Sociology 170 Final

stress

"Psychological stress occurs when an individual perceives that environmental demands tax or exceed his or her adaptive capacity" - Cohen et al.

US immigration 1880-

"Qualitative restrictions" 1875: convicts Immigration Act of 1882: excluded immigrants from China 1917: literacy test for all immigrants 16+ Shift in ethnic composition of immigrants Most immigrants settled in East Coast cities

Removal

"the compulsory and confirmed movement of an inadmissible or deportable alien out of the United States based on an order of removal" After 196, "orders of removal" replaced "orders of deportation"

Return

"the confirmed movement of an inadmissible or deportable alien out of the United States not based on an order of removal" Ie. an apprehended immigrant leaves the US voluntarily before being ordered to do so through a formal removal proceeding Before 2006, this was called "voluntary departure"

implications for children

Short-term: Housing insecurity Short term emotional distress Re-organizing family routine Longer-term: Disruption of the family unit Economic challenges of supporting a family in the US from Mexico Children's perceptions of migration as a status. Conflation of the meaning of terms "immigrant" and "undocumented" and even "criminal" among children.

287g Program: 1996-

State and local law enforcement can be deputized to perform elements of immigration enforcement under ICE supervision. After serving sentences, incarcerated persons can be taken into custody by ICE. "Detainers" hold incarcerated persons for up to 48 hours for ICE.

In-migration (immigration) rate

immigrants / population in receiving location

How incarceration lowers economic opportunity

1) stigma of a criminal record decreases ability to find a job 2) time in prison decreases accumulated work experience 3) removes individuals from social networks that might help them find work; also strengthens ties with others who have weak employment prospects 4) conditions of imprisonment may promote habits and behaviors suited to routines of regular work

Why are neighborhood effects difficult to measure?

1) what constitutes a neighborhood? Census tracts vs neighborhood associations are different 2) do we want measures of attributes or measures of perceptions of attributes? 3) problem of causal inferences: people choose where to live (within constraints)

redlining

1930s: Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) established Refinanced mortgages for over a million struggling homeowners Assessors rated neighborhoods of major cities based on the risk of investing the area Rating criteria included: housing stock, sales and renault rates, physical attributes of the terrain, and "threat of infiltration of foreign-born, negro, or lower grade population" A red color was given to areas that were considered to be at greatest risk, and home loans were systematically denied to residents in those neighborhoods.

Rights of Unauthorized Children

1982 Plyler v Doe (457 US 202-1982) Unauthorized youth guaranteed a free K-12 public education Denied public financial aid for college Ineligible for in-state residency status (unless state laws enable access to in-state tuition)

contemporary US migration policy

2002-2003 Reconfiguration of Immigration and Naturalization Service into Department of Homeland Security March 2003: Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement Primary mission to "prevent acts of terroristm by targeting the people, money, and materials that support terrorist and criminal activities" The role of ICE has changed quite a bit.

ethic enclave

A geographically defined space with characteristic cultural identity and economic activity Why might immigrants live and work in an enclave? Community building Preferences for ethic coresidence Produced by network-based migration Discrimination and exclusion

"New" home economics theory*

A household makes a decision to have one or more members migrate. The household makes this decision to help navigate "incomplete insurance and credit markets" (lack of access to forms of credit or insurance) Migration is a risk-management strategy for the household Assumes the house is unity, has a single set of preferences. Members agree on the decisions.

Incarceration as institutionalized inequality

According to Western and Pettit (2010) the inequality created by Invisible - incarcerated populations are omitted from official statistics of disadvantage (eg. poverty rare, unemployment) Cumulative - social and economic penalties are accrued by those with the weakest economic opportunities Intergenerational - consequences of incarceration are experienced by the families and children of the incarcerated

Modes of Immigrant Integration

Acculturation: an ethnic group adopts enough of the host society's ways to function economically and socially Assimilation: a complete blending with the host culture (often including intermarriage). Process can be bidirectional, with an expansion of the American "mainstream" Segmented assimilation: adoption of host culture is dependent on migrant resources before arrival and the local context of reception - the context into which migrants relocate.

Enclaves

Advantages: Enables development and use of migrant networks Alternative labor markets that eliminate language/cultural barriers Social supports Assist in economic mobility Also in a way protected from acts of racism. Their health could be better Disadvantages: Isolate immigrants, limiting contact with host country natives Slow language/other skill acquisition Limit information about mainstream opportunities and thus may limit upward economic mobility.

Ethnic groups

An ethnic group is often broadly defined as a group of people who share certain background characteristics such as: Common ancestry Geographical origin Language Religion Culture Ethnicity provides a distinct identity (sense of belonging) ads seen by members of the group as well as by others BUT: Defining ethnicity can be messy Membership involuntarily - identification is fluid Different ethnic groups base identity on different traits: religion, national origin, language, various elements of culture Distinguishing between race and ethnicity isn't always clear. Ethnicity and Race? Migrants from the US were once not perceived as white. What drives understanding of whiteness.

Micro-level economic theory (builds on macro neoclassical theory)

An individual evaluates: The costs and benefits of living in one region The costs and benefits of living in another region The costs and benefits of migration itself cost/benefits include: wages, psychological costs, transport costs, living conditions (what is lost by migrating?) The individual will move when the benefits exceed the costs Assumes perfect information, the person knows the costs and benefits of all migration decisions

State-level variation in policy

Arizona Supreme Court ruled in April that DACA youth were not eligible for in state tuition Virginia allows DACA youth to receive in state tuition Alabama and South Carolina ban undocumented youth from enrolling in public post secondary institutions Connecticut offers scholarships to DACA youth from states that ban in state tuition eligibility.

Agent-based modeling

Artificial world populated by interacting agents A tool for capturing relationships between micro-level behaviors and macro-level outcomes A tool for studying processes where human behavior is interdependent and dynamic

Discrimination in the Criminal Justice System

Baseline behavioral differences Policing decisions Prosecuting decisions Sentencing decisions Backend release decisions (prison credits, parole decisions) There are multiple points along the way. This is a story much bigger than policing alone.

Proposition 187 in California

Bill out forward in 1994 in California by Governor Pete Wilson Denied emergency medical care, public school, and other public benefits to people without documentation The bill passed, was immediately challenged in court and found to be unconstitutional. That ruling has been upheld subsequently.

Immigration Quotas: 1921-1965

Beginning of quotas 1921: limited to 3% of existing foreign born population in 1910 1927: maximum 150,000 plus wives and children 1930s: Economic depression discouraged immigration 1942: Mexican Farm Labor Agreement. Bracero Program: recruited 200,000 workers from Mexico each year Temporary labor migration. Largely balanced out from a flow from the US to Mexico. Fluid population movement. 1965: Immigration and Naturalization Act Eliminated quotas based on national origin Focus on family reunification and attracting skilled workers

Excess mortality using raw death counts

Besides visualizing excess mortality as a percentage difference, we can also look at the raw death counts as shown here in this chart. The raw death counts help give us a rough sense of scale: for example, the US suffered some 275,000 more deaths than the five year average between 1 March and 16 August compared to 169,000 confirmed COVID-19 deaths during that period

Secure Communities: 2008-2014, 2017-

Biometric data collected by local law enforcement sent via FBI to DHS to be matched against a database of migrants entering the US to determine individuals' authorization status.

Massey and Denton: residential segregation

Black segregation does not vary by affluence. Although southern areas generally evinced lower levels of racial segregation, the basic pattern by income was the same: rising economic status had little or no effect on the level of segregation blacks experienced. Whatever was keeping affluent blacks out of white areas, it was not ignorance (availability and cost of housing in white neighborhoods) Race is at work not class. Whereas 63% of blacks picked a 50-50 racial mixture as most desirable, the majority of whites would not be willing to enter such a neighborhood and most would try to leave. As black demand in a neighborhood goes up when more black enter, white demand goes down and many leave Schelling model is where is where black white differences in racial preferences and interpersonal variability in racial attitudes build a self perpetuating dynamic into neighborhood change that leads to rapid racial resegregation Audit studies show racial descrimination exists in metropolitan areas especially. Studies also show prevalence of steering where real estate agents guid black clients to neighborhoods that differ systematically with respect to social and economic characteristics, especially race. Black ghetto not only maintained by discrimiation of real estate agents, also practices of financial institutions. Areas containing minorities were systematically cut off from mortgage monies and home improvement loans. Milwaukee study showed city loan activity followed U pattern. Loan activity high in all white neighborhoods, fell to a minimal at around 55% black, and then increased somewhat. Banks appear apprehensive about the instability associated with neighborhood change. When a stable black neighborhood is achieved credit is increased to a level closer to market demand (never as high as white neighborhoods)

America is failing black moms during the pandemic

Black women are disproportionately impacted, dying in childbirth at three to four times the rate of white women. Black women and other women of color often aren't listened to when they express pain or discomfort doulas are especially important for Black patients and others who experience discrimination during birth covid has made only partner or doula allowed in room sometimes separate infant and mother When we have fewer revenues, in many cases the programs for poor people are the first on the chopping block

unequal access to infertility treatment

Black women have higher odds of experiencing infertility relative to white women, net of differences Yet, much less likely to have access to assistive reproductive technology. White women have more means to negotiate reproductive assistance (different health care from different jobs) Racism as a fundamental cause Reproduction is patterned by SES, but also largely patterned by race. Systemic racism affects reproduction through multiple replaceable mechanisms, assisted reproductive technology being the newest. Some operates from SES, some from without (implicit bias)

Killing the black body

Blacks have infertility rate 1 ½ times higher than that of whites. Blacks make up a disproportionate number of infertile people avoiding reproductive technologies. The high cost of high tech procedures places them out of most black people's reach. Racial steering happens when physicians import their social views into the clinical setting and may feel that fertility treatment is inappropriate for black women who they think are unable to care for their children. More likely to diagnose black women with pelvic inflammatory disease which they often treat with sterilization than endometriosis Sickle cell screening was also the basis for proposals to restrict black women's procreative liberty. Said carriers should not have kids. Advocated sterilization. confusion between carriers and having it. Some say surrogacy treats women as objects rather than as valuable human beings by selling their capacity to bear children for a price. Gestational surrogacy means black women can give birth to white children. Artificial insemination has eugenics tendencies. Women could choose the most biologically fit donors.

Physical environment

Built environment: physical characteristics of building, streets, and other constructed features Proximity to facilities that produce or store hazardous substances (poor air and water quality) Quality of affordable housing (exposure to lead paint, mold, dust, or pest infestation) Lack of access of affordable, nutritious food Lack of access to safe places for exercise and recreation Adverse traffic conditions

migration humanitarian concerns

COVID has changed the way asylum is treated. We have partial immigration court shutdowns. The denial of asylum increased during 2nd Obama through the Trump administration. 71.6% of asylum claims have been denied. High rates of denial from Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras. Largely migrating for safety concerns

Key Ideas - lecture 23

COVID will shape the age, sex, race, nativity composition of the US population, potentially for a number of years We learn about COVID death, in part, by studying excess mortality Mortality disparities arise largely from social conditions. Case rates are higher among people who must keep working in public facing jobs, take public transit, and who are institutionalized. "Pre-existing conditions" are also a function of previous social exposures Foreign born workers disproportionately fill front-line jobs, including health care work, that as increased exposure Foreign born women have experienced the largest employment losses Refugee resettlement is at an all time low The migration of highly educated people for college and graduate education has also slowed. Foreign born workers face barriers to receipt of COVID-related relief from federal stimulus packages. Some states have stepped in to help fill this gap.

index of dissimilarity

Captures the degree to which two groups are found in equal proportion in all neighborhoods Scale: 0 - 100 0= every neighborhood is just as diverse as the entire region 100= individuals with different characteristics never share neighborhoods Interpretation: the % of group members that would have to change neighborhoods to achieve perfect integration

key ideas lecture 15

Coercion in the birth control movement Unequal targeting of drug use during pregnancy Insufficient care during pregnancy labor and delivery Unequal access to infertility treatment.

Types of Neighborhood Effects

Compositional: attributes that describe neighborhood composition (eg percent owning their homes, percent living below the poverty line) environmental/ contextual: attributes that are not compositional (eg, collective efficacy, presence of a grocery store to a high school). This includes effects sometimes called endogenous: effect of aggregate outcomes at neighborhood level affect individual probability of acquiring that outcome (eg. community HIV prevalence associated with individual HIV infection)

Two Life Course Models

Critical Period / Biological Imprinting: Early-life exposures biologically imprint or program health in ways that manifest in adulthood Features of our biology are sensitive to exposures at certain moments (gestation and early childhood). SES and stress exposure during gestation and infancy lead to health trajectory in old age. Cumulative / Chains of risk: exposures to risk factors during childhood lead to higher risk exposures in adulthood. Good health in infancy can predict good cognitive abilities, good education, good jobs, high income, good health in adulthood. These things are cumulative over time. SES, stress exposure, health accumulate over time.

Excess mortality

Deaths that are unexpected given past local trends in mortality rates COVID may influence mortality directly (COVID deaths) or indirectly (reductions in health care, economic stress, avoided deaths from other causes). To understand the total impact of COVID, and to avoid classification error, we study all-cause mortality Simple version of excess mortality: Excess mortality can be measured in several ways. The simplest way is to take the raw number of deaths observed in a given period in 2020 - say week 10, which ended on 8 March - and subtract the average number of deaths in that week over the previous years, for example the last five. Excess Deaths week 10 2020 = Deaths week 10 2020 - Average Deaths week 10 2015-2019 More complete analysis generates this estimate within small geopolitical areas AND takes into account past trends. That is: the expected value of a trending series is not necessarily its mean

Mass incarceration

Defined by the comparatively and historically extreme rates of imprisonment and by the concentration of imprisonment among young, afrtican american men living in neighborhoods of concentrated disadvantage - Christopher Wildeman (2012)

Key Ideas - lecture 21

Deportation increased substantially under the second George W Bush administration and under the first Obama administration. It declined during the second Obama administration, in part because of refusal by some local authorities to cooperate with ICE. Deportation is lower today than in 2011. Detention remains a serious issue. Local level policy has created substantial sub-national variation in exposure to federal migration policy. This variation matters to the experiences of undocumented persons and to the experiences of their family, friends, and colleagues. We understand the effects of migration policy by considering variation across place and over time in exposure to these policies. Evidence suggests that deportation threat has multiple costs for parents and children in mixed status families In Separated, Dr. William Lopez argues that the effects of enforcement strategies reach through communities because of social ties: family, neighbors, colleagues, service providers. The "spillover" effects of immigration raids have implications for the health of people without documents as well as the health of US citizens and the functioning of US communities.

Key Ideas - lecture 22

Developing migration policy typically involves considerations of demographic, fiscal, and humanitarian impact. Evidence consistently shows very small influence of migration on local wages. No evidence demonstrates an impact of migration on increases in crime Migration policy in the US has moved to a focus on enforcement. Engages state and local law enforcement agencies. 8-fold increase on border enforcement expenditure since 1990. Some evidence in Massy, Durand, and Pren that this focus has produced unintended consequences: riskier journeys, fewer return trips, more settlement.

Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act 1996 (IRRIRA)

Discretionary authority for Border Patrol on immediate deportation, including for asylum seekers Removal of status for migrants with legal violations, including nonviolent misdemeanors Very limited access to immigraiton court appeals. Detention without bond for those whose cases heard by courts.

Coercion in family planning

Disproportionately affects women of color Forced sterilization Implant incentives In 90s, forms of birth control were being tied to use of the public safety net in legislation. Represented a connection between a eugenicist movement. Norplant and welfare legislation. IUDs in the delivery room For some providers, the idea that this can be inserted right after birth, is not desirable for agency. The person who just gave birth has to make decisions for the next 5 years. People are vulnerable and medicated. Coercion, Practitioner pressure to use long-acting methods They say they do not want to use a method and they are coerced to stay on it Connected to eugenics and a history medical experimentation in the US

how racism makes us sick: David Williams

Economic status matters for health but there is more to the story Higher levels of discrimination => higher prevalence of diseases and premature mortality There is also discrimination in medical care. Implicit bias, unconscious discrimination There is also institutional discrimination. Residential segregation is the secret source that creates racial inequality in the US. where you live determines housing, education, medical care, employment. If you could erase residential segregation you could eliminate difference between blacks and whites by ⅔ Each one of us can be a ripple of hope. We must dissent from indifference, apathy, hatred, mistrust. America has no choice but to do better.

Effects of enforcement on the interior

Enforcement reaches through communities because of social ties "Suddenly single" mothers Trauma & PTSD for children Hypervigilance for community members Avoidance of interaction with institutions

migration fiscal impact

Estimate of immigration effects on wages for low killed natice born workers The effect of migrant populations on total wage distribution is small and positive. If there is a reduction of wages of native born this is concentrated in low "skilled" jobs in the US. If all unauthorized immigrants were deported, GDP would grow at a slower rate. With an easier path the citizenship GDP would grow. A large share do pay taxes. About $11.6 B to local and state tax. People can use an I Tin number instead of SSN. They are paying federal taxes too. Fiscal impact of migrants appears to be positive but is probably close to 0.

Spatial Assimilation Theory (Portes and Rumbaut)

Ethnic concentration in neighborhoods is a temporary phase in a process of long-term spatial incorporation Even in the presence of spatial assimilation, there may be persistent regional concentration of certain groups A city can have the same index of dissimilarity over time in the presence of spatial assimilation as long as new inflows of migrants continue.

Phelan and Link: racism as fundamental cause

Evaluating: (a) Racism is a fundamental cause of racial differences in SES; (b) SES is a fundamental cause of inequalities in health and mortality; and (c) racism is a fundamental cause of racial differences in health and mortality independent of SES Racial inequalities in health cannot be permanently eliminated by addressing proximate risk factors for disease and death, and long-term reduction of racial inequalities in health must address racism as a root cause of those inequalities. A fundamental social cause involves resources that determine the extent to which people are able to avoid risks of morbidity and mortality. Because resources are important determinants of risk factors, fundamental causes are linked to multiple disease outcomes through multiple risk factor mechanisms. Because social and economic resources can be used in different ways in different situations, fundamental social cause have effects on disease even when the profile of risk factors changes radically. The effect of a fundamental cause cannot be explained by the risk factors that happen to link it to disease at any given time. flexible race related resources: -Prestige -power -beneficial social connections -freedom As with overall health, controlling SES reduces but does not eliminate racial differences in multiple health outcomes (stress from discrimination, weathering, worse medical care, less neighborhood recourse)

Pathways linking incarceration and poor health

Exposure to infectious disease Incarceration as an acute and chronic stressor Incarceration as an impediment to social integration Difficult to maintain family and social networks Social and psychological adaptations to prison make reintegration into community life difficult Impact on employment and earnings Five years in prison = 10 year reduction in life expectancy

separated

Exposure to one traumatic event increases the chances of developing PTSD with future exposures, therefore increasing the reach of ICE from Guadalipe and Fernanda's apartment into the women's futures. The health of one community member is intimately linked to the health of others to whom they are connected. Extended to family units. Children exposed to violence and trauma show higher rates of a variety of poor health outcomes, including asthma, the flu, and gastrointestinal issues. Guadalupe and Fernanda's children became emotionally distraught, unable to sleep, and fell ill frequently for some time following the raid. Enforcement actions remind children of the fragility of their relationships with their parents who could be violently removed from their lives at any time. Afraid to leave parents. Kids became angry, frightened, and nervous whenever they saw officers or their vehicles. Homogenization of law enforcement from all departments. Women become suddenly single mothers. healthy community is one in which individuals and families are able to thrive. These communities require at least two ingredients, which are people and places Changed their routines and avoided encounters with law enforcement which isolated individuals and families, limiting their freedom to access the people and places they needed to stay healthy.

fertility and reproductive health

Fertility rates We are headed to reductions in fertility. People report that they have changed fertility plans in light of the pandemic. Access to contraception People's access to contraception has declined. Some people have delayed or cancelled contraceptive care. Access to abortion We saw a lot of reduction with what we saw was non essential health care. Several states decided abortion was an elective health procedure and made access to abortion more difficult. Some clinics were unable to open after the law was overturned. Uses prior data on google search terms on search patterns. Use this to predict a drop in fertility by about 15%. If this happens it is an additional reduction to the deferred births from the recession. Some people at the end of reproductive periods may not be able to postpone births successfully.

these inequalities don't have a genetic basis

First generation african immigrants in the US have health that looks comparable to US white people. Birth weight goes down for 2nd and 3rd generation aftican immigrant goes down Afrincan american has higher rate of low birth weight, average birth weight is lower than the two forms of immigrants Race differences is a result of race based institutions, social and economic experiences

migration and covid

Flows of migration into and out of the US: visas limited less refugee resettlement International student enrollment has dropped by about 16%. New international enrollment by about 43% COVID exposure among the foreign born population: Immigrant workers are more likely to be working in healthcare, housekeepers, cleaners, home health aids. Frontline positions with respect to the pandemic. Foreign born population is disproportionately exposed to the pandemic. Detention centers for people waiting for asylum or migration has had serious covid outbreaks. Some of this occurs because testing is higher in detention centers. COVID economic impacts on the foreign born population: the unemployment rate disproportionately affects the immigrant population. Immigrant women specifically affected strongly. COVID relief for the foreign born population: The stimulus initiatives are disproportionately difficult to access for migrant families. One reason is they needed a SSN to get the package. Undocumented people largely pay taxes but cannot receive this without a SSN. Also, mixed status families are common here. If a mixed status had previously filed a joint tax return they are ineligible for stimulus payments as a family. Some states have filled this in by state programs like in California.

allostatic load

Frequent activation of the body's stress response can damage the body in the long run Physiological consequences of chronic exposure to fluctuating or heightened neural or neuroendocrine response that results from repeated or chronic stress Measure of the wear and tear on the body's systems (eg, cardiovascular, metabolic, and immune) due to repeated responses to stressors Allostatic load: how stress gets under the skin Can be measured by two types of biomarkers: The substances the body releases in response to stress The effects that result from these substances Can use this to study many types of health disparities - education, wealth, as well as race

key ideas lecture 14

Fundamental cause theory argues that "upstream" causes of health disparities shape exposure to new health threats and the ability to mitigate those threats. As a result, health disparities by "fundamental causes" are enduring. SES is a fundamental cause of health in this model Racism is also a fundamental cause in this model Racism operates as a fundamental cause both because of how racism affects SES AND because of how racism directly affects exposure to health threats and the means to minimize those threats. Comparing health across categories of ascribed and asserted race helps us understand the role of how people are treated in the causal link between race and health outcomes.

weathering hypothesis

Geronimus: the stress inherent in living in a race-conscious society that stigmatizes and disadvantages Black individuals may cause disproportionate physiological deterioration. Physical consequences of chronic exposure to social, economic, and political exclusion arising from racial discrimination and accumulated socioeconomic disadvantage.A person who experiencers the chronic stresses may: experience health declines at an earlier age experience health declines at an accelerated rate This leads to progressively larger health disparities with age across social categories with different chronic stress experiences At age 40, black respondents have the same probability of elevated allostatic load that white respondents reach around age 50.

Network/Chain theories of migration

Helps explain why migration flows continue between two places Would say even when wage differentials are minimal, migration could still continue. Social networks lower the costs and reduce the risks associated with migration. On average, this increases the probability that individuals will migrate

Legacy of residential segregation in today's health and economic disparities

History of redlining can be mapped onto social vulnerability today and you can see some of these same features in Milwaukee. COVID cases also maps closely to socially vulnerable areas which connects to redlining 80 years ago.

Migrant "selection"

How are migrants different from people who don't migrate in the country of origin? Possible selection criteria: age, gender, education, wealth, risk-taking preferences, health People who migrate into the US are on average healthier than those in the populations they left behind.

Study: health inequalities among latinos/hispanics: documentation status as a determinant of health

Hypervigilance is required, people worry about family and friends Discrimination associated with stigma conflating race, criminaly, and immigration. Stress is a mechanism of how SES gets under the skin. People in mixed status family report worse health for their children than other US citizens. Parental perceptions of their states' immigration status further exacerbate health disparities between families. Restrictive immigration policy exacerbates nativity gaps in health provider visits. An increase in the risk of deportation is associated with a decrease in Medicaid use. Relationship between worries of deportation and hypertension. Restrictive immigration law and birth outcomes of immigrant women E-verify mandates are associated with a decline in birthweight and gestational age for infants born to immigrant mothers with demographic profiles matching the undocumented population in their stater as well as for infants of native born mothers.

1990s: Shift toward border enforcement

Idea that migration flows will be controlled by controlling the southern border More agents hired for border patrol

Key Ideas - lecture 20

Immigration restrictions began in the 19th century. Policy has differentially recruited or limited movement of distinct populations In the 20th century, migration spatial clustering in "ethnic enclaves." This has broadened to include more diverse types of immigrant clustering. Spatial mobility is no longer required for upward economic mobility The 1990-2010 period marked by dramatic dispersal of migrants to "New Destinations" in the South and Southeast. Shifting both population and age structure. Will be particularly important in rural communities. Be familiar with IRCA, Proposition 187, and the ideas of segmented assimilation and spatial assimilation theory.s

Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA)

Implemented by executive order in 2012 Created provisional legality for eligible youth Provided temporary work permits and protection from deportation to eligible youth Individuals with DACA status can receive a Social Security number and are eligible for a drivers license DACA benefits are valid for two years from date of issuance DACA work permits must be renewed; if not renewed, individuals revert to unauthorized status

Insufficient care during pregnancy, labor, & delivery

Implicit bias and systematic bias about interpretations by providers of what Black women vs white women tell them. There are false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites. At least ⅔ of maternal mortality happens outside of hospitals Access to high-quality care, social support and reprieve from immediate return to work in the postpartum period is considered essential for maternal survival. ICE raids also affects people connected to people at risk of being deported (low birth weight) All of these factors may be exacerbated in a pandemic Pre-existing health Stress Access to timely, responsible care Postpartum follow up In addition, hospital policy that requires people to birth alone may be a particular concern in the presence of demonstrated implicit bias. An advocate can be an important route to improved medical care in the presence of discrimination.

Key ideas- lecture 18

Incarceration increased substantially between 1980-2005, disproportionately among Aftican American men relative to white men Incarceration accounts for ~10% of the multi decade reduction in crime, and costs 70 billion dollars annually Impacts extend across the lifecourse, to multiple domains of wellbeing, and reach into the next generation

When in the life course does neighborhood matter?

It might matter early in childhood but also as adults Important in different ways throughout life. In the MTO experiment: Children who moved before age 13 were more likely to have positive outcomes Children who moved after age 13 either had no effect or negative outcomes Suggests importance of age and duration of exposure

Why not leave redlined neighborhoods?

Jim Crow laws State and local laws enforcing racial segregation Mandated racial segregation of public facilites Racially restrictive covenants A legally enforceable contrasts composed in a deed upon the buyer of a property - risk forfeiting the property if violated Allowed prohibition of sales to African-Americans Sundown towns All white towns excluding non-whites via discriminatory local laws, intimidation, and violence

consequences of redlining

Long term effects on opportunities for affordable home ownership Redlined areas = consistently high poverty rates and consistently low home ownership "Redlining destroyed the possibility of investment wherever black people lived" - Ta-Nehisi Coates

Villarosa: why america's black mothers and babies are in a life or death crisis

Maternal mortality is worse than 25 years ago. Black women 3 to 4 times more likely to die from pregnancy related causes. The daughters of African and Caribbean immigrants who grew up in the United States went on to have babies who were smaller than their mothers had been at birth, while the grandchildren of white European women actually weighed more than their mothers had at birth. It took just one generation for the American black-white disparity to manifest. it is not genetics. Even when controlling for income and education, African-American women had the highest allostatic load scores many thought, falsely, that blacks have less-sensitive nerve endings than whites, that black people's blood coagulates more quickly and that black skin is thicker than white.

Threshold/diffusion/epidemic models

Mechanisms for linking micro to macro Social interactions Feedback effects Unintended consequences Apply to a wide range of dynamic social phenomena... Crime waves Technological innovation Conventions, fads, and fashions Social protests and social movements Features timing, cognition, evolution, and social change

Massey Durand Malone 2002

Micro economic model of decision-making where rational actors choose to migrate through a cost benefit calculation that leads them to expect positive net returns from movement. Migration is analogous to investment in human capital where human capital consists of personal traits and characteristics that increase a worker's productivity. . In the absence of an efficient banking system, households send one or more workers abroad to take advantage of higher wages to build up savings over a short time horizon. world systems theory; in this scheme, the expansion of markets into peripheral, non-market or premarket societies creates mobile populations that are prone to migrate. segmented labor market theory. Immigration is not caused by push factors in sending countries (such as low wages or high unemployment) but by pull factors in receiving societies (a chronic and unavoidable need for low wage workers) -Motivation problems, structural inflation, and economic dualism create a demand for a particular kind of worker: one who is willing to labor under unpleasant conditions, at low wages, in jobs with great instability and little chance for advancement Social capital theory - . Each act of migration creates social capital among people to whom the migrant is related, thereby raising the odds of their migration.

How does SES get under the skin?

Moderating Effect: the effect of stress on health is different by levels of coping resources The social paradigm: a causal model of social structure and health A) social structure (social status) => B) stress (general & prejudice related) and C) coping resources => D) health outcomes (disease) Social risk factors: chronic stress, social isolation, depression, low SES, racism => lead to physiological changes in our endocrine system => clinical outcomes (cardiovascular diseases, asthma, HIV infection) Exacerbates these conditions or makes them more likely

key ideas - neighborhood effects on health

Neighborhoods can influence health through multiple mechanisms To study neighborhood effects, we must decide how to define boundaries about neighborhoods Determining causal neighborhood effects is also difficult because multiple mechanisms "sort" people across space. Sociologists use quasi-experimental designs (studying how people fare when their neighborhoods change around them) to study neighborhood effects Moving To Opportunties study: an example of a large scale randomized experiment to learn about the effects of neighborhood attributes on individual outcomes among movers. We have read in this class about constraints on neighborhood choice for people of color, Black Americans in particular. Policy that has constrained residential mobility had implications on health that operate beyond effects of family wealth accumulation via housing

Logic of Border Enforcement

Neoclassical economic argument: border enforcement works by raising the cost of migration to offset the expected earnings gains, reducing likelihood of undocumented migration BUT border enforcement doesn't address economic & demographic drivers Persistent labor demand and high wages in US Labor supply (though slowing) and lower wages in Mexico Doesn't take into account established social networks that support and sustain undocumented migration

segmented assimilation

Not universal assimilation into "dominant majority" population Upward mobility and traditional assimilation Downward mobility and incorporation into "isolated urban underclass" Upward mobility within co-ethnic community Conditions of assimilation may be different for more recent immigrant populations

Schelling's Model

People want to be surrounded by up to half of neighbors who are different. What you end up with is a divided segregated community. Both groups end up in neighborhoods more segregated than both groups prefer.

distribution of stress

Physical stressors (hunger, manual labor, chronic sleep deprivation, bad mattress, etc) Working poor typically have both more exposure to stressors and less social support than the middle and upper class.

Macro-level economic theory

Populations will shift spatially in response to wage differentials between regions Migration will continue until those wage differentials are minimized. No individuals in this theory

Fair Housing Act of 1968

Prohibited discrimination on the basis of: race of color, religion, national orgin, familial status, or age Applied to all sales, rentals, and financing of dwellings BUT - problems with enforcement persist Shown through auditing studies

Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986: IRCA

Prohibited employers from knowingly hiring, recruiting, or referring for a fee any alien who is unauthorized to work Employers required to verify identity and employment eligibility of all workers Granted amnesty to immigrants without authorization who entered US before January 1, 1982 and had resided there continuously Created path toward legalization to certain agricultural seasonal workers and immigrants who had been continuously present in the United States since January 1, 1982.

Key Ideas: lecture 13

Psychological and biological stress may be an important pathway through which social exposures "get under the skin" => ie. affect our biology and our risk of morbidity and mortality Coping mechanisms play an important role. But these too are patterned by social class We can measure stress exposure in peripheral biology, via allostatic load We use two different, complementary models to understand these effects: critical period effects and cumulative/chains of risk effects

race and ethnicity with covid

Race and ethnicity are risk markers for other underlying conditions that affect health including socioeconomic status, access to health care, and exposure to the virus related to occupation, e.g., frontline, essential, and critical infrastructure workers. Coronavirus deaths and cases disproportionately affect aftican americans in most states. Clustered in certain areas Follows an age pattern that mirrors age specific death for all causes in non pandemic times. Rate of death and risk of death to covid among young people is disproportionate for black, latino, american indian or native alaskan. lack and lationo populations have been more exposed because of working in jobs that do not allow working at home, public transportation, shared living environments Also differences in pre existing conditions. We also know the health burden disproportionately falls on black and latinos.

Race and Class disparities

Race disparities Late 19th century - Afrivan Americans 2x higher incarceration rates than white americans By 1960s - african americans 7x higher incarceration rate than white americans 2016 - african americans 5x higher incarceration rate than white americans Class disparities Deteriorating labor market opportunities for men with less than a high school degree

Rothstein

Residential segregation is hard to undo for several reasons Parents' economic status is commonly replicated in the next generation The value of white working and middle class families suburban housing appreciates substantially over the years resulting in vast wealth differences between whites and blacks that helped define permanently our racial living arrangements. When blacks reached middle class homes outside urban black neighborhoods had mostly become unaffordable The Fair Housing Act of 1968 prohibited further desriminairton, but it was not primarily discrimination (although this still contributed) that kept blacks out of most white suburbs after the law was passed it was primarily unaffordability. blacks have less mobility Blacks have less income than whites but even less wealth, a good portion due to housing. little investment in public transportation

Key points- residential segregation

Residential segregation is shaped by institutional and interpersonal discrimination • The Index of Dissimilarity allows us to study segregation between two groups, and how it varies across places and over time. • Be familiar with Red Lining in the 1930s and The Fair Housing Act of 1968 as key policy moments in the history of U.S. segregation. • Agent-based models and audit studies are two methods we use to learn about how these processes work.

Race differences is a result of race based institutions, social and economic experiences

SES differences among racial groups account for a substantial component of racial differences in health, but not all Larger income gradient in mid-life heart disease mortality for black americans relative to white americans Heart disease mortality of black americans higher than white americans within same income categories Race is neither a biologically meaningful category nor simply a proxy for class. Both race and low SES matter for health independently and jointly because of their roles in exposing people to multiple sources of stress and risk.

"Immigrant policy" Shifting conditions of migrants' lives in the US

Sanctuary areas: locations that will not cooperate with ICE arrests or detainers Extending availability of drivers licenses or municipal identification cards Reducing penalties for drug offenses and misdemeanors State and local funding for legal defense More helpful for immigrants Requiring assessment of immigration status during a lawful stop State residents allowed to sue and local agencies for non compliance with immigration enforcement State violation for failure to carry alien registration document Requiring E-Verify, program that matches potential employees to I-9, DHS, and SSA databases Omnibus Immigration Laws: bundled legal provisions intended to increase enforcement and deter immigration. Makes life more restrictive

Current DACA Policy

Sept 2017 - administration announced that it would terminate DACA applications and renewals A series of US District Court cases stayed DACA termination June 2020 Supreme Court decision overturned termination of DACA Currently awaiting Congressional action Substantial lobbying from the business sector in favor of preserving DACA

Ethic Neighborhood Typology

Several different types of residence. Immigrant enclave: Product of network migration Recent immigration, relatively low-skill Source of familiarity, mutual assistance, cultural security Reside there out of need, will spatially integrate once able Community of constraint: Discrimination constrains extent to which ethnic minorites can integrate residentially, Segmented assimilation Resurgent community Immigrants and US born ethnic minorities with high SES have little to gain from spatial integration, gain more form living in co-ethnics Segmented assimilation

Lichter 2012: Immigration and the New Racial Diversity in Rural America

Significantly, ethnoracial diversity has increased slightly more rapidly in the most rural counties than elsewhere since 2000. Hispanic growth and diversity have occurred in places where employment is linked to a few clearly defined industries. Another indicator of spatially uneven rural minority population growth is the rise in so called majority-minority communities—places with populations that contain more ethnoracial minorities than non-Hispanic whites. Hispanic immigrants also are increasingly moving directly into nonmetropolitan areas, having bypassed traditional metropolitan gateways that in the past have served as staging areas for subsequent out-migration fertility rates among Hispanics in new destinations exceeded fertility in established gateways. This seemingly reinforces the view that Hispanic boom towns represent new ethnic enclaves that exhibit traditional cultural patterns and, perhaps, dissimilation rather than assimilation or incorporation into the white majority population Hispanic and other minority growth has dispersed nationally but also is highly concentrated locally. Most accounts suggest that Hispanic in-migration and population growth have rejuvenated many small towns, especially in the depopulating parts of the rural Midwest Close contact in rural communities creates new opportunities for mutual understanding, as well as for conflict and hostility.

fundamental cause theory

Socioeconomic conditions (fundamental causes) => proximate determinants (multiple mechanisms, replaced over time) => health outcomes (multiple outcomes, change over time as mortality regime changes) We can not just work on determinants. Central to the theory: mechanisms leading to better health change over time Socioeconomic status = resources that can be used to access better health Resources have a greater impact on health outcomes when a condition is preventable and treatable. Easy to treat means more likely to see a SES gradient Public health interventions, policy that mitigates unequal access (makes that gradient flatter) Differential access to new forms of health inputs (means of improving health or mitigating poor health) Will make the gradient steeper Fundamental cause says this gradient always exists (link & phalen)

Rural Hispanic Population Growth

Spatially concentrated Connected to employment linked to a few clearly defined industries Eg. rural industries and agro-food systems Half of rural hispanic population growth =natural increase Older white retirees increasingly supported via public transfers from younger Hispanic workers

Sapolsky: Sick of Poverty

Steep SES gradient. SES at some point in life predicts health measures later on. Obvious explanation would be less access to good health care, but in England with universal health care they still have this gradient. When factors like smoking and level of exercise are controlled, they accounted for only about ⅓ of gradient.'individual are more likely to activate a stress response and are more at risk for a stress-sensitive disease if they (a) feel as if they have minimal control over stressors, (b) feel as if they have no predictive information about the duration and intensity of the stressor, (c) have few outlets for the frustration caused by the stressor, (d) interpret the stressor as evidence of circumstances worsening, and (e) lack social support for the duress caused by the stressors. A person's subjective assessment of their SES is at least as good as objective SES at predicting health The more unequal the income is in a community the more incentive the wealthy will have to oppose public expenditures benefiting the health of the community. low social capital predicts bath health, bad self reported health, and high mortality rates. US has neglected its social safety nets while making it easier for the successful to sit atop the pyramids of inequality. US had greatest income inequality (40% of wealth controlled by top 1%) and greatest discrepancy between expenditures on health (#1 in world) and life expectancy (#29 in 2003)

Why did migration destinations diversify?

Surging demand for labor outside of traditional receiving communities made other states more attractive Changes in border enforcement directed new migrants away from the Tijuana-San Diego corridor and to new border crossing locations

racism as a fundamental cause

Systemic racism => via multiple replaceable mechanisms => racial differences in flexible resources and racial differences in socioeconomic status => via multiple replaceable mechanisms => racial differences in health outcomes Racism is a more distal factor than SES, but racism also functions through factors separate from SES. Racism is a fundamental cause of racial inequalities in SES SES is a fundamental cause of health inequalities Racism has a fundamental association with health, independent of SES via inequalities in power, prestige, freedom, neighborhood context, and health care

US Migrants and the COVID-19 Response reading

The Migration Policy Institute (MPI) estimates 6 million foreign-born workers are employed in vital, frontline industries; another 6 million work in some of the industries hardest hit by the fight against COVID-19 12 million foreign-born workers are at the leading edge of the response to and impacts from the pandemic immigrant workers have less access to this relief and to existing safety-net programs, and also face additional vulnerabilities Lower income, less health insurance, more children at home

Unequal targeting of drug use during pregnancy

The epidemic that wasn't. Crack exposure during gestation. It is not like there is blanket testing for drugs, provider has to back a subjective/implicit bias. During the crack cocaine epidemic in 90s, testing was differentially targeting hospitals where blacks largely attended. Engagement of criminal justice system/incarceration of black women in pregnancy was more significant for crack relative to what we see today for opioid epidemic.

migration population impact

The native born population has a dearth of people in working age that is filled by the age structure of immigrants. Migrants increase US fertility by a small amount One reason why it hasn't fallen far below replacement like other countries in the world. Immigrant fertility is not substantially larger but is a small elevation

Barry-Jester: How americans die may depend on where they live

The rate of death from cardiovascular disease has gone down all over the country in the last 35 years. It has decreased less, however, in the areas that already had the highest death rates for cardiovascular disease — counties surrounding the lower Mississippi River and the heart of Appalachia. Cancer and cardiovascular disease hit Appalachia and the lower Mississippi River region hard Deaths from substance abuse have skyrocketed in rural, white Appalachia d California, much of the central United States saw much more modest declines. Troublingly, vehicle-related deaths increased by as much as 45 percent in rural areas of Appalachia and the South. Those increases have previously been shown to be linked to the infrastructure of rural areas. (bad roads, hospital closings) Self-harm is a growing problem in Western states

Geronimus: weathering and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the US

The stress inherent in living in a race conscious society that stigmatizes and disadvantages blacks may cause disproportionate physiological deterioration so that a black individual may show morbidity and mortality typical of a white individual who is significantly older. This deterioration in health accumulates, producing ever greater racial inequality in health with age through adulthood. Indicators like pregnancy outcome, excess mortality, and disability have been consistent with weathering. Allostatic load is the cumulative wear and tear on the body's systems owing to repeated adaptation to stressors. In all cases, mean scores for black were statistically significantly higher than mean scores for whites. Black women had higher scores than black men. Among whites little gender difference except among individuals 55-64 where women had higher odds. The probability of having a high score was greater with poor respondents than non poor. Excess rates of high scores among blacks were not accounted for by the higher proportion of blacks who were poor. Poor whites were less likely than non poor blacks to have high scores. persistent racial differences in health may be influenced by the stress of living in a race conscious society. These effects may be felt particularly by Black women because of "double jeopardy" (gender and racial discrimination) n each age group, the mean score for Blacks was roughly comparable to that for Whites who were 10 years older gap grows with age

Segmented labor market theory

There is a permanent demand for unskilled labor in advanced industrial economies that the native population doesn't fill Emphasizes the importance of socially defined wage and status hierarchies Assumes immigrants care more about wages than about status May involve recruitment of foreign workers (eg. Bracero program) Massey, Durand and Malone (2002) write about the demand for "a particular kind of worker: one who is willing to labor under unpleasant conditions, at low wages, in jobs with great instability and little chance of advancement. In the past, this demand was met by women, teenagers, and rural-to-urban migrants" "The imbalance between the social demand for entry-level workers and the limited domestic supply of such workers has generated an underlying, long-run demand for immigrants in developed countries"

Western and Pettit 2010: incarceration & social inequality

This inequality produces extraordinary rates of incarceration among young African American men with no more than a high school education. For these young men, born since the mid-1970s, serving time in prison has become a normal life event. The social inequality produced by mass incarceration is sizable and enduring for three main reasons: it is invisible, it is cumulative, and it is intergenerational. By the late 1960s, at the zenith of civil rights activism, the racial disparity had climbed to its contemporary level, leaving African Americans seven times more likely to be in prison or jail than whites. the racial gap has remained relatively constant since then. Class inequalities in incarceration are reflected in the very low educational level of those in prison and jail people in prison and jail are disconnected from the basic institutions-households and the labor market-that dominate our common understanding and measurement of the population. Unemployment is even more severe than measured. Time in prison means time out of the labor force, depleting the work experience of the incarcerated compared to their nonincarcerated counterparts. The stigma of a criminal conviction may also repel employers who prefer job applicants with clean records The postrelease effects on economic opportunities leave formerly incarcerated parents less equipped to provide financially for their children. New research also shows that the children of incarcerated parents, particularly the boys, are at greater risk of developmental delays and behavioral problems Though the precise impact of incarceration on crime is uncertain, there is broad agreement that additional imprisonment at high rates of incarceration does little to reduce crime Measures to reduce school dropout, increase human capital, and generally increase employment among young men seem especially promising alternatives.

Incarceration rate in the US, 1960-2012

Three strikes legislation is thought to contribute to this increase Mid 80s is where incarceration goes up Massive growth happened prior to 2000 and this growth differs by state. In almost all states you see a rise and some stability or reduction after 2000. US incarceration is larger than all listed populations, much larger than europe and canada Distributed unequally in the US. higher incarceration rates in the South. California has pretty high rates too. Midwest has lower incarceration rates relative to SE US, but the midwest has really high differences in the rates of black incarceration to white incarceration. WI is one of the highest in disproportionality. In South there is actually a more even distribution

Assimilation theory: pathways to incorporation

Traditional assimilation Unidirectional shift in language, culture, place-specific knowledge/skills toward the destination society "mainstream" Expanding "mainstream" What is "mainstream" in the destination society expands, includes features of language, culture, skills of migrant populations. Spatial assimilation is one facet of this model The theory suggests that migration out of enclaves will accompany the assimilation process, and will accompany upward economic mobility generally. Segmented assimilation Migrant experiences - and the assimilation path - are not identical for all migrants Path is shaped by: a) Migrants resources at the time of arrival b) The context of reception: features do the receiving community Middle class More educated Marginalized racialized underclass Less educated

Difference - in - difference study design:

Treatment x Time 1 = X1 Treatment x Time 2 = X2 Treatment = places where policy was enacted Control x Time 1 = X3 Control x Time 2 = X4 Control = Places where policy was not enacted The effect of the policy is estimated as: (X2 - X1) - (X4 - X3) As an example, we might ask how the change in wellbeing of Latinx families living in Maricopa County, Arizona after the passage of SB1070, is different from the change in wellbeing among Latinx families living in Los Angeles county during the same time period. Effects that extend beyond individuals without authorization "Mixed-status" families: at least one member does not have documentation 16.7 million people, or 5% of the US population lives in a mixed-status family

How has undocumented migration changed?

Unauthorized immigrants = 3.3% of total US population Grew in 90s and 2000s. Net migration became negative in late 2000s. As overall net immigration from Mexico declined, immihration from Asia continued to increase, albeit slowly In 2016, Mexicans accounted for less than half of all unauthorized immigrants EWI = entry without inspection Since 2007, more unauthorized immigrants entered the US legally on a temporary visa than entered without inspection. 1996 = Immigration Reform and Immigration Responsibility Act = funding to hire 1,000 border control officers per year until it reaches 10,000 total officers 2006 Secure Fence Act = new fences, vehicle barriers, checkpoints, lighting, detection equipment 2001 USA PATRIOT Act created DHS and increased the budget by $300 million.

shifting removal priorities

Under the Obama administration: 2014 - narrowed priorities to criminal convictions (felonies, substantial misdemeanors, or 3+ misdemeanors) Trump administration broadened priorities to include: Non-citizens convicted of any crime Arrested but not convicted Committing a crime but not arrested Anyone deemed by an ICE officer to be a public safety threat

dynamic process

Variation in neighborhood preferences across individuals (families) can make it difficult to have stably integrated neighborhoods Micro-macro element of residential segregation as a population process: The residential choices of each family shape the composition of neighborhoods being considered by the next family

Operation Gatekeeper

Where places became heavily fortified, you began to see migrants cross at other parts of souther border In the 90s a lot of crossing was near Tijuana and dropped off with the fortification of operation gatekeeper.

What's missing from these theories?

Why do people move back? Why do people move from "north to south?" Forced migration

Barker Hypothesis (Critical Period)

aka: developmental origins of adult disease Early events may be as or more important than later events and/or interact with later factors Impaired fetal growth permanently changes the body's structure and physiology (in-utero programming) Impacted fetal growth (due to a poor intrauterine environment) causes adult diseases Early (esp. in utero) environmental exposures change physiological development and even gene expression => epigenetics Birth weight and weight at age one are significantly associated with risk of dying from heart disease.

audit studies

applications that have identical credentials with random assignment of markers of race (stated race or signaled race via naming) are submitted, Interview rates are tracked. White applicants were more likely to be called back for interview than Black applicants White applicants with a criminal record were more likely to be called back than Black applicants without a criminal record People have unequal chance in the labor market What kind of job you have is tied with what benefits you have (health insurance)

Social environment

characteristics of the social relationships among their residents, esp. Degree of mutual trust and feelings of connectedness

Cumulative Exposure (ACES)

early adversity has lasting impacts

Out-migration (emigration) rate

emigrants / population in sending location

Net migration rate

in-migration - out-migration rate for the same population

residential segregation

refers to the way that two or more subpopulations are sorted into neighborhoods Milwaukee is the most segregated city in US. How do we measure residential segregation? Compare the spatial distribution of some characteristics to its prevalence in the population

chronic stress

repeated exposure to situation; unrelenting demands and pressures with uncertain end point Continual activation of stress response creates wear and tear on the body - pathogenic response

acute stress

resulting from specific events or situations Release of stress hormones helps mind and body deal with the situation - adaptive response

Emigrant

someone who moves from one place to another

Immigrant

someone who moves to one place from another

"feeling poor"

subjective status takes into account objective status plus other factors, like life satisfaction and anxiety about the future Places with higher income inequality also have higher mortality Income inequality can: Aggravate the conditions in low-income communities Add to psychosocial stressors

Diaspora

the population of a country living outside its borders

Massey Durand and Pren 2016: why border enforcement backfired

the surge in border enforcement had little effect in reducing unauthorized migration to the United States Reduced return migration and redirected migrant flows turning what had been a circular flow of male workers going to three states into a settled population of families living in 50 states In theory, then, enhanced border enforcement works by raising the costs of migration enough to offset an expected earnings gain To this day, politicians, pundits, and bureaucrats continue to call for more border enforcement, despite the fact that net undocumented migration has been zero or negative since 2008, with unauthorized entries and exits in rough balance As a result, the hardening of the border at one location will lead migrants to shift to new, less patrolled, likely more remote, and riskier crossing sites and to make more frequent use of coyotes and pay them more for higher quality and more effective services. We hypothesize that these costs will not be sufficient to offset expected gains of unauthorized labor in the United States. migrants will extend the duration of their stays north of the border, both to cover the increased costs of border crossing and also to put off the physical risks of clandestine crossings in the future The massive increase in enforcement spending had only a modest effect on the probability of apprehension and virtually no effect on the ultimate likelihood of entry. Taking the difference between the actual Border Patrol budget and that assumed to be fixed at the 1986 level, we estimate that $53.3 million extra were spent to create an undocumented population about a third greater than it would have been with no increase in spending.

Key ideas - lecture 19

~97% of the world does not move internationally Migrant selectivity: migrants are often distinct from non-migrants. Example: age profile, health profile, brain gain vs drain. Theories of migration help predict migration flows and develop policies and programs that (may) influence migration. These can intersect and operate simultaneously. Make sure you understand the argument and assumptions of each.