Sociology Lesson 12

Talcott Parsons

Functionalist who argued that the social differentiation between male and female roles is functionally necessary for social cohesion and social survival.

What are gender roles? Provide some examples of the male and female gender roles.

Gender roles are behaviors, attitudes1, and activities that are socially defined as appropriate for each sex to exhibit. Men are expected to present themselves in one manner and women are expected to act in a different manner. For example, men are expected to be strong, rational, aggressive, independent, competitive and insensitive. Women, in contrast traditionally have been expected to be weak, emotional, receptive, dependent, cooperative, and emotional.

Identify the ratio of pay of men to women.

In part because of occupational clustering, women experience a wage gap relative to men. In 2010, women on average earned approximately 77 percent of what men did, although the gap varies by region. Other factors contribute to this wage gap as well. Women are overrepresented in low-skill and low-paying jobs. Women also exit and enter the workforce more frequently than men, mostly due to child rearing or relocation when a spouse has been promoted or transferred. However, this wage gap persists even when men and women are performing the same or comparable jobs, such as university professor and corporate executive.

differential socialization

The process by which different members of the same society (and even the same family) are raised differently because of the different roles they are expected to perform as adults.

Explain the two functionalist views of gender inequality.

The theory of complementarity, first advanced by Talcott Parsons, argues that the social differentiation between male and female roles is functionally necessary for social cohesion and social survival. Men perform instrumental roles, such as acquiring economic resources, while women perform expressive roles, such as nurturing children and providing affection to others. The human capital model explains the wage gap and occupational sex segregation as resulting from the choices that men and women make. Human capital is the education, training, experience, and skills possessed by a person. This model argues that women choose employment in low-wage and low-skill occupations, such as retail sales clerk and waitress, and that women choose to exit the workforce (often to stay home and raise children), which diminishes their human capital and results in slower wage growth than that experienced by men.

matriarchy

A form of social organization in which females dominate males through control of the political, cultural, and economic institutions of a society.

patriarchy

A form of social organization in which males dominate females through control of the political, cultural, and economic institutions of a society

Why do sociologists consider women to be a minority group?

A minority group is any group that receives less than its proportionate share of valuable social resources, such as good jobs, leisure time, and fair pay. Sociologists consider women to be a minority group for several reasons. First, reflective of the patriarchal nature of social organization, men treat women unequally. Second, women experience several gaps in the way they are treated relative to the way men are treated. The wage gap refers to the fact that women receive less pay then men, earning about 77% of what men do for similar work. Women also experience a leisure gap. Even though most men and women now work full time outside the home, women are expected to fulfill the traditional role of homemaker when they return home, often while the husbands relax Women do more of the domestic chores than men. Women also experience occupational sex segregation into subordinate jobs, such as secretary, nurse, and teacher, as compared to executive, doctor and principal. All of these forms of unequal treatment lead sociologists to consider women a minority group.

Differentiate between a matriarchy and a patriarchy, and identify which model is followed in the United States.

A patriarchy is a form of social organization in which men dominate women through control of the economic, cultural, and political institutions of a society. In contrast, a matriarchy is a form of social organization in which women dominate men. Patriarchies are much more common historically than matriarchies. The United States is largely a patriarchal society.

How does the conflict perspective explain gender inequality?

Conflict explanations argue gender inequality is caused by patriarchy and male use of their greater physical, economic and political power to protect the privileged position they occupy in society. Orthodox Marxist explanations view male control over economic resources as a key way in which men restrict women's opportunities and freedoms. Gender roles are viewed as serving to legitimate male domination.

What is feminism? Describe the types of feminist approaches toward and solutions for gender inequality.

Feminism is the belief that men and women are equal and should be treated equally. There are three ways in which feminism explains gender inequality. 1. Liberal Feminists accept the organization of society but argue that women should be accorded equal opportunity, equal treatment, and reproductive freedom. 2. Socialist Feminists believe that gender inequality is a result of capitalist forms of economic organization. A socialist revolution is believed necessary to free women from patriarchal subordination. 3. Radical feminists believe that liberal and socialist feminists do not go far enough to eradicate gender inequality. In this view, gender inequality is rooted in the very notion of gender. To eliminate such inequality, the notion of gender itself must be eliminated. Doing this would involve the use of new reproductive technologist that would free women from the childbearing role. This would eliminate the basis for gender distinctions and would hence lead to an end of male domination.

Identify the three forms of feminism and how they differ.

Liberal feminism accepts the organization of society but argues that women should be accorded equal opportunity, equal treatment, and reproductive freedom. Socialist feminism views gender inequality as anchored in place by capitalist forms of economic organization. Only through a socialist revolution can a basic transformation of society that frees women from the patriarchal bonds of traditional family roles and from subordination in the workplace occur. Radical feminism believes that both liberal and socialist feminism do not go far enough in their attempts to eliminate gender inequality. Radical feminism views gender inequality as rooted not in capitalism or restricted freedoms, but in the very notion of gender itself. To eliminate gender inequality, the notion of gender must be ended. To accomplish this, new reproductive technologies would be employed to free women from the process of childbearing. Eliminating gender would eliminate male domination, which is believed to be the source of all oppression, including sexism.

Identify examples of positions that men and women typically hold due to the prevalence of occupational sex segregation

Men are typically found in positions that involve rationality, authority, and strength, such as engineer, doctor, scientist, or carpenter. Women are clustered in subordinate and nurturing jobs, such as secretary, nurse, elementary school teacher, maid, social worker, and waitress. Stereotypes sustain and reinforce this gender clustering in jobs.

Describe Mead's findings following her observation of gender roles in New Guinea, and compare them to changing gender roles in the United States over the last century3

Noted anthropologist Margaret Mead studied the Tchambuli in New Guinea and found that the roles of men and women were the reverse of many of our notions about gender. Females were dominant and rational, while men were subordinate, submissive, and emotionally nurturing. Likewise, the roles and behaviors believed to be appropriate for each sex within American society have changed over time. At the dawn of the twentieth century, the expectation was that women's adult lives would focus on homes, husbands, and children. The adult life of men would revolve around work and the role of breadwinner. One hundred years later, women have gained the right to equal political participation through the right to vote, and they are also widely expected to develop their own work careers in addition to their responsibilities at home. This variance in meaning and in the tasks women and men perform indicates that these meanings are largely socially constructed realities.

What is the difference between patriarchy and matriarchy? Which is more common?

Patriarchy is a form of social organization in which men dominate women through control for the economic, cultural, and political institutions of a society. In contrast, matriarchies are a form of social organization in which women dominate men through control of the major social institutions. Patriarchies are much more common historically than matriarchies. The US is a largely patriarchal society.

What is the difference between sex and gender?

Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between males and females. These differences are constant over time and between societies, while the meaning of gender varies over time and within societies. Gender refers to the culturally constructed meanings, behaviors, and attitudes associated with what it means to be male or female in a given society.

Explain how sociologists differentiate between sex and gender.

Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females. Gender refers to the culturally constructed meanings, behaviors, and attitudes associated with what it means to be male or female in a given society.

Margaret Mead

Studied male and female roles in New Guinea and found them to be reverse of roles in the United States.

feminism

The belief in and advocacy for both the equality of and the equal treatment of men and women.

sexism

The belief that one sex is innately superior or inferior to the other.

comparable worth

The belief that pay ought to reflect the worth of a job not the race or gender of the worker

sex

The biological differences between males and females.

occupational sex segregation

The concentration of men and women in certain occupations based upon gender role expectations and traits.

gender

The culturally constructed meanings, behaviors, and attitudes associated with what it means to be male or female in a given society.

Explain the ways in which family, peer groups, schools, and mass media encourage gender socialization

The different gender roles for males and females are learned through socialization. The family is the primary source of initial cues about how children of each sex are expected to act. Boys are thought to be less delicate than girls, so boys are played with more roughly than girls. The color pink is associated with females and warmth, while blue is associated with males. Gender-appropriate toys for girls include dolls, kitchen sets, and makeup. Boys tend to receive trucks, war toys, and sports equipment. When children are able to help around the household, gender expectations influence the tasks boys and girls perform as well. In this context, differential socialization refers to the process of raising boys and girls differently because of the different roles each is expected to play as an adult. Peers help children learn gender-role stereotypes in addition to gender-appropriate behaviors. Male peer groups frequently place more pressure upon boys to behave in appropriate masculine ways; girls tend to receive less pressure to act in a feminine manner from their peer groups. As children enter adolescence, peer group influence on behavior tends to surpass that of the family. Schools are gendered institutions as well. Teachers, counselors, and a student's schoolaged peers transmit messages about gender. Gender influences the manner in which teachers treat students and guidance counselors suggest careers to students. Typically, teachers tend to show gender bias toward male students by devoting more time, effort, and attention to boys. This deference helps to reinforce the stereotype that men are more important than women. The media transmit powerful messages about what it means to be male and female. Television programming is sex-typed. Male roles on television and in films outnumber female roles. Men are typically portrayed as more aggressive and in postures and positions that convey images of male superiority and dominance. In contrast, women are portrayed as helpless, manipulative, seductive, or deferential.

human capital

The education, training, skills, and experience a person possesses.

gender roles

The expected behaviors, attitudes, and activities socially defined as appropriate for each sex.

What is the relationship between differential socialization and gender roles?

There are different gender roles for men and women. These different roles are learned through socialization. In this context, differential socialization refers to the process of raising boys and girls differently because of the different roles each is expected to play as an adult. Families tend to encourage more aggressive behaviors in boys. Girls receive different types of toys and clothing than do boys. Peers transmit gender stereotypes to girls and boys about they way each is expected to behave. Schools also treat boys and girls differently, devoting more time, energy, and attention to boys than to girls. This reinforces the stereotype that boys are more important than girls. The media transmit different different images about what it means to be male and female, frequently portraying men in positions of dominance and women in positions of submissiveness. The different messages that boys and girls receive from these agents of socialization serve to inculcate and reinforce the socially expected gender roles.

How does the functionalist perspective account for the existence of gender inequality?

There are two ways in which the functionalist perspective accounts for the existence of gender inequality. The theory of complementarity argues that men and women perform different roles because it is functionally necessary for social stability and survival. Men play instrumental roles, such as acquiring economic resources, and women perform expressive roles, such as child rearing and homemaker. The human capital model explains women's subordinate position in the labor market as a result of the choices that men and women make. This explanation states that women choose employment in low-wage and low-skill jobs, such as waitress or retail sales clerk, It also states that women choose to exit and enter the workforce more frequently than men (often for child rearing purposes). These choices limit the earning potential of women relative to men.

Describe the conflict perspective on the gendered division of labor.

Viewed from the conflict perspective, the gendered division of labor is the result of patriarchy. Though the importance of physical power declines in industrial societies, men are more likely to occupy positions of economic and political power. They use this power to protect their privileged status in society. Some theorists in the Marxist tradition claim that gender inequality results from the private ownership of the means of production, which men use to restrict women's access to key resources and positions. Finally, gender roles are argued to legitimize and provide support for male domination