Berger + Luckmann: "_______________ occurs whenever there is a reciprocal typification of habitualized action by types of actors" (355)
Institutionalization
'________________' and '________________' are two forms of objectification — the latter being the most extreme form
Institutionalization ; reification
"__________________ by definition are the more enduring features of social life."
Institutions
Berger + Luckmann: "______________... control human conduct by setting up predefined patterns of conduct..." (355).
Institutions
________________ is a main constituent of the social order, based largely on _________________________________________________________
Intersubjectivity ; 'common knowledge'
"As its subtitle suggests... A Report on Knowledge by _____________ is primarily concerned with knowledge and its changing organization in contemporary societies" (429).
Jean-Francios Lyotard
"____________ objectivates the shared experiences and makes them available to all within the linguistic community..." (68).
Language
Said: "Thus, onto the character of _____________ in the middle ages was heaped a number of attributes ... As the disseminator of a false Revelation, he became as well the epitome of lechery, debauchery, sodomy, and a whole battery of assorted treacheries" (472).
Mohammad
Foucault: '______________' is a non-juridical type of power — once a 'norm' is established, deviations are identified, isolated, regulated and corrected
Normalization
Foucault: '_______' — not laws — set in motion the regulative technologies of social control
Norms
Said "details how Western scientists, philosophers, novelists, poets, and politicians created the reality of the '_________' through their writings" (461)
Orient
Said: "What it is trying to do... Is at one and the same time characterize the ________ as alien and incorporate it schematically... for Europe, and only for Europe" (473).
Orient
According to Said, _____________... Is a "field of academic study aimed at discovering and understanding all things 'Oriental' — that is, Middle Eastern" (467).
Orientalism
Said: "The __________ makes it his work to be always converting the Orient from something into something else: He does this for himself, for the sake of his culture, in some cases for... the sake of the Oriental" (473).
Orientalist
"Colonizing powers use language to fix the meaning of the colonized '_______'" (e.g., inferior, weak, evil)
Other
'______________' pervades the 'disciplinary society
Panopticism
Imaginative geography
Perceptions and understandings of a place — and of its inhabitants — that are generated through images, vocabularies and texts (e.g., the Middle East)
_____________ states are "...Economically specialized, even monocultural, labor-intensive, technologically underdeveloped...".
Periphery
Nietzsche: ________________: Truths are interpretations of reality that are connected to the exercising of power
Perspectivism
___________________ is the "study of consciousness and the objects of direct experience" — from ____________________
Phenomenology ; first-person POV
_______________: "Objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion that appeals to emotion...".
Post-truth
Said: ____________ studies "examines the relationship between the colonizer and the colonized as it is inscribed in language" (456).
Postcolonial
__________________ are "pessimistic about the methods, goals, ideals, and prospects of the modern world...".
Postmodernists
Berger + Luckmann: Socialization takes two forms: "__________ socialization is the first socialization an individual undergoes in childhood, through which he becomes a member of society" (358).
Primary
Symbolic violence
Refers to acts leading to misrecognition of reality or distortion of underlying power relations
Ontological security
Refers to unconscious feelings regarding the continuity of one's self-identity and of the broader social and physical world. It is a sense of security rooted in a trust that people and the surrounding world are as they appear.
Berger + Luckmann: "____________ is the apprehension of human phenomena as if they were things, that is, in non-human or possible supra-human terms" (356).
Reification
"The first true order of simulacra... began with the _______________ and culminated with the birth of the _________________________________" (489)
Renaissance ; Industrial Revolution
Giddens: System(s)
Reproduced relations between actors or collectivities, organized as regular social practices
'__________' are recipes for enactment and '____________' are "the capabilities of making things happen."
Rules ; resources
Giddens: Structure(s)
Rules and resources, or sets of transformation relations, organized as properties of social systems
Phenomenology and Social Constructionism - theorists
Schutz ; Berger and Luckmann
"_____________ socialization is any subsequent process that inducts an already socialized individual into new sectors of the objective world of his society" (358).
Secondary
Bracketing
Setting aside other aspects of personality, life, and experience in order to carry out typified roles
_______________ is the most important value of the commodity
Sign value
_______________ refers to 'an image or representation of something' and ______________ refers to 'reality as representation' — that is, the simulation is reality
Simulacrum ; hyperreality
Berger + Luckmann: _________________ refers to the 'facts of life' peculiar to a people that are dependent on their beliefs (subjectivity)
Social reality
Further, Schutz's study of intersubjectivity led to the identification of common 'cognitive resources':
Stocks of knowledge, recipes and typifications
________________________________: "He knows about the world and he knows what to expect... a new item is filed away in the vast storehouse" (328).
Storehouse of consciousness
_____________ and _________ are the two main determinants of behavioral outcomes
Structure ; agency
Giddens developed the structuration theory to overcome the problematic dualism in sociological theorizing: ____________-centered or ___________-centered approaches
Structure ; agent
______________ — rules and resources — makes it "possible for discernibly similar social practices to exist across varying spans of time and space...And which lend them to '_____________' form."
Structure ; systemic
The once preferred methods of torture, mutilation, disfigurement and public execution give way to... _____________ — aimed at disciplining the mind and soul
Surveillance
What has led to the skepticism of metanarratives?
The contradictions, excesses and failures of these grand projects (e.g., subjugation in the West and totalitarianism in the East)
Sign-value
The meaning of a particular sign is not derived from a connection to a real signified but instead from a connection to its structural relationship to a semiotic code that is divorced from reality
Time-space distanciation
The separation of time and space, which allows social relations to shift from a local to a global context
Stocks of knowledge
These "provide actors with rules for interpreting interactions, social relationships, organizations, institutions, and the physical world" (327)
1917-1960: "The rise of the ______________ to world hegemonic power in the modern world system" (284).
United States
___________________: "It consists of what has already been experienced and is thus taken for granted."
Unreflexive
The Global Society - theorists
Wallerstein ; Giddens
Transformation of intimacy
While trust was "pre-given" in the kinship networks of traditional societies, in modern society trust is a "project" that requires work in the form of self-disclosure and openness in order to be "won"
"______________________ movements in Western nations are unlikely to experience political radicalization."
Working-class
'_____________________' of the past were networks of societies "unified by the domination of one state or centralized political authority" (Seidman 2013:282).
World-empires
"________________ is vital to the sustenance of reality because it is what enables us to believe that social life is coherent and that meaning is shared" (363).
accounting
Social structures are reproduced everyday through (obligatory) artful ______________________________
accounting practices
Garfinkel's argument: The orderliness (and facticity) of social reality is an '______________' — created and sustained by the artful methods individuals employ to make their motives and actions intelligible
achievement
Bourdieu: "Individuals do not create their dispositions — rather, they _____________ them" (429).
acquire
"Respondents from more privileged classes... described the photograph in abstract terms that reflect their... possession of an _____________________________ required for properly appreciating art."
aesthetic code
Agent-centered accounts: The cultural and institutional realities of society are the products of purposeful individuals: "________ refers to a person's capability or power to act..." (594).
agency
"Social life is approached as a process in which the key concept is social practice... Which has an '__________' and '_____________' aspect."
agentic ; structural
While there were many movements that emerged in the 20th century against core nations... They were often "______________ struggles intent on establishing national independence. That is, they were opposed to __________ powers — not necessarily to the capitalist world-economy
anticolonial ; colonial
The higher the ____________, the greater the ___________ -- the increased domination and increased control and increased discipline → leads to increased aptitude (this is an indicator of degree of discipline)
aptitude ; domination
Ultimately, the relationship between the two is ____________; e.g., 'tree' arbitrarily represents the actual object
arbitrary
Postmodernity designates a new era — a new_____________
attitude
The pre-Renaissance European era was "built on the obligation of signs to represent an ____________ reality."
authentic
Schutz: And while "stocks of knowledge are ________________________________________," they are acquired in a world shared with others and common to others (330).
biographically articulated
At its core, this method involves _______________________ (epoche)
bracketing
Garfinkel uses ________________ to expose the 'background of common understandings'
breaching experiments
Semiperiphery states often have 'relatively' weak states and economies, but the "key feature of these societies is that they serve as a ________ for the core nations."
buffer
Bourdieu: "The closer individuals are to one another in terms of the amount and types of _________ they possess, the more they have in common..." (422).
capital
"There has been but one historically sustaining world economy: the ___________ one" (Seidman 2013:282).
capitalist
Critically, this last period (1917-1960) includes the consolidation of the ________________ world-economy
capitalist
Wallerstein: "A world-economy and a ______________ system go together" (548).
capitalist
"Orientalism's understanding of the native population allows for... repressive tactics... for '_________ the savages'."
civilizing
Many periphery societies have histories of _____________ — due to lands being rich in raw materials
colonialism
Lyotard: Additionally, with the advent of 'computer-based information technology'... Knowledge has been increasingly __________________ (505).
commercialized
Garfinkel: People are responsible for acting in accordance with the 'background of _____________________________________
common understandings
Russian revolution, 1917: Overthrow of the Tsarist aristocracy and the establishment of ________________
communism
What is expected of persons is 'motivated ________________' with the 'natural __________________ in society'
compliance ; facts of life
The ______________ is an archetype of hyperreality
computer
Lyotard: The value of scientific-technological knowledge is tied to the ______________ of society (i.e., efficiency)
computerization
"One takes experience not as experience but simply as a pure form of _________________."
consciousness
"Structure, then, is both _____________ and ___________ — it limits but also facilitates action (594)
constraining ; enabling
Jean Baudrillard's works analyzed the 'symbolism of _____________________'
consumption
While inspired by Marxist theory, Baudrillard's early work "investigated the capitalist mode of _____________ rather than the mode of production...".
consumption
_____________________ and leisure have displaced _____________.
consumption ; production
Therefore, the Orientalist practices ____________: " ... The Orient is thus Orientalized, a process that not only marks the Orient as the province of the Orientalist... (473)
conversion
Schutz: "We all have a ______________ of recipes, or implicit instructions for accomplishing everyday life."
cookbook
The second order of simulacra: Development of large-scale manufacturing enables the mass production of exact __________
copies
"It is one of Wallerstein's chief claims that ________ societies need weaker, subordinate societies to dominate and exploit" (283).
core
"Rich _________ nations can afford to raise the standard of living of workers, create elaborate systems of welfare ...and provide relative social security for most of their citizens" (285).
core
Periphery states: "Their economies may be reduced... to the role of producing one product or providing raw materials and cheap labor to ________ nations" (283).
core
"At the center of world capitalism are '_________' societies... They are economically, politically, militarily, and culturally _______________ in the world system."
core ; dominant
Further, ________ states are characterized by a _______ degree of internal political stability and maintain strong, advanced militaries
core ; high
The case of Chile demonstrates how ______ societies use their hegemonic status to extract resources and wealth from ____________ societies
core ; peripheral
"Wallerstein conceives of the capitalist world economy as divided between three zones: the ______, ________________, and ___________."
core ; semi periphery ; periphery
"People... in the developing world have been defined in Western literary texts and in scientific texts... As simultaneously irrational, bloodthirsty, infantile, deceitful, and in need of '______________________________'" (457).
correct training
Foucault: Method of disciplinary power: Hierarchical observation: "To render visible those who are inside... to make it possible to know them, to alter them" — i.e., to normalize subjects by '_____________' them
correcting
By suspending _____________________________ — another aspect of 'bracketing' — analysts can direct attention to the forms of meaning of the lifeworld
critical position taking
Knowledge of an aesthetic code — for appreciating fine art — is one form of '____________ capital'
cultural
___________ capital: "Educational credentials, types of knowledge and expertise, verbal skills and aesthetic preferences" (422).
cultural
Garfinkel: '_______________ explanations' or 'proposed explanations' reveal the how departures from the norm are made _________________________________ through the use of 'accounting practices'
demanded ; unavoidably intelligible
Unlike other approaches, phenomenology does not require an analytical stance of ________________
detachment
The ________________ or ________________ of a given society therefore depends... On the structural position a society occupies in the capitalist world economy
development ; underdevelopment
The basis of meaning is _____________ — meaning is derived from (binary) relationships of symbolic _____________
difference
"Signs, for Baudrillard and Saussure, are primarily constituted through _________________ within the structures and rules of signification of any given society."
differences
"The quest for systematic order is undesirable insofar as general theories create hierarchies that marginalize and repress social _________________" (169-170).
differences
The greater the ____________ in the amount and types of ________ possessed, "the less they have in common."
differences ; capital
In Discipline and Punish (1975), Foucault outlines the anatomy of '__________ power'
disciplinary
"The chief function of the __________ power is to '________'... Discipline 'makes' individuals; it is a specific technique of power..." (Foucault 1975:170)
disciplinary ; train
According to Foucault, '______________________' has since infiltrated all modern institutions ... Hospitals, schools, asylums, offices, factories "The aim of disciplinary technology, whatever its institutional form... is to forge a 'docile body that may be subjected, used, transformed and improved'."
disciplinary power
Foucault: "In a society such as ours, but basically in any society, there are manifold relations of power which permeate, characterize, and constitute the social body, and these relations of power cannot themselves be established, consolidated nor implemented without the production of, accumulation, circulation and functioning of a ______________"
discourse
Lyotard: Acceptance of 'multiple, conflicting ____________'
discourses
______________ consciousness refers to the "capacity to explicitly state... explanations for our conduct."
discursive
"Since world-economies lack the unifying cement of an overall political structure or [common] culture... What holds them together is the efficacy of the ________________" (548).
division of labor
"The capitalist world-system is characterized by a plurality of states and political authorities... "Its unity is provided by an international ____________________ and unequal political economic relations."
division of labor
"Yet, structures are reproduced at the very moment individuals draw on them to make sense of and act in the social world... Thus the __________ of structure" (594)
duality
Giddens proposes the concept of the '___________ of structure'
duality
_____________ capital — a determinant of class standing — shapes the transmission of cultural capital
economic
_____________ capital: Income and wealth
economic
Wallerstein: "We are in a capitalist system only when the system gives priority to the ____________ accumulation of capital."
endless
"The possibility of common understandings .... consists instead and entirely in the __________________________ of actions in compliance with the expectancies of everyday life as a morality" (372)
enforceable character
"Such relations of dominance and exploitation between nations are justified by ideologies of free ____________, ________________ and social progress" (284).
enterprise ; democratization
"For Foucault, an ___________ is a framework of knowledge that shapes discourse..." (397).
episteme
"____________________ seek to explain how 'people make joint sense of their social world together and [how] they do so methodically using social procedures or methods they share'" (361).
ethnomethodologists
_________________ refers to the sociological study of the 'methods' — or procedures — that people use in everyday life for sustaining 'the natural facts of life' (i.e., social reality)
ethnomethodology
The ____________ relationship between core and periphery societies leads businesses of core nations to appropriate these natural resources
exploitive
"In other words, the institutions are now experienced as possessing a reality of their own... A reality that confronts the individual as an _________ and ___________ fact" (B&L 1966:58).
external ; coercive
Emile Durkheim's aphorism: Social facts are 'things' — they are ___________ to the individual and exist _____________ of any individual
external ; independently
Structure-centered accounts: Socialization and social controls (e.g., roles, norms, sanctions) generate individual behavior through ________________________ and ________________
external pressures ; constraints
Berger + Luckmann: "Social order is produced by man in the course of his ongoing ___________________" — made real through human activity
externalization
"The institutions, as historical and objective ___________, confront the individual as undeniable facts... [they] are there, external to him... whether he likes it or not."
facticities
Using scientific methods to search for truth, modern thinkers criticized the _____________ of longstanding religious and mythological narratives
factuality
An economic system that emerged from the crisis of ____________, now dominates global society
feudalism
Lastly, Bourdieu defines _________ as domains or spaces of human competition. E.g., Economic, political and cultural _________
fields
Foucault: "There are many methods by which the unrelenting '________ of surveillance has been operationalized in the contemporary world: Routine inspections in the workplace, rigorous training in procedures and protocol, registration and credentialing, self-reports of daily activities, standardized work quotas, measurement of effort, grades, performance evaluations..."
gaze
Schutz: Typification involves identifying _____________________________________ (schema)
generic characteristics
Wallerstein's The Modern World System (1974) presents a theory of _____________________________.
global stratification
Lastly, Foucault introduced and expanded on his concept of '______________' - It refers to all endeavors involving "how to govern oneself... how to become the best possible governor."
governmentality
Berger + Luckmann: "Choices are narrowed... ___________________ provides the direction and the specialization of activity that is lacking in man's biological equipment" (354).
habitualization
Bourdieu: "The __________ is a set of dispositions, reflexes and forms of behavior people acquire through acting in society. It reflects the different positions people have in society, for example, whether they are brought up in a middle-class environment or in a working-class suburb. It is part of how society reproduces itself."
habitus
______________ refers to a set of deeply ingrained and durable dispositions through which one's experience of the social world is interpreted and expressed
habitus
Core states are rivals — they compete with one another for _____________ status
hegemonic
"Establishing ____________ means maintaining economic supremacy in the different sectors of the economy... And sustaining military and political dominance over other core nations" (283).
hegemony
While core nations complete for ______________... "The central dynamic is the exploitative relationship between the core and periphery" (284).
hegemony
"For Said, Orientalism is an instance of __________ in which scholars... offer a picture of the Orient and its people that prescribes for them an inferior position relative to the West... Europe's superiority over the... Orient becomes a ___________________ truth" (464).
hegemony ; taken-for-granted
The pre-Renaissance European era referred to a rigid _____________ social system
hierarchical
Foucault: Method of disciplinary power: The examination combines the techniques of an observing ___________ and those of a _____________ judgment" (Foucault 1975:184)
hierarchy ; normalizing
It's NOT whether an object exists, but ______ it exists according to the meaning of the experience
how
In the era of _______________, there is an "outstripping of reality by... media simulations" (Elliot 2009:243).
hyperreality
_____________ defines the postmodern condition
hyperreality
Said: "Epithet of '_________' [was] applied to Mohammed." "Islam became an image... whose function was not so much to represent Islam as it was in itself, as to represent Islam for the medieval Christian" (471).
imposter
Foucault: There was an '_____________________________' on sexuality, which was tied to the scientific study of the human species.
incitement to discourse
Both 'society dominated' and 'individual dominated' accounts are reductionist and ____________
incomplete
"All consciousness is consciousness of something and objects do not have appearances ________________ of the things that perceive them" (326)
independent
Order-restoring accounting practices also involve '_______________'
indexicality
______________ occurs when individuals infer the meaning of behavior by creating or attributing to it a context — even when one is not readily apparent
indexicality
Mass produced goods are nearly _________________
indistinguishable
"The chief dynamic of the capitalist world-system is the conflict between nations driven by socioeconomic _________________."
inequalities
Said: "The figures of speech associated with the Orient... are always... opposed and _____________ to... ...A _____________ equivalent..." (474).
inferior ; European
The structure of language is reproduced through speech acts: instances of enactment, or '_____________'
instantiation
"Structure, as... sets of rules and resources, is out of time and space, save in _______________...".
instantiations
Indexicality makes action _________________ (363)
intelligible
Agent-centered accounts: Human behavior is ____________ and ___________, involving choices made on the basis of individual interest
intentional ; volitional
Garfinkel's focus was on the "___________ and interpretive skills of individual actors" — not on cognitive resources such as ________________
interactional ; 'typifications'
Berger + Luckmann: "Only when he has achieved this degree of ______________ is an individual a member of society."
internalization
Schutz: "The lifeworld is an ________________ world, known and experienced by others" (326)
intersubjective
"Despite the fact that individuals never experience exactly the same thing... It is still possible to develop _________________________, or shared meaning."
intersubjectivity
Specifically, there exist a series of cognitive resources that sustain ______________ — which enable people to 'share in the same consciousness'
intersubjectivity
The reality of everyday life is predicted on ________________________
intersubjectivity
Said: A representation of place is '_________' symbolically through discourses that ________ a geographical locale
invented ; define
Berger + Luckmann: "The objectivated meanings of institutional activity are conceived of as '____________ ... And transmitted as such" (B&L 1966:70).
knowledge
Lyotard: _______________ is a critical resource for the maintenance and regulation of modern societies
knowledge
Foucault: Relationship of __________ and _______: In the "human sciences.... ____________ becomes the ultimate ground of all _________" (Elliot 2009:71).
knowledge ; power
Each historical age is characterized by set of shared presuppositions and assumptions that determine what is considered ____________ and _______ (i.e., episteme)
knowledge ; truth
"Science is not to be abandoned" (506). It is considered one of many '____________ games' — marked by its own rules, conventions and aims
language
Postmodern "society is conceived of as a multiplicity of ______________ games" (170).
language
"Fields are relatively autonomous arenas within which actors... mobilize their capital in an effort to capture the stakes...". What is ultimately at stake is ______________
legitimacy
Berger + Luckmann: "At the same point, the institutional world requires _____________... ways by which it can be 'explained'...".
legitimation
Like the Frankfurt School theorists, Foucault takes issue with the allegedly '____________' effects of the Enlightenment — e.g., reason and science
liberating
Schutz: The ____________ is the taken-for-granted backdrop within which all situations are measured and given meaning.
lifeworld
Schutz: ________________ refers to the world of existing assumptions [and understandings] as they are experienced and made meaningful in consciousness" (326).
lifeworld
"Humans... experience the world [their _____________] as made of meaningful objects and relations.
lifeworlds
Moreover, the "functions of regulation... are being and will be further... entrusted to ____________."
machines
In the rigid hierarchical social system, it was not only perfectly clear who was a lord and who was a serf... But also which ________ (clothing, style, language, etc.) connoted each position" (489).
markers
Foucault: Method of disciplinary power: Normalizing judgment: "It is easy to understand how the power of the norm functions within a system of formal equality..." — as all persons are equally subjected to ______________
measurement
Another qualitative change of postmodernism "is the rise of new ________ and interactive _____________" (484).
media ; technology
Verbal communication is dependent upon the ______________ of language
medium
Lyotard: _____________________ of knowledge: "Knowledge is and will be produced in order to be sold" — thus research is driven by economic forces and interests (510).
mercantilization
"__________________ are paradigmatic systems of knowledge that contain established and credible worldviews and describe a total picture of society; they provide a basis on which truth claims are made and through which the validity of knowledge is judged" (505)
metanarratives
Lyotard: _____________________ were an essential feature of modernity
metanarratives
" ... only the _________ world system has been a capitalist system."
modern
"The order of obligated signs is replaced by the first '_______ signs' in an era of the counterfeit...".
modern
Giddens: The continuous production and incorporation of new knowledge into institutional practice is a driving force of ____________" (Seidman 2013:143).
modernity
In many ways, the present era is a response to _____________
modernity
__________________ — in contrast — represents "an assault on narrative knowledge" (168).
modernity
"...Structures are properties that exist only in the __________ of their use by actors" (594)
moment
Garfinkel: 'Righteous hostility' reveals the social order as a '_________ order' — an order that is inescapably ________________
moral ; obligatory
'_______________________' requires a certain social competence from members of society
motivated compliance
Symbolic power is the power of ___________, _________ and __________ on the social world a system of classification that confers or withholds legitimacy
naming ; defining ; imposing
Whereas scientific truth supplies knowledge, _____________ supplies ___________ (i.e., purpose and identity)
narrative ; meaning
"Lyotard suggested that modern science must in the end appeal to ______________ for legitimation."
narratives
"________________ were considered knowledge not because they corresponded to facts... But because they conformed to social rules that fixed who had the right to speak, to whom, and when."
narratives
Schutz: "Intersubjectivity refers not so much to the fact that we share the same empirical or material world... As it does to the fact that we share the same consciousness" — a common _____________________
natural attitude
Motivated compliance results in the reproduction of the '_______________' of social reality
natural facts
Signs found value in their imitation of _________
nature
'__________' is the original and the Mona Lisa painting is a ______ or imitation of this natural form
nature ; copy
Foucault: Power operates through the production of '_____________' discourses about sexuality and sexual subjects
normative
Berger + Luckmann: "The process by which the externalized products of human activity attain the character of objectivity is _____________" (356)
objectification
Berger + Luckmann: It "appears already ____________ ,that is, constituted by an order of objects that have been designated as objects before my appearance on the scene."
objectified
Berger + Luckmann: "The institutional world is _____________ human activity and so is every single institution."
objectivated
Following Husserl, Schutz emphasized that humans do not experience the world as an __________ reality; rather, they experience the world as made of meaningful objects and relations
objective
The strict definition of ________________ means 'NOT dependent on the mind for existence'
objective
Berger + Luckmann: "When the generalized other [i.e., the attitudes of others] has been crystalized in consciousness... ...A symmetrical relationship is established between ________ and _________ reality."
objective ; subjective
Bourdieu: This conceptual triad was developed to overcome the 'dualism' inherent in the social sciences: _____________ vs. ______________
objectivism ; subjectivism
According to Durkheim, all moral phenomena have a distinctly '_______________' character
obligatory
Postmodernism lives with the reality of ______________
oppositions
Berger + Luckmann: "I apprehend the reality of everyday life as an _______________________... Its phenomena are prearranged in patterns..." (348).
ordered reality
"In intentionally using language to communicate, the language itself and the rules that govern its use are unintentionally reproduced as an ____________..." (593).
outcome
"Systematic social patterns can be explained as ____________, intended or unintended, of social practices" (Seidman 2013:142).
outcomes
Foucault: "The modern age is one of '_____________'... A society in which individuals are increasingly caught up in systems of power in and through which ___________ is a key means of social control.
panopticism ; visibility
The prototypical manifestation of disciplinary power — in architectural form — is the '____________'
panopticon
Lyotard: "Knowledge is legitimated by its ability to enhance the _____________ and ____________ of rationalized social institutions" (505) (e.g., 'performativity').
performance ; efficiency
"The exploited societies belong to the _________________"
periphery
What social phenomenologists, social constructionists and ethnomethodologists share... Is a "focus on the ______________ of everyday life... the taken-for-granted everyday world that is the basis for all human conduct" (325).
phenomena
Husserl is credited with originating the philosophical tradition of ___________________
phenomenology
This ____________ in the 'global division of labor' determines its power on the international stage
position
Zones refer to '_____________' in the world economy
positions
Edward Said's 1978 publication — Orientalism — marked the birth of '____________ studies'
postcolonial
"For those seeking to fashion an alternative, '_____________' means of expression freed from the dehumanizing effects of the colonial language... A central task involves __________ the culture, the history, and the language of marginalized populations...
postcolonial ; reclaiming
The third order of simulacra corresponds to______________________ development — involving a proliferation of digital technologies
postindustrial
'Fake news' is a _________________ concept — it signals a widespread disbelief in media representations
postmodern
Yet, "the defining feature of the ________________ condition is the decline of the legitimating power of grand narratives" (Seidman 2013: 169).
postmodern
______________ knowledge should "refine our sensitivity to differences and reinforce our ability to tolerate the incommensurable."
postmodern
Key commonality: The term _______________ is used by postmodernists to characterize a dramatic rupture or break with the past
postmodernity
Theorists assert that ____________________ is marked by the "shift from production to consumption and from manufacturing to service industries" (484).
postmodernity
"Like ____________________, postmodernism has many definitions, and there are many approaches to understanding what is described as 'postmodern'"(483).
poststructuralism
Cultural capital and social capital — in addition to economic capital — sustain relations of ________
power
"A world of ________ and ____________" shape the treatment of the Orient and its people (464)
power ; representations
It is within these fields that individuals and groups compete for ________, ___________, and _______ by utilizing the forms of capital they possess
power ; wealth ; status
_________________ consciousness refers to "what individuals know about their own action, but cannot express in words.
practical
Giddens' theory of structuration differentiates two types of knowledgeability or consciousness:
practical consciousness ; discursive consciousness
Bourdieu: 'The social organization of taste': People's _______________ for and _______________ of particular cultural tastes — e.g., art, music, fashion, film — signify differences in social position and socioeconomic status
preferences ; consumption
Schutz: "The human actor, as a socialized member of society, operates within a lifeworld that is _____________ and already organized" (326).
pregiven
"In _____________ societies, narrative types of knowledge prevailed" (168)
premodern
Narratives reinforced the organization of ____________ societies and thus promoted social ______
premodern ; unity
Berger + Luckmann: The product acts back on the ______________.
producer
"Social order is a human _________, or, more precisely, an ongoing human production" (B&L 1966:52).
product
In contrast to 'repressive' or 'oppressive' theories of power which view power as a prohibiting force... Foucault argues that 'power is ______________' — that is, discourses of knowledge and truth must be produced in order to exercise power
productive
"Medical research ... has succumbed to the dynamics of the marketplace, as pharmaceutical companies... Compete to be the first to patent and market new treatments" for ________ (505).
profit
Postmodernists are equally "pessimistic about achieving anything other than ___________ (rather than universal or absolute) forms of change" (484).
provisional
Foucault: With the growth of the human sciences, the self has become increasingly governed by the '_____________________________________' (e.g., psychology, psychiatry)
psychotherapies of normality
Using the phenomenological approach, "Husserl thus set out to inventory all the __________________________."
pure essences
"In this sense, the signifier is the '_____ of desire'."
real
First order simulacra refer to ______________ and are considered 'less real' than their empirical referents
real things
Berger + Luckmann: Social reality "is taken for granted as ___________.
reality
There is no need to question the _________ of objects
reality
Berger and Luckmann's theoretical model describes the basic processes of '______________________________'
reality construction
Berger + Luckmann: "Among multiple realities there is one that presents itself as the reality par excellence. This is the _______________________________."
reality of everyday life
Foucault's attitude does not entail the rejection of __________.
reason
Since the image is fabricated, it has no ___________ in the world" (E.g., iPhone has no 'natural' __________)
referent
In fact, Giddens "argues that _____________ has become a key feature of modern societies."
reflexivity
New risk: "Increased ___________ means heightened contestation over knowledge claims...".
reflexivity
_________________ is essential to social action
reflexivity
____________________: The "action [of persons] involves practical knowledge of their world, an ability to reflect upon the conditions of their action and incorporate this knowledge into their conduct" (Seidman 2313:143)
reflexivity
As soon as objective social world established, the possibility for ____________ is never far away
reification
Berger + Luckmann: "To what extent is an institutional order, or any part of it, apprehended as a non-human facticity? This is the question of the ____________ of social reality" (356).
reification
Berger + Luckmann: "The __________ world is, by definition, a ____________ world" (356).
reified ; dehumanized
Said: The Orient acquired _____________ and _______________
representatives ; representations
"The social systems in which structure is recursively implicated... comprise the situated activities of human agents, ______________ across time and space."
reproduced
"Social _______________ ... consists in the reproduction of stratified, hierarchical relations" between classes
reproduction
This second period of simulacra involves the "production of signs as ________________ of other signs" (490).
reproductions
"'Panopticon' was the term Bentham used for a set of proposals he tried to sell to the British government... For the ____________ of a criminal's mind from irrational law-breaking to rational law-following" (Elliot 2009:73).
retraining
Secondary socialization may say that [it involves] the acquisition of ___________ knowledge... and ____________ vocabularies... Derived from '___________'" (B&L 1966:138)
role specific ; subworlds
"The individual not only takes the __________ and attitudes of others, but in the same process takes on their __________" (B&L 1966:132).
roles ; world
E.g., 'Gender work' is a social practice that draws on __________ and ____________ of traditional gender identity
rules ; resources
For Giddens, 'structure' refers to both _________ and to _____________...
rules ; resources
Along with other forms of digital technologies, the computer is used to create independent realities — realities that are ____________________
self-referential
"Societies that belong to the _______________ share features of both the core and periphery" (284).
semiperiphery
Garfinkel: Breaching experiments are designed to 'disrupt normal procedures' to expose the methods used by people to restore a ________________________
sense of order
"The social logic of consumption is not at all that of the individual appropriation of the value of goods and services [e.g., use or exchange values]...". It is the consumption of __________ — the ___________
sign-value ; signifier
"Fascination with the ____________ [is] central to the process of consumption" (Elliot 2009:242).
signifier
Borrowing from Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), the sign is composed of both ___________ and ___________
signifier ; signified
The ____________ is the form which the sign takes and the _____________ is the idea or thing it represents
signifier ; signified
"The _________ for reality come to replace reality."
signs
In the era of postmodernity, individuals come to define their identities based on the _______ they consume and display to others.
signs
According to Baudrillard, various orders of _______________ have characterized human history — changes in the symbolic mediation and representation of reality
simulacra
In Simulacra and Simulations (1981), Baudrillard presents the concepts of ____________ and _______________
simulacra ; hyperreality
____________: The Mona Lisa is an imitation or a 'copy' of reality — a representation of a real person
simulacrum
"These _______________ forms generate an unreal real, a real without origin..." (Linker 1984:4).
simulated
"Man is a _________ product."
social
"___________ capital or networks of contacts... can be used to secure or advance one's position."
social
Foucault was most interested in understanding and explaining the ________ effects of scientific discourses and practices (e.g., treatment of the mentally ill)
social
Lyotard: Science is justified by its _______ utility" (169).
social
__________ capital: Social networks, relationships and ties (i.e., who you know and how you know them)
social
"Narratives tell a story; they are organized around a plot, a linear, sequencing of events, a beginning and an end, and a tale of good and evil... Intended to shape ___________________."
social behavior
Harold Garfinkel: "The concreteness of ______________ is sociology's most fundamental phenomenon."
social facts
Homosexuality became a _________________ based on an act: "The sodomite had been a temporary aberration; the homosexual was now a species" (Foucault 1976:43).
social identity
Habitus is acquired through life experience, based on the demands of a person's ______________________
social location
Yet, the likelihood of possessing this code is less a matter of personal taste than of _______________
social location
"The proliferation of ___________________ means that individuals too can now post 'personal' comments and pictures that are disseminated across the globe."
social media
As a result, postmodernists claim that this "requires novel theoretical approaches to capture the dynamics of the new _________________" (484).
social order
'Duality of structure': Neither structure nor agency is accorded primacy. Rather, "social structures are both the 'medium and outcome' of the practices they organize" (594) — "structures exist only in and through _____________________________."
social practices
Garfinkel: Commonsense: The shared expectancies of everyday life are essentially matters of '___________________'
social trust
Berger + Luckmann: "The individual... is not born a member of society. He is born with a predisposition toward __________, and he becomes a member of society" (358). This occurs when the meanings of the objective social world become _____________ meaningful (i.e., one's own)
sociality ; subjectively
"In speaking of the structural properties of social systems I mean their institutionalized features, giving '_________' across time and space."
solidity
In core states, domestic relations are ____________ by a welfare system, while militaries __________ foreign investments
stabilized ; protect
Is behavior the outcome of ____________ constraint, or is it the outcome of _____________ choice?
structural ; individual
Anthony Giddens's The Constitution of Society (1984) outlines a general theory of social action — 'theory of ______________'
structuration
However, "approaching social life as a '______________' process does not mean that human affairs are always in a state of flux...
structuration
Bourdieu refers to habitus — or ______________ — as the 'internalization of externality'
subjectivity
Structure-centered accounts: Individuals become __________ for — or bearers of — larger social structures (i.e., serving systems)
supports
"The meaning of signs was '_____,' nonarbitrary, and denotive... based on... an irrefutable social order."
sure
"The core extracts ____________ value from the periphery and exercises social and political ______________ in order to sustain economic exploitation" (284).
surplus ; dominance
'_____________ capital' refers to status, prestige, honor and esteem — a key basis of authority and domination
symbolic
Identities are based on _______________ difference.
symbolic
Symbolic capital translates to '__________________' — which is the power to define reality by assigning value
symbolic power
Berger + Luckmann: Social reality attains true objectivity when there is a ___________ and ____________ of belief and action
symmetry ; uniformity
Like the phenomenologists and constructionists... Garfinkel investigated the 'common sense world of everyday life' — or the world of the '______________________'
taken-for-granted
Schutz: "This ______________________ world includes whatever prejudices and typical interpretations may derive from it" (326) — 'of course' is the byword
taken-for-granted
Garfinkel referred to the '____________________' as supplying a 'background of common understandings' or '__________________________________' — or what is commonly understood is that which is commonly expected
taken-for-granted ; background expectancies
"Lyotard spoke of the possible formation of a __________ society that uses science to enhance... Bureaucratic, capitalistic state _______..." (169).
technocratic ; control
1815-1917: Conversion into a true global world economy is made possible by new _____________ and the rise of modern ____________
technologies ; industrialism
The "inability"— and refusal — "to form universal or '_________' truth is the sine qua non of the postmodern condition" (507)
totalizing
"Unlike '______'... simulacra, simulated forms do not imitate reality in an illusory manner; as opposed to the copy... they precede and formulate the real."
true
Orientalism also forces the uninitiated Western reader to accept Orientalist codifications as the ______ Orient."
true
"Science is a language game whose aim is ________; its rules enjoin conformity to specific methodological and conceptual conventions... Its standards of justification are centered on issues of evidence and logic."
truth
Foucault: Psychiatrists and psychologists sought to formulate the uniform '________' of sex — of sexual instincts, desires and behaviors
truth
Foucault: Psychiatrists and psychologists sought to formulate the uniform '_________' of sex — of sexual instincts, desires and behaviors
truth
Lyotard: "The legitimacy of science derives not from its _______, but from the support it obtains from the state or the corporation..." (506).
truth
Said: Such efforts to define the '_______' of the Orient were 'made by men' — whose judgments were guided by ____________ interests
truth ; Western
"The third order of simulacra, beginning in the late _____________century, is the order of simulation proper."
twentieth
"_________________ is the process of constructing personal 'ideal-types' based on the typical function of people or things" (328).
typification
In short, the society "within which we live provides us with a stockpile of ______________ and _____________... That make this world both intelligible and manageable."
typifications ; recipes
Berger + Luckmann: When members of any institution follow its rules, they are performing reciprocally ___________ and ____________ actions that sustain that institution
typified ; habitualized
Schutz: "The lifeworld is 'the ___________________________________ for the emergence of all possible problems'...".
unproblematic ground
Foucault: "Yet, when one looks back over these last three centuries with their continual transformations, things appear in a very different light: around and apropos of sex, one sees a _________________________."
veritable discursive explosion
Lyotard: The value of scientific-technological knowledge is found in its capacity to 'increase the system's ___________'
viability
Said: "Imaginative geography ... legitimates a ___________... a discourse peculiar to... understanding the Orient."
vocabulary
Periphery societies have _________ and ___________ states
weak ; unstable
Symbolic power is a power of '____________' — "a power of creating things with words" (428).
world making
By 1640, there became a 'stabilized predominance of __________________ trade' controlled by northwestern European states
world market
Wallerstein did not anticipate the collapse of the modern ______________________
world system
"What we mean by a ________________ is a large geographic zone within which there is a division of labor and hence significant internal exchange of basic or essential goods as well as flows of capital and labor" (548).
world-economy
However, "world-empires declined with the rise of what Wallerstein calls a '___________________'."
world-economy
The '__________________' began with the emergence of a capitalist world economy during the ______ century
world-system ; 16th
