Sociology

Natural Selection

Individuals that have physical or behavioral traits that better suit their environment are more likely to survive and will reproduce more successfully than those that do not have such traits. Darwin called this differential rate of reproduction natural selection. In time, the number of individuals that carry these favorable characteristics will increase in a population. And thus the nature of the population will change—a process called evolution.

the hidden curriculum

consists of informal and oftehn subtle messages about social and gender roles conveyed through classroom interaction and materials.

Broad socialization

encourages individualism, independence, self expression

Negative reinforcers

involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. - behavior increases

Positive reinforcers

reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something, such as praise or a direct reward. - behavior increases

Why does Daniel Dennett refer to the theory of evolution as "universal acid?"

"Darwin's dangerous idea" for a good reason: it is a very simple natural mechanism that explains the appearance of design in living things. The adaptations and exquisite complexity of organisms were ascribed to creation by an omnipotent, beneficent designer, namely God, and indeed were among the major arguments for the existence of such a designer.

Socialization

"The lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs, and ideologies, providing an individual with the skills and habits necessary for participation in society."

Negative Punishment 1

(Penalty) (also called "Punishment by contingent withdrawal"): Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.

Positive punishment

(also called "Punishment by contingent stimulation"): Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior. Positive punishment is sometimes a confusing term, as it denotes the "addition" of a stimulus or increase in the intensity of a stimulus that is aversive (such as spanking or an electric shock). This procedure is usually called simply punishment.

Define and understand the concepts of Learning

-Our ability to learn is made possible by a nervous system shaped by a particular evolutionary history, the experiences scientists call learning account for most of the similarities and differ- ences between individuals. In this regard, as behavioral psychologist Galen Alessi suggests, learning may be viewed, along with evolution, as a set of ultimate causations of behavior.6 -Learning changes the physical and chemical structure of the brain. -Learning is typically defined in terms of specific changes in behavior due to certain kinds of experiences.

Define and understand the concepts of experience

-So, while the ultimate causes of an individual's behavior occur in the evolutionary history of the species (as coded in the genes) and in that individual's past experiences, both processes pro- duce their effects first on the structure of the brain, the former mostly during prenatal development and the latter mostly after birth. It is important to note here that although evolutionary causation of structural or behavioral traits is coded in the genes, the causation is not in the genes. -To encounter or undergo an event or occurrence

Define and understand the concepts of socialization

A continuing process whereby an individual acquires a personal identity and learns the norms, values, behavior, and social skills appropriate to his or her social position. Socialization refers to the preparation of newcomers to become members of an existing group and to think, feel, and act in ways the group considers appropriate

Which is a stronger predictor of human behavior: nature or nurture? Why? Is this a valid question? Why or why not?

Both can be strong predictors. For example, one could inherit bipolar disorder (which would most likely come genetically), and one could also be raised up as an abused child. Both of these problems come from two different causes and can result in the same behaviors. One is genetic one is an environmental influence. This is not a valid question, it can be seen in many different ways. Any person can answer this question differently because it is merely an opinion.

what are two types of learning?

Classical and operant learning

Be able to explain when evolution is possible and when it is not by drawing on the principles and mechanisms outlined by Darwin and presented in lecture.

Evolution is possible when because animals must adapt to their environment. If a mutation occurs within a single species, and that one animal with a mutation either lives/dies it either creates a new species - if it therefore adapts better than the original (eventually) or becomes extinct. One way or anther - multiple species of that one particular animal is produced. Heredity is what would pass the favorable traits on to the next generations to come, if the mutation is favorable. This produces variation within the population. Selection is produced as one of the species of that specific population dies off - struggle for Existance.

Principle of heredity

For variation to contribute to natural selection and evolution, it must be passed from parents to offspring.

Which perspective on human nature does Dr. Pinker attempt to discredit?

He firmly disagrees with the blank slate theory; he offers a strong critique of it by providing evidence that biology plays an important role in human behavior.

Define the term adaptation, and be able to recognize examples of evolutionary adaptations.

Heritable (passed from parents to offspring) traits that are naturally selected.

Is the nature-nurture debate truly debated among scholars? Why or why not?

I don't believe it is actually a true debate. Scholars by have a true belief/disbelief in one or the other, though I don't think there is a true, long, drawn out debate.

Dr. Pinker and Dr. Schlinger present opposing viewpoints regarding human nature. Both draw on the same evidence, but come to completely different conclusions. Why?

Its easy to be skewed one way - towards nature - or the other - when it comes to the nurture vs. nature debate. It is all about perspective and the amount of research one desires to put in, in their specific viewpoint. It may also have to do with how one was brought up, what they were taught or what genes one were inherited (nature and nurture).

What does the term blank slate mean?

Lets suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper void of all characters, without any ideas. How comes it to be furnished? To this I answer in one word, from EXPERIENCE. -This is the doctrine of the blank slateb. Modern day social science endorses the blank slate (nurture) theory of human nature and behavior.

Negative punishment

also known as punishment by removal, occurs when an favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.

negative reinforcement

Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus, thereby increasing that behavior's frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed.

positive reinforcement

Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a stimulus that is appetitive or rewarding, increasing the frequency of that behavior. In theSkinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or a sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever. This procedure is usually called simply reinforcement.

Hierarchal

Our relationship with our parents - not equal

Horizontal

Our relationship with our peers - equal

Understand the four types of operant conditioning, and be able to recognize examples of each.

Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, negative punishment

Key concepts of operant conditioning

Reinforcement, positive reinforcers negative reinforcers, punishment, positive punishment, negative punishment

41. Describe the difference between material and non-material (normative) influences

Simply being aware of the expectations of others provides the expectations with normative force; attachments to others make the force of their expectations even greater. Awareness of group expectations was conceptualized by G. H. Mead (1934) as the "generalized other," and it can be powerful in inducing conformity to group norms. This is true even though the expectations may not be clearly articulated, and people may even be unaware of them if asked. These ideas on the development of normative expectations through social interactions have been stated and elaborated for decades by sociologists and social psychologists (Wrong, 1994). My theory expands on these ideas by making a distinction between two general types of cultural socialization, based on differences in the restrictiveness of their norms. Cultural differences in normative restrictiveness can be analyzed through an examination of the practices of socialization through the seven sources specified here. This analysis can then be used to predict the amount of variance among members of a culture in various aspects of cognition, attitudes, and behavior.

What is the main point of the video: "Ghost in your genes?"

The main point of the video Ghost in your genes is to show what the reasoning behind inheritable and non-inheritable traits/genes/characteristics in humans.

What is the nature-nurture debate?

The nature-nurture debate is a debatable subject about whether human's genetics are influenced primarily by nature - being that how a person was brought into the world receiving genes from mother and father gave them the characteristics (language, intelligence, social and sexual relations) and made them into the person they are today. Or if humans genetics are primarily influenced by nurturing - being how one is raised by mother and father, how the environment and society effects them as a whole. In the nurture corner (blank slate) - it is believed that humans know or know how to do nothing at the time of birth, no inheritable characteristics (learning exerts the overwhelming influence). It is seen by some evolutionary biologists that our behaviors are so extremely diverse that "genetics" seem to hardly exist.

What are the 3 principles outlined in Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection? What is the mechanism he identifies?

a. 1. Principle of Variation b. 2. Principle of heredity c. 3. Principle of Selection d. The one mechanism of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection is the struggle for existence.

What are genetic mutations, and why are they important for evolution by natural selection?

a. A mutation is a heritable change in the nucleotide sequence of an organism's DNA that ultimately serves as a source of genetic diversity b. Everything would stay the same every generation without genetic mutations we need variation. Mutations can be good or bad.

Describe the environment in which modern humans are proposed to have evolved (i.e., our EEA).

a. All organisms share common ancestors with other organisms. Over time, populations may divide into different species, which share a common ancestral population. Far enough back in time, any pair of organisms shares a common ancestor. For example, humans shared a common ancestor with chimpanzees about eight million years ago, with whales about 60 million years ago, and with kangaroos over 100 million years ago. Shared ancestry explains the similarities of organisms that are classified together: their similarities reflect the inheritance of traits from a common ancestor. b. The environment of human behavioral evolution most likely resembled a small-scale, foraging society, rather than the stratified societies and dense, urban cities that characterize the present day. c. environment of evolutionary adaptedness

Summarize the key tenets of attachment theory

a. Attachment Theory: Our family members (especially our parents) are the first people we interact with and rely on, and attachments to primary caregivers in early life: b. Are crucial to the mental and physical development of children c. May be evolved adaptations that provided survival and reproductive advantages to our ancestors

Be able to define the term epigenetics, and recognize examples

a. Epigenetics tell genes what to do (they can tell a gene to either turn on or off) - genes need instruction. -Epigones may shut down in twins as they age - therefore their genes stay the same but epigones change. b. Epigenetics is when a chemical change occurs in the same DNA sequence on each chromosome with different properties. When this occurs, a gene can be turned off, this is what epigenetics is about. Epigenetics is the ghost in your genes.

List the various socializing forces (i.e., agents of socialization) that influence human behavior.

a. Family b. Peers c. School d. The Media e. Religion f. Legal System

35. Describe and understand the various mechanisms of social influence as discussed in the readings and lecture.

a. Family - narrow or broad socialization b. Peers - broad in childhood, narrower in adulthood c. Community - narrow socialization d. School and work - broad socialization e. Media - broad socialization f. Legal system - narrow socialization g. Cultural beliefs - narrow socialization

Describe the three laws of behavior genetics?

a. First Law. All human behavioral traits are heritable. b. Second Law. The effect of being raised in the same family is smaller than the effect of genes. c. Third Law. A substantial portion of the variation in complex human behavioral traits is not accounted for by the effects of genes or families.

Describe structural functionalism

a. Functionalism - those observed consequences, which make for the adaption or adjustment of a given system; and dysfunctions, those observed consequences, which lessen the adaption or adjustment of the system. i. Social system was not a synonym for society, and that systems vary in size, requiring a functional analysis "to consider a range of units for which the item has designated consequences: individuals in diverse statutes, subgroups, the larger social system and cultural systems.

What type of evidence is used to support nature arguments?

a. How genes code for proteins, which constitute the entire body including the nervous system. One of the nervous systems functions is behavior - the actions of muscles and glands in response to environmental stimulation. b. Naturalists point to studies using brain-imaging technologies to support their claims of the inheritability of behavior.

What is the evidence in support of the idea that humans are born blank slates?

a. Individuals imitate what they observe in others b. Individuals respond to rewards and punishments c. Individuals conform to the will of others in groups and to authority figures. d. Individuals are constrained and enabled by social conditions e. Genetically identical individuals tend to be quite different from one another. f. Socially isolated individuals fail to develop many important human traits. i. As well as children raised by animals

What phenomenon did the Asch experiment deal with? Also, be able to describe the experiment

a. It dealt with how humans will succumb under peer pressure and say the wrong answer when they evidently know it is wrong. b. Dealt with 1 participant who knew nothing of the experiment and other guys, the guys purposefully said the wrong answer, and a lot of the time (most of the time) the unknowing participant said the wrong answer as well, under peer pressure.

What are the weaknesses of the theory of evolution?

a. Lack of a viable mechanism for producing high levels of complex and specified information b. The failure of the fossil record to provide support for Darwinian evolution. c. The failure of molecular biology to provide evidence for a grand "tree of life." d. Natural selection is an extremely inefficient method of spreading traits in populations unless a trait has an extremely high selection coefficient; e. The problem that convergent evolution appears rampant -- at both the genetic and morphological levels, even though under Darwinian theory this is highly unlikely. f. The failure of chemistry to explain the origin of the genetic code g. The failure of developmental biology to explain why vertebrate embryos diverge from the beginning of development. h. The failure of neo-Darwinian evolution to explain the biogeographical distribution of many species. i. A long history of inaccurate predictions inspired by neo-Darwinism regarding vestigial organs or so-called "junk" DNA. j. Humans show many behavioral and cognitive traits and abilities that offer no apparent survival advantage.

Be able to list and describe several potential human adaptations (i.e., gene-based characteristics that we possess that were presumably beneficial to our ancestors) that were discussed in class and in the video: "What Darwin Never Knew." Think about characteristics that differentiate us from other species, particularly primates.

a. Large Brain/intelligence b. Sociability (strong ties with others) c. Risk-taking behaviors (necessary for survival at times) d. Cooperation and group formation (individuals who cooperate can outcompete those who don't) e. Competitive nature and self-interest (increases productivity, useful during struggle to survive)

What type of evidence is used to support nurture arguments?

a. Neural plasticity - learning and development b. How learning changes the physical and chemical structure of the brain. i. The classically conditioned fear in rodents changes the amygdala, which controls fear reactions by way of output projections to the behavioral, autonomic, and endocrine response control systems located at the brainstem

What types of environmental problems did our ancestors presumably have to deal with?

a. Poor shelters b. Lack of food supply (especially in times of bad climate)

Define and understand the concept of heritability. Why is it so crucial to the theory of evolution? What evidence do scientists use to demonstrate the heritability of traits?

a. Principle of Heredity: For variation to contribute to natural selection and evolution, it must be heritable (passed from parents to offspring in the form of genetically-influenced and transmitted traits). i. The mutation must be passed in order to be continued. b. Heritable traits that are naturally selected are called adaptions.

Why is social interaction so important to humans, and what do we learn during social interaction?

a. Socialization is the process by which people acquire the behaviors and beliefs of the social world-that is, the culture-in which they live. The three goals central to this process are: i. impulse control, including the development of a conscience ii. role preparationand performance, including occupational roles, gender roles, and roles in institutions such as marriageand parenthood iii. the cultivation of sources of meaning-that is, what is important,what is to be valued, what is to be lived for.

Be able to define the terms culture (shared beliefs and values of a group) and norm (a principle of right action binding upon the members of a group and serving to guide, control) and offer examples of major norms in modern society.

a. Some sociologists and theorists of culture have recognized the power of mass communication as a socialization device. Denis McQuail recognizes the argument: "the media can teach norms and values by way of symbolic reward and punishment for different kinds of behavior as represented in the media. An alternative view is that it is a learning process whereby we all learn how to behave in certain situations and the expectations which go with a given role or status in society."

What is social learning theory? What is the evidence in support of this theory?

a. States that social behavior (any type of behavior that we display socially) is learned primarily by observing and imitating the actions of others. -For example, if a child sees his older brother bring home a good report card and he gets a great reward for it, the child may observe this, see the older brother get rewarded, and then learn that having a good report card will get rewarded so he should do it too.

Be able to summarize the various theories of human nature discussed in Pinker's article and in class.

a. The Blank Slate b. The noble savage i. I am as free as nature first made man, Ere the base laws of servitude began, When wild in woods the noble savage ran. c. "The doctrine of the ghost in the machine" i. When I consider the mind... I cannot distinguish in myself any parts, but apprehend myself to be clearly one and entire... But it is quite otherwise with corporeal or extended objects, for there is not one of them imaginable by me which my mind cannot easily divide into parts... This [is] sufficient to teach me that the mind or soul of man is entirely different from the body. -Rene Descartes

How do antibiotic resistant bacteria provide evidence for Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection?

a. The lung disease tuberculosis (TB) is usually caused by the bac- terium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and it kills more adults than any other infectious disease in the world. In the 1950s, two effective antibiotics, isoniazid and rifampin, became available, and they have saved millions of lives. In the late 1980s, however, new strains of M. tuberculosis that are largely or com- pletely resistant to isoniazid and rifampin appeared. Rates of TB infection began to skyrocket in many countries, and in 1993 the World Health Organization declared a global TB health emergency. How did antibiotic-resistant strains of M. tuberculosis evolve? A detailed look at a single typical case reveals how: through natural selection. This case is of a 35-year-old man living in Baltimore who was treated with rifampin for an active TB infection. After 10 months, the antibiotics cleared up the infection. Two months later, however, the man was readmitted to the hospital with a severe TB infection, and despite rifampin treatment, he died 10 days later. The strain of M. tuberculosis isolated from his body was totally resistant to rifampin. How had TB bacteria within his body become resistant to rifampin? Doctors compared DNA of the rifampin-resistant bacteria to DNA from samples of normal, rifampin-sensitive M. tuberculosis. There seemed to be only one difference: a single base change from cytosine to thymine in a gene called rpoB. b. Rifampin acts by binding to M. tuberculosis RNA polymerase, preventing transcription and so killing the bacterial cell. The mutation in the polymerase's rpoB gene prevents rifampin from binding to the polymerase. The mutation, however, does not destroy the polymerase's ability to transcribe mRNA. The mutation likely occurred in a single M. tuberculosis bacterial cell sometime during the first infection. Because its polymerase function was no longer normal, the mutant bacterium could not divide as rapidly as normal bacteria can, but it still could divide. The antibiotic caused the normal bacterial cells to eventually die. The mutant bacteria continued to grow and reproduce in the antibiotic-containing environment.

What evidence does Dr. Pinker cite when arguing against the blank slate perspective?

a. The mind cannot be a blank slate if it was, it wouldn't have the ability to learn or apply knowledge: i. The ability to absorb information and interpret its meaning must be natural or innate ii. Humans have "basic software" or "standard" equipment iii. Chomsky: Children "grow" language - it is "natural" and inevitable b. All cultures have language i. Ease of children to acquire language without training c. All have religion d. All have art e. All have cultural heroes and villains f. Emotions are universal g. Every thought, feeling, dream and intention we have is merely electrophysiological activity in the brain. h. Any alteration of brain has severe consequences for behavior. i. Psychoactive drugs, which alter brain function, also effect behavior. j. Natural variations in brain structure are associated with differences in behavior. k. 3 laws of behavioral genetics i. First: all human behavioral traits are heritable ii. Second: effect of being raised in same family is smaller than effect of genes iii. Third: substantial portion of variation in complex human behavioral traits is not accounted for by the effects of genes or families. l. People agree that "nature" is a strong predictor of behavior among animals.

What are the sources of individual variation in populations, and why is genetic variation key to evolution by natural selection?

a. There is variation among individuals in a population on traits such as size, color, strength, speed, intelligence, ability to find food, ability to find mates, health, longevity, resistance to diseases, number of offspring produced, etc. i. Principle of Heredity: For variation to contribute to natural selection and evolution, it must be heritable (passed from parents to offspring). ii. The mutation must be passed. b. All populations have genetic variation. That is, in any population there is an array of individuals that differ slightly from each other in genetic makeup. While this may be obvious in humans, it is also true in species whose members may appear identical, such as a species of bacteria.

What characteristics appear to be deficient in socially isolated (wild, feral) children such as Genie Wiley? Why are they deficient in these areas?

a. Without social interaction, particularly early in life, human beings fail to develop properly b. Social abilities (communication), relational abilities, physical abilities (walking), understanding, correct emotions

Describe the socializing force of the media

average American spends several hours each day immersed in media - people see variety of behaviors, good & bad - violence, sexism etc.

Why does Gans argue that poverty exists in his article: "The positive functions of poverty?"

b. The existence of poverty makes sure that the "dirty work" is done. i. Physically dirty or dangerous, temporary, dead-end and underpaid, undignified, and menial jobs. c. The poor subsidize, directly and indirectly, many activities benefit and affluenct i. By being forced to work for low wages, they enable the affluent to use money saved in the fashion for other purposes. The concept of subsidy used here thus assumes belief in a "just wage." d. Poverty creates jobs for a # of occupations and professions which serve the poor, or shield the rest of the population from them. e. The poor buy goods which others do not want and thus prolong their economic usefulness. f. The poor can be identified and punished as alleged or real deviants in order to uphold the legitimacy of dominant norms g. The deserving poor - provide the rest of the population with different emotional satisfactions: compassion, pity, charity h. Poor offer affluent people vicarious participation in the uninhibited sexual, alcoholic, and narcotic behavior in which many poor people are alleged to indulge. i. Poverty help guarantee the statue of those who aren't poor. j. The poor assist in the upward mobility of the nonpoor k. They add to the social viability of noneconomic groups l. Perform serveral cultural functions, played an unsung role in the creation of civilization, having supplied the construction labor for many famous monuments. m. The low culture created for or by the poor is often adopted by the more affluent. n. Serve as a symbolic constituencies and opponents for several political groups. o. The poor, being powerless, can be made to absorb the economic and political costs of change and growth in American. p. The poor have played an important role in shaping the American political process; b/c they vote and participate less then other groups, the political system has been free to ignore them.

Define anxious attachment

feelings of inconsistence and confusion; attachment figures are perceived as warm, loving, and reliable at certain times, and cold, distant, and unreliable at others a. Insecure (avoidant) and anxious attachment are both associated with a host of undesirable outcomes

define secure attachment, Also, be able to recognize examples of style of the attachment.

feelings of love, approval, closeness, and warmth toward attachment figures Promotes: Trust, cooperation, feelings of security, mental and physical well-being, and good interpersonal relationships across the entire life course and in multiple domains of social life

Narrow socialization

hold obedience and conformity as the highest values and discourage deviation from cultural expectations.

Reinforcement

is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers:

Evolution

is the basis for the diversity of life on Earth. -"Descent with modification"-Change in characteristics of a population or species over time.

Describe the socializing force of the legal system

laws - has profound influence on the behavior of individuals of all ages

Describe the socializing force of family

most influential force starting at childhood - influences lifetime choices

Punishment

on the other hand, is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment:

describe the socializing force of school

primary socializing agent that prepares individuals for the 9-5 world of work that awaits them in adulthood.

describe the socializing force of religion

religious teachings concerning human behavior play important role in human development - and family life

Define operant conditioning.

sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior

Positive punishment

sometimes referred to as punishment by application, involves the presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows.

Define insecure (avoidant) attachment

the inverse of secure attachment—i.e., attachment figures are perceived as consistently cold, distant, and unreliable

describe the socializing force of peers

very influencial once enter childhood - source of identity - through interaction people develop social skills