Sociology Study Guide: Exam 2

Happiness, health and wealth, and religion

The three categories of benefits of marriage

Before, instead, and after marriage

The three conceptual categories of cohabitation

Responsibility, cooperation, status

The three subcategories with health and wealth, in relation to the benefits of marriage

Divorced people who are in serious relationships but not remarried. About 1 in 5 of them are living with a partner. They may eventually marry, but for some the divorce experience and the complications of the previous marriage are holding them back

The trends for divorced people with regards to unmarried parenting

They choose to not marry or because the law prohibits their marriage. One of them may adopt or have a child from a previous relationship

The trends for gay and lesbian couples who aren't married with regards to unmarried parenting

Make the decision to have a children as single parents even though they might have preferred to be married first. Rather than wait for a marriage that might not occur, they adopt, use a sperm donor, or get pregnant with a man they're not planning to parent with. These families are less likely to be poor

The trends for older women who are single with regards to unmarried parenting

Either alone or with a partner they are not ready or willing to marry; theses families are more likely to be poor than most other families

The trends for young adults with regards to unmarried parenting

Symbolic interaction theory

To interact successfully, people need to be able to see themselves through the eyes of others

Read pages 283-286

To understand risks and benefits of each of the three conceptual categories of cohabitation...

a naturally occurring condition

Today in science, homosexuality is understood as...

A potential mental health problem (by many professionals)

Today, failure to come to terms with one's sexual orientation is now considered...

Media, family, professionals (family experts, counselors, social workers), family members, religious leaders

Where are the social pressures to get marriage coming from?

more than two parents

While fewer parents are married now than in the past, many children are involved with ...

Happier than women do

What do men say their marriages compared to women?

Defense of marriage act

What does DOMA stand for?

Temporary Assistance to Needy Families

What does TANF stand for?

The change of a typical unmarried adult getting married is lower

What does it mean that marriage rates have fallen dramatically since the 1960s?

A growing number of families include stepparents and siblings from parents' previous relationships

What does it mean to that "many child are involved with more than two parents?"

More couples are sharing two high salaries and more singles are scraping by on one low wage

What does the increase of more marriages being between people with college degrees mean?

2 kids

What does total fertility rates indicate for African American women on average?

Almost 2.5 kids

What does total fertility rates indicate for Latina women on average?

DOMA

What forbade the federal government from recognizing the marriages of same-sex couples, even if they were legal in a specific state?

Biological sex

What genitals you are born with

Feminists

What groups counters that human sexuality in modern society has symbolic qualities, cultural variation, and capacity for change that far outstrip its biological evolutionary purposes?

TANF

What had two major goals: to provide assistance to poor families and to "encourage the formation and maintenance of two-parent families?"

Most people are marrying at older ages than in the past, and an increasing number of people never marry

What has caused the marriage rates to fall dramatically since the 1960s?

Women are significantly outnumbering men on many campuses

What has changed about the college population between the 1950s and now?

Weakened marriages ties

What has the growth of individualism and the goals of individual fulfillment and self-expression affected marriage?

hook ups/sexual encounters, dating, longer-term relationships, marriage,

What helps form the relationship history people bring from one encounter to the next?

It's impossible to know whether or not a person knows their "true" sexual orientation yet

What is a serious problem with trying to figure out determinants of sexual orientation?

Financial pressures

What is another reason poor and working class couples decide on cohabitation?

Spontaneous

What is one of the "watchwords" for romantic love?

The co-existance of romantic and utilitarian love in many people's minds

What is part of the uncertainty of modern romantic relationships?

Communication

What is the "watchword" of utilitarian love?

Longitudinal studies

What is the best way to study selection effect?

Utilitarian love

What kind of love often enforces endogamy?

Romantic love

What kind of love often not enforce endogamy?

DOMA

What law lead to United States v. Windsor in 2013?

80

What percentage of married couple households own or are buying their homes?

Whites, Asians, American Indians

What race/ethnicity groups have the lowest total fertility rates?

African Americans

What racial-ethnic group is experiencing a more rapid and pronounced decline in marriage rates than any other group?

The construction of personal preferences and the drawing of boundaries between groups

What two things do sociologists focus on when looking at the marriage market?

It overturned a Connecticut law that banned contraceptives, declaring that married couples have a right to privacy in birth control decisions

What was the call on the Supreme court case Griswold v Connecticut?

It overturned a state law that banned the sale of contraceptives to single people (which had been intended to keep them from having sex before marriage). The court ruled that married and unmarried people had the same right to privacy and access to contraceptives

What was the decision of the Supreme court case Eisenstadt v Baird?

Aid to Families with Dependent Children

What was the federal welfare program from the 1960s until the 1990s?

Almost created the constitutional right to legal marriage regardless of sex

What was the outcome of United States v. Windsor?

"Don't ask, don't tell"

What was the policy that allowed gay and lesbian recruits to join the US military, as long as they held their sexual orientation secret?

1.9

What was the total fertility rate of the United States in 2012?

1968

What year did the Pope declare the pill unnatural and its use a mortal sin?

Early 20th century

When did doctors consider same-sex attraction a mental disorder or disease?

The population will grow

When the total fertility rate is 2.1 or higher ...

The population will shrink

When the total fertility rate is 2.1 or lower...

Late 2000s

When was it that 3/4 college students reported having at least one hookup?

Started through online dating sites

10 percent of relationships started after 2007...

Involved people who met online

22 percent of relationships started after 2007...

1) Increase of contraceptions 2) decrease of abortion availability 3) able to care for children more as a single

3 reasons for the decrease in abortions since the 1990s

1) culture of Latin countries and the Catholic Church; first gen immigrants have more kids than families of many generations 2) Lower level education = higher fertility rates 3) More young, healthy adult immigrants who were ready and able to move to the US in such of employment also tend to have more kids

3 reasons immigrant Latinos have relatively high fertility

Age, education, marital status, race, ethnicity

5 factors that affect a person's social environments and expectations in ways that affect their romantic behavior and attitudes

Hooking up

A casual sexual relationship encounter without explicit commitment or exclusivity

Social script

A commonly understood pattern of interaction that serves as a model of behavior in familiar situations

Love

A deep affection and concern for another, with whom one feels a strong emotional bond

3/4

A large study of students at 17 universities found that how many students reported hooking up?

Access to education, family structures, behavioral factors, and access to healthcare

A person's sexual health reflects a combination of...

Stigma

A quality that is perceived as undesirable and that set a person apart from others in his or her social category

Date

A single event defined by the combination of goals pursued by the people involved, which generally include having fun, pursuing a sexual attraction, and learning more about the other person with an eye on a possible romantic relationship

were twice as likely as men to go n multiple dates per week

A study of students in the 1950s, at a school where men outnumbered women 3:1, found that women...

having had a sexual intercourse with someone they did not consider a "boyfriend," "girlfriend," or someone they were "dating or going out with" but more than 50% of these were with people outside of what the researchers considered a "romantic relationship"

A survey of Ohio students grades 7-11 found that 31 percent of students reported...

TRUE

A tentative conclusion; People who are in very unhappy marriages are usually not as happy as single people

All forms of sexual interaction vs specifically exclude intercourse (without commitment)

A variation of the definition of "hooking up" that is seen (vs)

1/3

About a what fraction of unmarried people are living together at the time of the birth?

For men only

Among college students, causal hookups may include orgasms...

The decision to marry once they have more money

Among poor and working class couples, what does cohabitation reflect?

Parent

An adult intimately responsible for the care and rearing of a child

The benefits of working together are maximized when the two spouses bring different skills and assets to the marriage

Apply economic theory to why cooperation is needed in marriage

The basis for their later experiences and decisions

As people move through the stages of their lives, uncommitted sexual encounters are part of...

27:29

At what age did the average American get married by (female:male) in 2011?

20:23

At what age did the average American get married by (female:male) in the 1950s?

About the same happiness

Comparison of straight versus gay/lesbian cohabiting

Education level and earning potential

Couples are increasingly pairing up based on....

Personality, life experience, personal pose, socialization skills, and preparation for marriage

Dating seemed to improve...

No; they just called themselves the "HEALTHY marriage initiative" and claimed to be promoting only healthy marriages should stay together

Did TANF really address the problem they created by encouraging people to stay together, despite if they were in an abusive or unhealthy relationship?

No

Did TANF work?

Heterosexism

Discrimination or prejudice against homosexuals on the assumption that heterosexuality is the normal sexual orientation

rare (less than 5% of American adults)

Exclusively homosexual behavior and identity are relatively...

Richer people

Health and wealth: if happier people are more likely to get married, who else is more likely to get married?

Homophobia

Fear of or antipathy toward homosexuality in general (especially gays and lesbians in particular)

A sign that marriage is losing its traditional meaning

For those political conservatives, the debate over marriage rights represents?

tolerance and acceptance of individual choices by society

For those who support extending marriage rights, the debate over marriage rights is symbolic of?

That the relationship is going forward; provides a chance to experience living as a couple without making a public, legal, or religious commitment

For young couples, what does cohabitation before marriage prove?

Replacement fertility

Formal name of total fertility rate of 2.1

That there is a stigma from others in their social circles, a feeling of failure, and loss that takes a toll on their happiness and even their mental health

How do unmarried women feel about not being married?

Happier than blacks and others

How do whites describe their marriages?

If same-sex romantic attraction has a genetic component, it is massively overwhelmed by other factors

How does Cohen feel about the idea of a genetic factor in sexual orientation

Increase

How has diversity of families changed?

Declined, besides 1946-1964

How has the number of kids in families changed for most twentieth and twenty-first century?

2/3

How many people who marry have lived together first?

41 percent

In 2011, what percent of births were to unmarried women?

Women entering college showed that they went on an average of about 12 dates a month with an average of about 5 different men

In a 1956 survey, what proved that dating was extremely accepted by the middle class?

Full-time employment, cohabiting, school, parenting, married

In decreasing percentages, what are the main commitments

TRUE

In general, beauty pressures are stronger for women

Abnormal sexual development or family relationships

In the early 20th century, what could "cause" homosexuality?

More attractive as a marriage partner, better at developing relationships, and better at keeping the marriage from breaking up

In what ways is a happier person maybe happier in marriage?

Marital status, race and ethnicity, and education

The three categories of patterns for childbearing

Lifelong commitment, success, emotional support, security

Individualistic reasons for pursuing marriage that imply mutuality

How dating enhances the market arena

Industry targets single people directly, selling everything from clothes and cosmetics to meals and movies to dating advice.

Incentives, social pressure, imitation

The three categories of why people get married

Cohabitation

Living together as a sexual or romantic couple without being married

From 1 in 10 to 2 out of 3 couples

Living together prior to marriage; in the past forty years, how has the fraction of people doing so changed?

Men

Majority of college students expect ____ to take the lead in formal date situations

remarriages for one or both partners.

Many American marriages are...

increasingly common and accepted in both mainstream culture and law

Marriage and cohabitation between people of the same gender, although a small minority of relationships have become...

Exogamy

Marriage and reproduction outside one's distinct group

Polygamy

Marriage and reproduction with one or more persons

Monogamy

Marriage and reproduction with only one person

Endogamy

Marriage and reproduction within a distinct group

an increase in the number of unmarried parents

Marriage has decline more than childbearing causing ....

college degrees

Marriage is now more common for people with...

Before, instead of, and after marriage

The three conceptual categories of cohabitation

thought they deserved to be paid more

Married men receive higher salaries because their managers ...

TRUE

Married people are less likely to be poor than single adults

True

Married people are less likely to die because of the responsibilities they have that causes them to take less risks

think that they will soon be having kids and working less than their male counterparts

Married women, though celebrated, receive lower salaries because their managers ...

Increasing complexity of family structures and relationships

Modern identities have grown more diverse, paralleling the

More

More or less: children who are born to parents who are not married

True

More than a quarter of parents with two or more children have had children with two partners or more

TRUE

Most sexual encounters are anything but random

More or better sex

Motivation for extramarital sex (while married)

Romantic relationships

Mutually acknowledged, ongoing interactions featuring heightened affection and intensity

Increase of the assumption by men that the woman is on it, does not stop the spread of STDS, health risks (may increase risk of breast cancer)

Negatives of the pill

Married people

On average, who is happier: married people or single people of either/both genders?

Political and religious conservatism

Opposition of same-sex couples is still strongly associated with what?

treating families as legal entities in themselves

Over the last half-century, the law increasingly has treated people as individuals rather than...

Adoptive parents

Parents to a child they did not produce biologically

Sex for pleasure has become an acceptable pursuit and became a goal for sexual behavior. Differences on how to attain this grew in importance

Partly due to technology, how has sexual behavior changed to allow finding one's way sexually as a part of self-identification?

Boys whose biological mothers have given birth to multiple boys before them are slightly more likely to identify as gay, prenatal hormone levels affect development in ways that influence sexual orientation, boys with more exposure to androgens may be more likely to become gay

Patterns of sexual orientation in regards to influence by hormones (3)

Sexual orientation is not the same as behavior

People who don't identify as gay or lesbian may have romantic relationships with people of the same sex; people who identify as gay or lesbian may have heterosexual romantic or sex lives.

19, 12

Percents of males vs females who answer yes to "Have you ever had sex with someone other than your husband or wife while you were married?"

Increased the independence of the woman, has improved in effectiveness, reduction of ovarian and endometrial cancer

Positives of the pill

practicalities of inheritance, pensions, taxes, and social acceptability

Reasons of marriage equality stress these things

1. Opposition to traditional marriage; wanting to express their commitment without religion or civil authorities 2. Nontraditional couples; family is opposed to the marriage, interracial, their religion may frown on it, especially in the case of interfaith, and social class differences

Reasons people cohabitation INSTEAD of marriage

FALSE; married couples have a higher tendency to participate in religious observations and practices

Religion: T or F, married couples have a lower tendency to participate in religious observations and practices

Common and acceptable

Remarriages are also common due to becoming...

the high divorce rates

Remarriages are common primarily due to...

"Relationship inertia;" getting married because moving in makes it easier to fall into a hard decision carelessly

Risk 1 to cohabitation before marriage

Women

Same-sex attraction and behavior occurs more commonly amongst...

socially disadvantaged by income, education, or race

Sexual activity amongst teenagers is more common among groups that are...

There is no connection found between the sexual orientation of parents and their child's.

Sexual orientation in regards to influence by genetics

It can change over time as people age or move between different social situations

Sexual orientation isn't a fixed quality people "have."

emotionally stronger

Since it's so easy to break up, relationships that survive are...

TRUE

Single mother and their children have poverty rates more than four times those of married couples with children

American Indian, Black, and Puerto Rican families

Single parenthood is more common among ...

Marriage rates have fallen dramatically since the 1960s, have fallen faster for some groups than for others, marriage is increasingly concentrated among those with higher education and incomes

The major trends of who gets married

reassurance, letting people act on the assumption that their behavior is understandable and acceptable to others, without having to invent every situation

Social scripts are a source of...

Dating

The mate selection process in which young adults spend time with a variety of partners before making a long-term commitment

male than toward female desires

Teen sex is more oriented towards...

Biological parents

The adults whose bodies, including the father's sperm and the mother's egg, produce a child

Infertility

The failure of a couple to have a successful pregnancy despite deliberately having sex without contraception

Match.com

The first major national singles database in the US, which was created in 1995

Lifelong commitment, success, emotional support, security

The four categories of how men described what marriage meant to them

Extramarital affairs > Teenage sex > Homosexuality > Having a baby outside of marriage > Sex outside marriage > Divorce > Single parenthood

The hierarchy of "condemnation" from the "worst thing you could do" to "eh"

Decreased

The number of abortions since the 1990s has

Fertility

The number of children born in a society or among a particular group

Total fertility rate

The number of children born to the average women in her lifetime

Declined

The number of high school students having sex has...

Romantic love

The passionate devotion and attraction one person feels for another

Sexual Orientation

The pattern of romantic or sexual attraction to others in relation to one's own gender identity

Increased

The percent of the country that is pro-life has

Adolescence

The period between childhood and adulthood

Queer theory

The perspective that stresses the fluidity and diversity of sexual orientations and behaviors and rejects the attempts to fit people into sexual classifications

Utilitarian/realistic love

The practical, rational dedication of one person to another based on shared understanding and emotional commitment

The Sexual Double Standard

The practice of applying stricter moral or legal controls to women's sexual behavior than to men's

Compulsory heterosexuality

The pressures to conform to the majority sexual orientation and the assumption that everyone is straight until proven otherwise

Opportunity costs

The price one pays for choosing the less lucrative of the available options

Homophily

The principle by which similar people have more of a given kind of contact than dissimilar people

Selection effect

The problem that occurs when the cause being studied has already been determined by the outcome that is under investigation

mate selection

The process by which people choose each other for sexual or romantic relationships

Coming out

The process of revealing one's gay sexual orientation to the significant people in one's life

healthier and more lucrative behavior

The productive routine, sense of responsibility, and obligations to dependents that people take on when they are married seems to promote...

Sexual identity

The recognition, or internalization, of a biological sex category

Marriage market

The social space in which people search for potential marriage partners

The skills needed to persuade others (game) and expressed a more practical approach based on an equal balance of expectations between men and women

The survey on high-school students in Northern Cali: The views of African American students spoke more often...

Appreciation for parental advice and guidance, and to consider women's virginity as an important more value.

The survey on high-school students in Northern Cali: The views of Mexican-American students are more likely to express...

True (usually)

True/False: Although romantic relationships need not be sexual, they usually include at least anticipated sexual interaction (understanding that there is no way to determine the length)

Older singles who have been deliberately postponing marriage, never-married adults with children, divorce adults of all ages w/ or w/o children

What are the 3 groups of singles that have become prevalent?

1/3 have 3 or more 1/3 have 2 1/3 have 1 or none

What are the divisions of how many kids women have before 45?

1) Love is unambiguous and clear (Love at first sight) 2) Love is unique (True love) 3) Individuals seek both to prove and to demonstrate their true character by overcoming obstacles in the quest for love (social or personal) 4) Love is permanent and eternal

What are the four qualities of a "romantic idealism" of love seen today?

1) The demise of the dating system as the dominant mode of relationship formation, 2) increasing acceptance of living together as a common stage in relationships, 3) incorporation of divorced and older singles into the mix of those looking for new relationships, and 4) continual adaptation of communication technology to relationship dynamics, increasing the immediacy of interactions.

What are the four specific developments that caused the change in how relationships are begun and built?

Rights and benefits of married couples, social protections (parental rights and immigration), financial benefits (tax breaks, social security pension funds), and employers and insurance companies offering insurance benefits for married couples

What are the incentives of marriage?

Demography, economics, culture

What are the three categories used to explain the decline in marriage?

(1) People making marriage decisions have desires that may be in conflict (sexual attraction and economic potential), (2) people often make bad decisions (especially in the realm of love and romance) so we cannot assume that marriage choices are rational, and (3) people shopping for a spouse do not have as many choices as someone shopping for a car

What are the three problems with Becker's notion on marriage?

Sex education, social networks, and inequality

What are the three sociological issue related to STDs?

Class inequality, inclusion vs exclusion (race), family dynamics

What are the three ways that families influence the broader society, for which understanding the steps towards mate selection is important?

Idealistic/romantic love, realistic/utilitarian love

What are the two "cultures of love" in the US today?

Social scripts

What are used to help people locate their behavior in a social setting?

Forbade the federal government from recognizing the marriages of same-sex couples, even if they were legal in a specific state

What did DOMA do?

Two major goals: to provide assistance to poor families and to "encourage the formation and maintenance of two-parent families"

What did TANF establish?

To either get a job or get married

What did TANF tell poor, single mothers?

Allowed gay and lesbian recruits to join the US military, as long as they held their sexual orientation secret

What did the policy "Don't ask, don't tell" allow?

That it suggests that economic insecurity and poverty are the main reasons of failed marriages so the government should focus on improving employment with tax law changes, higher minimum wage, and child-care support rather than offering classes, training, and counseling.

What do critics think of TANF?

Keep their finances separate

What do divorced cohabitors do that younger people may not?

Naive, idealistic, and too cookie cutter

What do many sociologists think of Becker's notion of market principles in marriage?

Income, property, and education

What do married people have more of compared to unmarried people?

Older, divorced people

Who do profit-seeking dating sites primarily target?

Gary Becker

Who said marriage may be thought of as a market process if these conditions were present: marriage must be voluntary (meaning people only marry if and when they think it will improve their lives) and there must be competition for spouses?

Bill Clinton

Who was the president when Congress passed DOMA?

Older established single have more money and they don't have the same everyday potential of meeting people as young people do.

Why do profit-seeking dating sites primarily target older, divorced people?

The "crowd" can serve as a reassuring presence in support of our decisions

Why does imitation serve as a reason people still get married?

It is based on individual desire, challenges such a rational basis for love, and has the potential to ruffle feathers between groups

Why does romantic love often not enforce endogamy?

May reduce family complications and increase access to systems of social support

Why does utilitarian love often enforce endogamy?

Human children require care for many years; ones that were loved by their parents survived longer

Why is love sometimes viewed as having developed evolutionarily?

No; still declining; we are still retreating away from marriage

With TANF, did the trend of marriage change?

Pleasure, popularity, and self-esteem

With teen sex, boys have a more positive sexual experience in terms of....

Bad about themselves or feel as if they have been used

With teen sex, girls are more likely to feel...

Increases their bargaining power (how many dates they get and determining their outcome)

With the population of men decreasing on campuses, how are they benefitting from that?

Exploratory than men (more likely to report isolated or past same-gender sexual experiences or attractions)

Women appear more...

2.6 kids ... 1.8 or less kids

Women who did not finish high school have an average of ... compared to that of women with a bachelor's degree who have ...

tend to have more children

Women with lower levels of education ...