SoPsy

The dual-process model proposed by Petty and Cacciopo (1986) assumes that

people do not always process communications the same way.

Describe features audience relevant to persuasive message

1. Need for cognition; Personality trait and How much person enjoys thinking 2. Self Monitoring; tendency to change our own behavior to meet demands of social situations High: Behavior more likely to be context dependent (then Persuaded by image of ad)e.g I would probably make a good actor. I'm not always the person I appear to be. I can deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them.In order to get along and be liked, I tend to be what people expect me to be rather than anything else. Low: Use internal cues & values guide behaviour (then Persuaded by information)e.g My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings. I never good at games like improvisational acting. I can argue only for ideas I already believe in. I find it hard imitate behaviour of other people. 3. Forewarning and resistance; Inoculation hypothesis: Exposure to weak versions of a persuasive argument increases later resistance to that argument, Psychological reactance: People react negatively to threats against right to make own choices (Reverse psychology)

Which of the following is not consistent with the predictions of evolutionary psychology and kin selection?

Adults indicate a greater willingness to help older as compared to younger relatives.

A juror is more likely to be chosen as foreperson if the juror is (male as opposed to female. of higher rather than lower occupational status. vocal during initial stages of deliberations as opposed to quiet.)

All of these

Explain empathy-altruism hypothesis and identify why distinction between these two types of motives is important.

Altruism vs. egoism: limits -Strong evidence for empathy-altruism hypothesis - Limitations to empathy-altruism hypothesis: Not all helping altruistically motivated,Motives do not guarantee behaviour,Empathy has downsides

Identify egoistic and altruistic motives for helping.

Altruistic: Motivated by desire to increase another's welfare. Egoistic: Motivated by desire increase one's own welfare Batson (1991): motivation behind some helpful actions truly altruistic.- Empathy/Altruism Hypothesis Altruistic Personality;Empathy,Internalised and advanced moral reasoning(based on internalised principles, rather than social norms or rules), Overall, individual differences not very strong, or not well understood When do people help? - Situational influences Evolutionary Factors in Helping: Reciprocal Altruism; • Through reciprocal altruism, helping someone else be in your best interests. - Increases the likelihood that you will be helped in return. - Indirect reciprocity - "I help you and somebody else helps me" - Group selection processes Evolutionary factors in helping: group-level altruism - Can altruism exist beyond specific genes or specific reciprocal relationships between individuals? Indirect reciprocity - "I help you and somebody else helps me" Group selection processes Rewards of Helping: Helping Others to Help Oneself; More likely to help when potential rewards of helping seem high relative to potential costs, Arousal: Cost-Reward Model; What are costs and rewards associated with helping? In emergency situations, people act most cost-effective way to reduce arousal of shock and alarm Rewards of Helping:Helping to Be Good • May help because motivated to behave in ways that consistent with moral principles - e.g., "right thing to do" - Self-concept (I am helpful) - Social norms for helping - Social roles (rescue workers)

Describe function of ethics in social psychological research, including use of deception and confederates and scientific integrity

Applies to experimental/non-experimental Exposure to risk,Prevalence of deception Rights of participant? Ethical obligations of researcher?Who decides?APA (1972; 2002) National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research,APS Code of Conduct Research ethics: Ethical principles Protection from harm, Right to privacy,Deception Informed consent,Debriefing

Describe how correspondent inference theory and covariation theory explain attributional processes.

Attribution Theories; group of theories describe how people explain causes of behaviour Personal attribution: Attribution to internal characteristics of actor Situational attribution: Attribution to factors external to actor e.g Kelley's Covariation Theory;People attribute behavior to factors present when behavior occurs and absent when it does not, Covariation information:Consistency-Does person regularly behave this way in this situation? High-person behaved in same way when in situation in past Low-person not behaved in same way when in situation in past,Consensus-Do other people regularly behave this way in this situation High-most people behave in same way in situation Low-few people beahve in same way in situation,Distinctiveness-Does person behave this way in other situations High-person behave differently if situation just slightly different Low-person behave similarly even if situation different Covariation Principle; Stimulus Present then Behaviour, Stimulus Absent then No Behaviour,Therefore: Stimulus CAUSES Behaviour Jones & Davis' Correspondent Inference Theory; people try infer from action whether act corresponds to enduring personal trait of actor, Choice-behaviour freely chosen more informative Expectedness-more informative when not what we expected Effects-more postive outcome of act, less tells us about them

Explain bystander effect.

Bystander effect: presence others inhibits helping - Tragic stories of assault, violence and murder (e.g., Kitty Genovese) - Why didn't anyone help? Getting help in crowd - Make sure that you make your need for help very clear (non-ambiguous) and single out individuals in crowd via: Eye contact, Pointing, Direct requests

Identify key areas trending in social psychology currently

Classic topics in mainstream social psychology Topics studied:-Areas Applied Person perception/cognition=Law/legal studies The self=Health, Attitudes=Politics Prejudice/racism/authoritarianism=Religion Social influence/conformity=Social change Interpersonal attraction=Family functioning Personal relationships=Culture Group behaviour=Violence/war/discrimination Gender=Achievement/productivity Helping behaviour=Organisational behaviour/work Aggression=Marketing/advertising Power =Sport

State how common biases (for example, use of heuristics and engagement in the fundamental attribution error) impact the processes of attribution.

Cognitive Heuristics=Availability heuristic Information-processing rules of thumb; quick & easy, but frequently lead to error Availability heuristic: Overestimate frequency of events that easily pop into mind Representative heuristic: Judge likelihood object belongs to category based on similarity to typical features Consequences=False-consensus effect:Overestimate extent to which others share our opinions, Base-rate fallacy: People ignore numerical base rates or probabilities e.g Graphic events make us think certain things more likely crashes "single death tragedy milllion a statistic" Representativeness heuristic falls in this as well , Counterfactual thinking: Tendency to imagine alternative outcomes might occurred but did not Fundamental Attribution Error;tendency to Overestimate extent to which people's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors and Underestimate role of situational factors

Describe patterns of marital satisfaction and issues regarding end of intimate relationships

Communication & Conflict • How is conflict dealt with? • Poor communication frequently cited reason for breakups • Negative communication patterns 1. Negative Affect Reciprocity 2. Demand/withdraw Interaction Pattern Reduce Conflict 1. Increase rewarding aspects of relationship Ratio of positive to negative (5:1),Contain conflict to issue 2. Try to understand partner's point of view Change attributions you make for partner's behaviors Relationship‐enhancing attributions(negative is situational, positive is personal),Distress‐maintaining attributions(positive is situational, negative is personal)

Summarise four 'trap-setting' compliance techniques

Compliance;Changes in behaviour are elicited by direct requests. Sequential Request Strategies;Foot in the door - make small request that hard to refuse, followed by larger request"Hello. Where are you from? Come in and look at my shop. Looking is free. I don't want to sell you anything. It just helps business if I have people in my shop." Why does it work? Self-perception theory-want to be consistent with our self image Norm of reciprocity - treat others as they have treated us"Come. Sit down. Have some tea." Why does it work? Establishes indebtedness Positive affect Lowballing - secure agreement with small request, then increase size of request"Sorry, my assistant is in training. He gave you the wrong price. The real price is"Shoe polisher's strategy - agree reasonable price with person A. Person B takes their place, and claims to be more professional or using superior products, hence costs more. Why does it work? Commitment - made decision to buy, so we don't like backing out Door in the face - preface real request with one that unreasonably large"This carpet costs $6000. No? Ok, how about a smaller carpet. This only costs $600."Or"How much would you pay? What is your best price?"Why does it work? Perceptual contrast - $600 sounds cheap compared to $6000, Reciprocal concessions - pressure to respond to initial concession, Guilt - reduce guilt at initial refusal by conceding to lesser request Offering discounts or bonuses"Normally this carpet is $600, but it is low season and I like you, so I will make it just $500""If you buy this carpet I will give you this smaller one for free. You can give it to someone as a gift"Why does it work? Perceptual change and Focus on 'freebies Resisting Compliance Attempts;antidote is awareness Strategies work when we don't see them for what they are Knowledge of techniques and identifying them Mindfulness - don't be fooled by fast talking, anxiety, fear of saying 'no', reciprocity heuristics

Describe three ways in which impressions of others can become reality: belief perseverance, confirmatory hypothesis testing and self-fulfilling prophecies.

Confirmation bias (Impressions to Reality); Tendency interpret, seek, and create info in ways that verify existing beliefs Perseverance of beliefs;Sticking to initial beliefs even after beliefs have been discredited, Even in face of contradictory info, ppl still maintain beliefs especially if sought out supporting info Confirmatory hypothesis testing;Tendency to seek info supports our existing views, Ask loaded questions force people give answers that support our hypotheses,Does not occur when people are: Not certain of their beliefs or Concerned with accuracy Self-fulfilling prophecy;process perceiver's expectations about person eventually lead person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations

Kelley's theory of attribution suggests that, in trying to discern personal characteristics from behavioral evidence, people

Correct behave like scientists and engage in informal experiments.

In experiment, independent variable is _______ while dependent variable is _______.

Correct manipulated; measured

According to the model of ________, when the presence of others is physiologically arousing, a person's performance tends to ________ on a task that is difficult.

Correct social facilitation; decline

Explain when and how majorities - and, separately, minorities - come to have influence.

Cultural differences;One review found lowest conformity in Belgian students (14%) and highest in Indian teachers (58%), Generally more conformity in collectivist cultures, where conformity is viewed as virtue, Overall, situational factors are more important than personality or culture Situational differences;Asch looked at various situational factors: Group size - does conformity increase linearly with increasing numbers of 'confederates'?Unanimity - does everyone have to be unanimous, or just majority?Group size matters up to point (3 to 5 others) Unanimity very important. With correct dissenter, conformity < 10% Even with incorrect dissenter, conformity < 10% Informational Influence: Ppl conform because believe others correct in their judgments. Normative Influence: Ppl conform because fear consequences of appearing deviant. Types of conformity;Private Conformity: Changes in both overt behaviour and beliefs. Public Conformity: Superficial change in overt behaviour only. Two Processes or One; Anonymity reduces conformity When respondents gave answers in private, rather than public, conformity reduced (Although 12.5% still conformed!) When offered reward for correct answers, conformity increases for difficult tasks (informational influence) but decreases for easy tasks (normative influence) Moscovici's (1969) studies of minority influence;For many years, social influence was equated with conformity to the majority. Serge Moscovici criticized "conformity bias" in research, noting that individuals have agency, and individuals influence large majorities. Otherwise, how could we have social change? Moscovici turned Asch's (1955) conformity studies on their head and argued that they were, studies of minority rather than majority influence:There single correct answer that majority of people agree with. The confederates were minority who disagreed. Moscovici, Lage, & Naffrechoux (1969); Conducted study based on Asch's paradigm In groups of 6, participants presented with blue slide (varying in intensity) + asked to name colour 3 conditions:Control (6 naïve participants), Inconsistent minority (said "green" 2/3 of time + "blue" 1/3 of time),Consistent minority (always said "green") Whats happening;Moscivici argued consistent minorities are influential because they: disrupt majority norm, draw attention to minority as entity, draw attention to alternative POV, demonstrate certainty and commitment to POV, highlight only solution to conflict adoption of minority POV Consistent minorities make people "think twice"

Recognise role of culture, gender, and individual differences in aggression and attitudes toward aggression

Cultures differ with respect to: • forms violence typically takes • Homicide rates vary with social conditions, availability of guns, drug trafficking • Other forms of aggression may less related to social conditions and less culturally variable • people's attitudes toward various kinds of aggression • Intimate partner violence • Aggression towards children (discipline, sexual aggression) Universal findings that men more violent than women:• differences stable over time and place • Men far more likely to perpetrators and victims of homicide Males not necessarily more aggressive than females:• boys tend more overtly aggressive • girls often more indirectly, or relationally, aggressive • sabotaging relationships, reputation, social status Data from courts, police, hospitals and social services find women much more likely to be victims than men• Women make 90-95% victims of assaults in home reported to police • Women more likely to be injured in IPV than men Women more likely than men to:injured,report IPV, seek help • However, no reliable difference in percentage of men and women who physically assault partner Enhanced education, intelligence and moral reasoning helped cause decline in violence over past several centuries. • Social norms discouraging aggression • improved economy, healthier living conditions and social support are extremely important in reducing frustration, negative affect and thinking, and provocations that fuel much aggression.

Describe how aspects of perceiver, characteristics of target, and situational cues (such as priming) impact attribution

Deviations from arithmetic; 1. Perceiver characteristics Impression formation is in the eye of the beholder,Use ourselves as standard,Current mood influential 2. Priming effects Tendency for frequently used ideas come to mind easily and influence interpretation of new information,Positive or negative word lists influenced how people perceived same behavior,Priming of rude vs. polite words influenced participants' own behavior 3.Target characteristics Big 5 Traits use our judgments of these to assess a person,Trait negativity bias tendency for negative info to weigh more heavily than positive info when we form impressions 4.Implicit personality theories network of assumptions people make about relationships among traits and behaviours (if you know someone has one trait , infer they have other one)e.g two people both intelligent, skilled, industrius, determined, praactical, cautius but one was warm other was cold, "Warm" person was seen as: Happier More generous Good-natured Humorous Compared to "cold" person, warm and cold examples of central traits implying presence of other traits and weigh heavily when forming final impressions 5.Primacy effect Tendency for info presented earlier more impact on impressions, once first impression matter as pay less to subsequent info, people with high need closure more likely stick with first impression to reduce ambiguity

Identify social psychological components of a successful approach to treating stress, and explain why they are effective. Outline factors that promote prevention of risky behaviours

Directly through physiological effects • Stress hormones (adrenaline, cortisol) affect cardiovascular system (blood pressure) and immune system (suppression) • Indirectly through changes in behaviour • Stress lead to unhealthy behaviour - smoking, drinking, poor diet, lack of exercise • Widows increased use of tranquillizers and sleeping tablets; widowers increased drinking and smoking, relative to married sample • Widowed vs married men differ in liver cirrhosis Stress linked to all three risk factors hypertension,smoking,high chlosterol • Evidence of direct link between stress and CHD Stress compromises body's immune system. • Reduced immune cell function • Weaker response to infection • Slower recovery and healing • Weaker general immune response (inflammation) and specific response (antibodies) Social support is strongly linked to health • Social support groups reduce or delay mortality (e.g. Spiegal, 1993) • Happily married people live longer than single or separated people (e.g. Sbarra & Nierert, 2009) • Loneliness linked to poorer health across numerous studies (e.g. Cacioppo et al, 2002) • Why?• Positive influence on health-related behaviour (direct model)• Support during times of stress (buffering model)• Sociable people have protective psychological traits (e.g. optimism) • Exceptions/limitations:• Overcrowding = stress, exposure to transmittable disease• Unhappy relationships = stress, depression, substance abuse

Define and differentiate stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination

Discrimination: Negative behaviour directed against persons because of their membership particular group Discrimination is caused by and reinforces: Stereotype: A belief associates group of people with certain trait Prejudice: Negative feelings toward people based on their membership in certain groups

ABCs of social psychology are affect, behaviour and cognition. three major concepts of Chapter 4 in ABC order by considering whether correspond to affect, behaviour or cognition

Prejudice, discrimination, stereotyping

Describe trajectory of field of social psychology from 1880s to end of 20th century

Early Days in Social Psychology: 1880s - 1920s First textbooks by McDougall (1908), Ross (1908), and F. Allport (1924)established social psychology as distinct field of study Call to Action: 1930s - 1950s most dramatic impact on social psychology possibly Adolf Hitler, 1936 Society for Psychological Study of Social Issues, Sherif's (1936) experimental research on social influence, Kurt Lewin, another important contributor to field Interaction between person and environment, later known as interactionist perspective, WWII prompted social psychologists examine nature of prejudice, aggression, and conformity 1953, Gordon Allport published Nature of Prejudice, Solomon Asch's research on conformity Leon Festinger's research on social comparison Confidence and Crisis: 1960s - mid-1970s Milgram's famous obedience experiments Period of expansion and enthusiasm, time of crisis and heated debate, Strong reactions against lab experiment as dominant research method Era of Pluralism: Mid-1970s - 1990s "Crisis" led to stronger discipline. Adoption of pluralism ; Acceptance of many methods of investigation in addition to lab experiment, Integration of both "hot" and "cold" perspectives in study of determinants of our thoughts and actions, Development of international and multicultural perspectives Social Psychology in New Century Integrating emotion, motivation, and cognition Biological and evolutionary perspectives; Behavioural genetics, Evolutionary psychology, Social neuroscience New technologies; PET, fMRI, Internet

Describe two main routes to persuasion

Elaboration Likelihood Model;Central Route-Think carefully about message and Influenced by its strength and quality Peripheral Route-Do not think carefully about message and Influenced by superficial cues Peripheral Route: Heuristics Shortcuts to process a message;Numbers & big words, Corresponding values, Famous or successful people, High consensus,Sex Elaboration: Process of thinking about & scrutinizing arguments

Discuss how evolutionary theory accounts for helping behaviour.

Evolutionary Factors in Helping: The "Selfish Gene" • What important is survival of individual's genes, not survival of fittest individual. • Kin selection tendency to help genetic relatives. - Strongest when biological stakes are particularly high (e.g., life or death; Burnstein et al., 1994) Evolutionary basis to helping, linked to kin selection and group membership - Animal studies- Babies/toddlers Costs and rewards model - Help when rewards > costs - Rewards include feeling good or alleviating negative state Social contract - Norms for helping - Self-concept - Helping roles

Describe origins of aggression and effects of socialisation

Evolutionary psychology • Aggression evolved behavior that had adaptive functions • Different functions for males/females:males aggress to achieve and maintain status • Males typically more aggressive in species where reproductive availability of females is less than of males and Need compete with rivals for status and access to females • females aggress to protect offspring:Higher parental investment leads to less risky forms of aggression and Indirect/relational aggression more effective way to handicap other females Less aggression towards related others • Infanticide 70-100 times more likely from step parents Sex differences in aggression:Male-male aggression most common (cf. homicide rates)Different reasons for male-male and male-female aggression (status vs. infidelity),When competition is highest (during young adulthood), For most risky forms of aggression (cf. gender differences in direct v. indirect forms) Early emergence of sex differences (before socialisation)• Boys more aggressive than girls from age 2• Difference stable up to 11 years • Overall levels of aggression decline with age Aggression linked to testosterone?• Strong link in animals, weaker in humans• Numerous studies report positive association between testosterone and physical aggression, violence, trait aggression• What about causality?Gender reassignment studies and aggression proneness,2D-4D ratio studies (pre-natal testosterone exposure)

Describe and identify descriptive research, correlational research, and experimental research

Experimental; Lab experiments = classic social psychology study Advantages:Internal validity, Manipulate one variable, hold all else constant, Establish cause-effect relationship Disadvantages: External validity, Prone to bias, Subject bias,Demand characteristics, Social desirability, Experimenter bias, Vested interest in particular result Field experiments;Outside lab, Higher external validity (non-reactive),Less control over extraneous variables Non-experimental; Descriptive research, Archival Survey research,Field studies (observational and participant-observer), Examine correlations between naturally occurring variables Advantages:When experimental designs inappropriate/impossible, Efficiency ,External validity Disadvantages: Correlation not equal causation

Explain how social psychologists go about conceptualising, operationalising, and measuring variables

Experimental;The effect of the IV on the DV Milgram study (1965 - 1974): Obedience by Administered shocks Variables held constant DV; Learner's task, Experimenter instructions, Info about "learner", Reactions of learner Several IV's in series of studies; Position of learner, Presence of others, Presence of experimenter

Describe role of familiarity in attraction and explain influence of similarity on attractiveness

Familiarity-Proximity Best predictor of friendship and romance e.g Proximity Dorms: Suite residents were friendlier, Even affected non-dorm behaviour, While waiting, suite residents sat closer to stranger -Mere exposure, Proximity increases frequency of contact, Mere exposure effect (Zajonc)increased contact led to liking First Encounters;What determines whether first encounter develop into relationship? Similarity(Tend to like others similar to us 1. Demographic 2. Attitude 3. Physical• "Matching hypothesis"4. Subjective Experience) Liking/Reciprocity(like people who like us- Reciprocity then Mutual exchange of give & take) Being hard to get/Reactance(Hard‐to‐get Effect• Optimal level of being "hard to get"- External reasons)

Identify some key processes that impact on group performance including, but not limited to, polarisation, groupthink, and escalation.

Group polarization - Risky shift: tendency for group decisions riskier than individual's decisions (But, subsequent studies found groups to be more cautious - What was groups initial position?) - Group polarisation: exaggeration though group discussion of group member's initial tendencies Group polarization factors: 1. Persuasive arguments theory, greater number and persuasiveness of arguments, more extreme attitudes become 2. Social comparison, New extreme norms established 3. Social categorisation, Overestimate group's position to distinguish ingroup from outgroup

Explain basic group features of roles, norms, and cohesiveness.

Groups can be:Large or small ,Short-lived or enduring, Concentrated or dispersed, Structured or informal ,Specific purpose or no specific purpose, Autocratic or democratic, Voluntary or involuntary A group two or more individuals in face to face interaction, each aware of membership in group, each aware of the others who belong to group, and each aware of positive interdependence strive to achieve mutual goals, Entitivity, Groups vs. aggregates/collectives Collectives - People engaging in common activity but having little direct interaction with each other Group components;Roles: set of expected behaviours-Can formal or informal Norms: rules of conduct,Can be formal or informal Cohesiveness: forces exerted on group that push members closer together Intra group processes

Explain how body responds to stress

Hans Selye (1936) - noted similar physiological responses to range of noxious stimuli (surgery, extreme temperature, noise, lights, injections of toxic fluids) in animals • Enlarged adrenal cortex, shrinkage of thymus and lymph glands, ulcers in stomach and duodenum = stress • In humans, different diseases produce overlapping symptoms • Explained by general adaptation syndrome or stress response Criticisms of Selyes theory: • Limited attention to psychological factors • Stress response mediated by psychological appraisal influencing • how we will experience the stress • what coping strategies we will use. • Not all stressors produce the same response • Different endocrinological responses • Individual differences (personality, perception, biology) General adaptation syndrome;Three-stage bodily response to stress • Alarm - adrenaline, HR, BP, sugar • Resistance - stress hormones • Exhaustion - elevated stress response impacts other functions Stress adaptive short-term reaction to threat, but over time compromises health and well-being Three categories of stressors: • Crises and catastrophes;• Natural disasters - tsunamis, hurricanes, floods, fires, earthquakes • Terrorism,War• Most experience some form of distress - depression, anxiety, grief, substance abuse, somatic conditions• Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): enduring physical and psychological symptoms after an extremely stressful event.• personal growth - new appreciation life, new meaning, close relationships e.gLebanese patients with narrowing of arteries were three times more likely than those with no narrowing to have experienced war related stressors (damage to home, displacement, assault, kidnapping) (Sibai, et al., 1989)Increase heart attacks among Israeli civilians first days of Gulf war (Meisel et al., 1991) • Major life events;Changes in life circumstances that require adjustment:Job loss or new job, Relationship loss or marriage,Death of close other, Relocation, Change itself may cause stress by forcing us adapt to new circumstances, no support positive 'stressors' are harmful as negative stressors, impact of change depends on person and how change interpreted, Life stress inventory scores correlate with illness morbidity across range of studies, Some predictive ability - Amongst 2500 navy officers, top 30% life stress respondents had 90% more illnesses than bottom 30% on tour duty six months later (Rahe, 1968)Correlations typically below .30 (i.e. life event scores account for<10% variance in illness) Limitations studies using checklist approach: Reporting bias - negative affectivity = more likely to report life stress and seek help for health concerns• Life events scales confound stressful events with health - personal illness counted as a stressful life event; other stressful events may be result of mental illness (loss of relationship, job)Too blunt; e.g. death of spouse different depending on circumstances •Microstressors/daily hassles;Most common source of stress arises from daily hassles irritate us. Population density,Noise,Heat,Finances,Traffic 'Microstressors' place constant strain on us. accumulation of daily hassles contributes more to illness than do major life events. eg, job, University students:1. Time pressure 2. Financial constraints 3. Friendships 4. Traffic 5. Safety 6. Physical appearance 7. Employment 8. Parental expectations 9. Religion 10. Race/ethnicity Pett, M.A. & Johnson, M.J.M. (2005). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Revised University Student Hassles Scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 65(6), 984-1010. In Australia:1. Dislocation to family 2. Friendships 3. Partner relationships 4. Time demands 5. Financial restrictions Bitsika, V., Sharpley, C.F., & Rubenstein, V. (2010). What stresses university students: An interview investigation of the demands of tertiary studies. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 20(1),41-54. Cognitive processes in stress:Appraisals & Coping Lazarus & Folkman 1984 -stress as person x environment interaction, Psychological stress particular relationship between person and environment that appraised by individual as taxing or exceeding resources and endangering well-being,Stress results when perceive a threat to our well-being and that lack resources to cope with it Two processes involved:• Cognitive appraisal - evaluative process to determine degree of threat and ability to cope,• Primary appraisal - Does situation pose threat to my well-being?• Secondary appraisal - Do I have resources to manage the threat?• High threat + low resources = high stress • Coping mechanisms - ways of dealing with threatening situation or with negative emotions • Problem-focused coping - attempt to confront (e.g., alter) stressor. SMS him to find out what happened (active coping)Ring his best friend to ask if there's a problem (instrumental social support)Compare his behaviour to other occasion where he has not turned up (draw on past experience) • Emotion-focused coping - attempt to regulate emotional distress associated with stressor; include:Re-appraisal coping strategies.Avoidance coping strategies Drown her sorrows or eat a block of chocolate (substance use!)Prepare herself for the thought that he's dumping her (acceptance)Decide he wasn't a great boyfriend anyway (cognitive reappraisal) Go for a long walk to take her mind off it (self-distraction) Effective coping then accept, manage, reduce or eliminate stressor. Physical, psychological and behavioural stress return to normal Positive health outcomes: state of equilibrium/ homeostasis, enhanced confidence and self-esteem, maintain biopsychosocial well-being, personal growth Ineffective coping then does not allow you to accept, manage,reduce or eliminate stressor. Continued physical, cognitive and behavioural stress reaction Negative health outcomes: vulnerability to illness/injury; emotional, mental health problems; illness behaviour; relationship problems; performance problems, e.g., work

Marcie and Karl been married for several years. Marcie unhappy in marriage and trying to decide whether to leave Karl. Which of the following would encourage her the most to leave the marriage?

Her comparison level for alternatives is high.

Summarise classic version of cognitive dissonance theory, and 'new look' theory

Holding inconsistent cognitions arouses psychological tension that people become motivated to reduce dissonance Ways to Reduce Dissonance; 1. Change your attitude 2.Change your perception of behavior 3.Add consonant cognitions 4.Minimize importance of conflict 5.Reduce perceived choice When do we feel dissonance?Insufficient justification (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959),Justifying effort,Justifying difficult decisions Insufficient justification: People act in attitude-discrepant way without receiving large reward Justifying effort:alter our attitudes to justify our suffering,Severe vs. Mild Initiation Justifying difficult decisions:Exaggerate positives of chosen object & exaggerate negatives of nonchosen object New look; dissonance more to do with unwanted consequences, than inconsistent beleifs, suggest greater emphasis on personal responsiblity, study claims around motivational in atttiude change in forced compliance, Certain conditions must be present: Negative consequences, Personal responsibility(Freewill/Foreseeable consequences) ,Physiological arousal, Internal attribution for arousal

Summarise different approaches to classifying love.

Initial attraction - What determines who you will be attracted to?1.Familiarity-Proximity/Mere exposure, 2.Physical attractiveness 3.First encounters Similarity/Reciprocity/Reactance 4.Evolutionary drives 2.Bias for beauty;Our expectations of children, Our behavior, Our finances What is beauty;Universal 1. Agreement (faces,bodies,waist to hip ratio) 2. Common Features('Average" face"/Symmetrical) 3. Babies(Unaffected by culture/Spend more time looking at attractive faces) Non‐Universal;1. Culture (Enhance beauty in different ways, Availability of food-Limited: Heavier women seen as more attractive, Time-Playboy 1953 vs. now) 2. Mood 3. Context Effects of Beauty;What‐is‐beautiful‐is‐good stereotype- Associate physical attractiveness with other desirable qualities, Advantages of beauty -More popular, more sexually experienced, more socially skilled, more likely attract mate, Costs of beauty- Distrust evaluations and Pressure maintain appearance 4. Mating strategies attuned male & female biology • Women- Few children; high parental investment - Highly selective- Seeks successful (wealthy) men • Men- Many children; minimal parental investment - Increase number offspring- Seek fertile women

Explain 'arithmetic' approach to explaining attribution and describe cases in which deviations from arithmetic occur.

Integration: from dispositions to impressions Impression formation;process of integrating information about person to form coherent impression Informtion Integrating Models;Summation model: more positive traits, better Intelligent (+5) + Sincere (+3) + Shy (+2) = +10 Averaging model: higher average value of all the various traits, better Intelligent (+5) + Sincere (+3) + Shy (+2) = 10/3 = +5 Information integration theory: Impressions formed based on combination of (1) our personal dispositions and (2)weighted average of their traits Weighted averaging model: consider how important each trait and then average them (W1 x Intelligent: +5) + (W2 x Sincere: +3) + (W3 x Shy: +2) = Impression of ?

Describe differential effects of social facilitation, social loafing, and deindividuation

Intra group processes -Effects of group on individuals - Social facilitation, Zajonc solution Social facilitation - What impact does presence of others have on performance?-Triplett (1897)Enhanced performance - Further research,Conflicting results/Sometimes engances; sometimes impaired - Zajonc (1965),Arousal is key (If you know how to do task - enhances. If you don't - impairs) - presence of others then increases arousal then strengthen dominant response,Enhances performance on easy tasks, or Impairs performance on difficult tasks Social facilitation explanations 1. Zajonc,mere presence 2. Evaluation apprehension, Others are in a position to evaluate 3. Distraction-conflict theory, Presence distracts from task, as nothing 'social' about social facilitation What happens when group evaluated? Social loafing - Ppl worked less hard in group, when: task easy, Individual efforts cannot be identified - Explanation: people don't coordinate well, or each person exerts less effort? Social loafing reduced: Ppl believe own performance identified, Task important, People believe efforts are necessary for success, Group punished for poor performance, Group small Collective effort model - Social loafing reduced when:outcome important to individual group member, individual believes effort can help achieve desired outcome, Social compensation, Converse: "sucker effect" poor group performance Deindividuation - Loss of person's sense of individuality and reduction of normal constraints against deviant behaviour, Caused by: Arousal, Anonymity, Lack of individual responsibility Deindividuation: environmental cues - Accountability cues, Affect cost-reward calculations Attentional cues,Focuses person's attention away from self

Which of the following questions would a social psychologist be most likely to study?

Is there a link between playing violent video games and engaging in aggressive behavior?

Identify approaches used for confessions and how juries evaluate them

Lineup bias • Subtle directions to witness to choose suspect • Foil bias: - Foils do not match witness' description of culprit - Suspect does • Clothing bias: - Foils are not wearing clothing similar to witness' description - Suspect is • Instruction bias: - Administrator should tell witness that culprit may not be in lineup - Decreases false ID's - Ideally, administration should be double‐blind

Describe how stereotypes arise and how they are maintained.

Mechanisms for Stereotype Maintenance; 1.Illusory correlations-Overestimate association between variables that are slightly or not at all correlated Two processes: Overestimate association between distinctive variables Overestimate association between variables that they expect to go together Overestimate association between stereotyped group and stereotyped behavior 2.Attributions-Fundamental attribution error (FAE) When explaining cause of someone else's behaviour, we tend to:Overestimate extent to which people's behavior due to internal, dispositional factors/Underestimate role of situational factors,FAE perpetuate stereotypes Interpret stereotype consistent information as a result of internal causes Interpret stereotype inconsistent information as a result of external causes 3.Subtyping-Someone doesn't fit stereotype? Create subgroup within larger group!"She's x, but she's really y." 4.Confirmation biases-People often process information in manner that will confirm our expectations Especially when behaviour ambiguous People interpret, seek, and create information that will confirm stereotype 5.Self-fulfilling prophecies-Our expectations about person eventually lead person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations Automatic activation;May be activated without our awareness,Factors:Exposure to the stereotype, Cognitive factors,Motivation Knowlege of sterotype enough to affect individual's performance,whether they beleive in sterotype or not

best describes existing gender differences with respect to Lee's (1988) styles of love?

Men tend to score higher on ludus love, but women score higher on pragma love

Explain nature of conflict in social dilemmas and how conflict both escalates and can be reduced.

Mixed motives & social dilemmas Individual gain something by pursuing their self-interests, If everyone pursued their self-interests everyone would suffer, Social dilemma: situation in which what is good for one is bad for all Iterative mixed-motive problem, What happens if game continues? What if it's no longer a one-time deal?, Tit for tat strategy, Most successful strategy, Start with cooperate, Follow partner's lead they cooperate you cooperate They compete you compete Tit for tat strategy - Elicits cooperation because:1. It is nice 2.It is not exploitable 3.It is forgiving, and 4. It is transparent Resource dilemmas: how two or more people share a limited resource, Commons dilemma-Limited non-replenishing resource e.g: tragedy of commons, Public goods dilemma-Resources that public contributes to e.g: blood bank Solving social dilemmas;-Individual and cultural factors; Value orientation:Having pro-social and cooperative orientation, Trust, Culture:Being a member of collectivist culture - Situational factors;Being in a good mood,Seeing unselfish models,reason to expect others to cooperate -Group dynamics;Being in small group rather than large group, Sharing social identity or superordinate goals,Acting individual rather than in group Inter group processes- Conflict escalation, Conflict between groups is caused by:1. Competition for scarce resources 2. Stereotypes and prejudice 3. Competing ideologies, all led to coflict spiral Factors Promoting Conflict Escalation 1. Group polarization 2. Pressures for conformity 3. Escalation of commitment 4. Negative perceptions of "other"- Used justify conflict between groups 5. Threat capacity- People use coercive means, even damages own outcomes

Which of the following does not demonstrate the influence of gender stereotypes?

Newborn boys tend to be taller and weigh more than newborn girls.

Describe main findings of Milgram's studies on obedience, and various factors that influence obedience

Obedience; Behaviour change produced by commands of authority. Milgram's Obedience Studies; Stanley Milgram conducted series of influential studies on obedience to authority Milgram influenced by Asch's conformity studies, and by events of WWII Wanted to extend Asch's findings to be more "humanly significant" Wanted look at obedience to authority rather than conformity to groups Ordinary American citizens assigned role of 'teacher' in 'learning experiment' 'Learner' strapped to device delivers electric shocks 'Teacher' instructed to deliver increasing shocks to 'learner' each time they made a mistake How far will people go to obey authority figure? Before study, Milgram asked colleagues and psychiatrists how far they thought people would go...Maybe 10% would go up to 180 volts, Nobody would go up to 450 volts They were wrong All participants went to 180 volts 65% went all way to 450 volts Results challenged idea immoral acts (e.g. Holocaust) were only committed by psychopaths or "them"."On basis of having observed thousand people in experiment...if system of death camps were set up in US we had seen in Nazi Germany, one would be able to find sufficient personnel for those camps in any medium-sized American town."Milgram, CBS interview, 1979 Why do people obey authority? Sense of obligation - I have signed up for this Diffusion of responsibility to authority Agentic state - become an agent for authority's will Trust in authority/science - its for greater good; shocks will do no lasting damage Variants to the standard procedure: Proximity of authority figure to 'teacher' Proximity of 'learner' Effects of another 'teacher' obeying/disobeying Prestige of university running the study Would people still obey today;Enlightenment effect - "sophistication as to psychological principles liberates one from their behavioural implications" (Gergen, 1973, p. 313) Perhaps we are more enlightened now, less likely to obey Blass (1999, 2004) - reviewed 24 studies between 1963 and 1985. No correlation between year of publication and obedience rates Burger (2009) - Replicated Milgram study up to 150v. Same rate of obedience in 2006! Shelton (1982) - Asked her students to be 'experimenter' rather than 'teacher'... 22 out of 24 conformed

Discuss social psychological processes that underlie observation of other persons, including physical appearance, situations, and behaviour.

Observation; 1. Physical appearance-make judgments about others based on their height/weight/hair colour/name without trying, assumptions of trustworthiness, outgoing by appearance e.g smiles more trustworthy 2. Social situations-Scripts: preconception about sequence of events likely to occur in situation, more experince in certain social situations so more familiar you are with expectations of situation, ambigous facial expressions interpreted differently when different contexts are given for face, we use scripts to make assumptions 3.Behavior-Body language (Walker) able distinguish people we know based on their moves, mind perception:process attributing humanlike consciousness to animate/inanimate objects e.g painting house seen as trying to make house look good instead of just painting wood associate more thought and emotion to painter Facial expressions-globally recognise 6 primary facial expressions but accuracy increases with same nationality, adaptive to angry looking people, emoticons help understand underlying emotion, judgments of success from picture 'intuitive' and 'efficient', eye contact avoidance then they cold/evasive

The belief "they're all the same" best epitomizes which following concepts?

Outgroup homogeneity effect

Discuss attribution patterns that can lead to conflict in relationships.

Passionate Love- Emotionally intense, erotic Companionate Love- Secure, trusting, stable • Close friends & lovers • Foundation of mutual trust, caring, respect, etc • High levels of self‐disclosure -We disclose to people we like- We like people who disclose to us - We like people to whom we have disclosed Collins & Miller (1994) Compared to passionate love- Less intense and deeper & more enduring Manufacturing Love?• Passionate love = Prolonged & mutual eye gazing • Experiment- Gaze at eyes vs. gaze at hands • Actions can produce affection What is love? - Love only dirty trick played on us to achieve a continuation of species - William Somerset Maugham

Describe modern forms of prejudice and discrimination (racism, sexism, and others).

Prejudice; Negative feelings toward person based on membership in particular social group Theories:Realistic Conflict Theory-Hostility between groups caused by direct competition for limited resources, Competition for resources need not objectively real, perception of competition may be enough,Competition relative in nature Relative deprivation Robber's Cave Study (1954);Study phases: 1.Formation of group identity, boys bought into camp in week bonded gave team name then told rival camp nearby vs tournament Eagles vs.Rattlers 2. Competition for resources, Resulted in intense conflict of fights burning flags 3.Reduction of inter-group conflict, Creation of superordinate goals was only successful attempt Social Identity Theory-favor ingroups over outgroups in order enhance our self-esteem Ingroup favouritism: Tendency discriminate in favor of ingroups over outgroups ,Minimal group paradigms Social Identity Theory: Predictions;1.Threats to one's self-esteem heighten need for ingroup favouritism 2.Expressions of ingroup favouritism enhance one's self-esteem (findings generally supported) Terror management theory lead people who are faced with mortality to exhibit more ingroup bias a means to bolster their feelings of immortality. - More prejudice and stereotyping of outgroup people. Threat to self-esteem then Derogration of group that target of prejudice then Self esteem restored Social dominance orientation - desire to see one's ingroups dominant over other groups and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression of other groups. System justification theory - people motivated to defend and justify existing social, political and economic conditions (Protect status quo) Stereotype content model - stereotypes vary according to warmth and competence. People stereotypes based on these two features, e.g., elderly warm but not competent, Competence related to status of group, warmth associated with competition they pose

Which of the following strategies would be most effective way to use rewards to motivate behavior, but avoid overjustification effects?

Present rewards as a special bonus for the desired behavior and be sure that the reward is unexpected.

Identify various methods that can address problem of prejudice and discrimination

Racism: Discrimination based on person's racial background, Racism can exist at all levels: Individual , Institutional , Cultural Overt vs. Implicit Racism, Effects of Stigmatized Targets;Perceiving Discrimination and Stereotype Threat Modern racism: form of prejudice surfaces in subtle ways (Safe,Socially acceptable,Easy to rationalize) Measure this by Implicit tests! Examples: bona fide pipeline, Implicit Association Test (IAT) Implicit race-based bias,Operates unconsciously and unintentionally Effects on Stigmatized Targets; all targets of stereotypes, but not necessarily stigmatized Stigmatized: Individuals who, by virtue of their membership in particular social group, are targets of negative stereotypes and devalued in society Consequences of discrimination for stigmatized targets:1. Perceiving Discrimination; Discriminated people may:Explain negative evaluations by others as prejudice and Explain positive evaluations by others as reverse discrimination, Impact on self-esteem? 2. Stereotype Threat;Fear among members of group they may confirm or judged in terms of negative stereotype Consequences: Task performance/Disidentification Sexism: Discrimination based on a person's gender Stereotypic beliefs about men & women are universal Influence perceptions immediately, behaviours towards children Gender Stereotypes Endure as Prescriptive rather than descriptive-Tell us how men and women should be Media ;Depictions can influence our behaviour Sexist vs. Non-sexist commercials Men's behaviors and Women's feelings Addressing problem: reducing prejudice and discrimination - intergroup contact, contact hypothesis under certain conditions minimises intergroup prejudice , conditions:equal status, personal interaction, cooperative activities, social norms

Explain when and why source features might outweigh or be outweighed by message features in persuasion

Route determined by:Source, Message, Audience Source;Effective speakers determined by: 1.Credibility;Competence and Trustworthiness 2.Likeability;Similarity and Physical attractiveness Interaction b/w Source & Message 2 (involvement) x 2 (argument) x 2 (source) design Personal relevance/involvement: Relevant goes to Central route Not relevant goes to Peripheral route Sleeper effect; over time: Credible source is less persuasive Non-credible source is more persuasive Message;Persuasiveness of messages determined by: 1.Informational strategies 2.Message discrepancy 3.Fear appeals 4.Positive emotions 5.Subliminal messages 1.Informational strategies -Length:Peripheral route has longer messages, Central route has better messages-Order:Primacy effect? Recency effect? Depends on delay, first item in list is initially distinguished from previous activities as important (primacy effect) and may be transferred to long-term memory by the time of recall, Items at end of list are still in short-term memory (recency effect) at time of recall 2. Message discrepancy-How extreme should your message be?How discrepant? Moderately discrepant messages are more persuasive 3.Fear appeals-Fear is effective when:Arguments are strong and Solutions included 4. Positive emotions;Positive feelings go to peripheral route, Reasons:Cognitively distracted then Let guard down then Want stay happy 5. Subliminal messages;Persuasion has long-term effects and Priming has short-term effects Audience;No "easy to persuade" personality trait Persuasion determined by "match" between message & audience with factors of 1.Need for cognition 2. Self Monitoring 3.Forewarning and resistance

Describe social psychology, identify kinds of questions social psychologists answer, and differentiate social psychology from other related fields

Scientific investigation of how our thinking, feelings and behaviour influenced by actual, imagined or implied presence of others Includes Group behaviour,Relationships,Public or private behaviour Characteristics; individual in social context as the level of analysis, Examines internal psychological states as well as overt behaviour, Uses scientific methods investigate questions Related areas of study; Sociology-Level of analysis and Methodology, Clinical Psychology-Focus, Personality Psychology-Stability Unlike common sense, social psychology uses scientific method to put its theories to test "knew-it-all-along" phenomenon,Common sense explains social psychological findings after fact. But how does one distinguish common sense facts from common sense myths?

Describe process of generating research ideas in social psychology

Scientific method by Hypothesis testing Asking questions, Basic or applied research? Searching the literature, Hypotheses and theories Variables: Operational definitions and Measurement; Self-report, Observations, Technology

Identify ways in which individuals engage in self-enhancement

Self-Enhancement Mechanisms (how we think); Self-serving cognitions;Beliefs about oneself that serve to enhance self-esteem, Take credit for success & distance yourself from failure, Unrealistic optimism Self-handicapping;Behaviours designed to sabotage own performance in order to provide subsequent excuse for failure e.g Lack of effort Use of drugs or alcohol,Procrastination Basking in reflected glory (BIRG);Increase self-esteem by associating with others who are successful and Cut off from Reflected Failure: Maintain self-esteem by distancing from others who failed Downward social comparisons;Defensive tendency to compare ourselves to others who worse off than we are

Describe how both situational factors and personal factors influence self-awareness

Self-awareness theory: Self-focused attention leads people to notice self-discrepancies Situations that facilitate self-awareness:Talking about ourselves,Seeing ourselves in mirror,Having audience,Holding conspicuous position in group Responses to awareness of self-discrepancy: Change behavior or "shape up",Turn attention away from the self or "ship out",Individual differences Self-assessment;Seek accurate and valid information Self-verification;Confirm self-concept/self-schemas Self-enhancement;Develop and maintain positive image, We think we are so much better than we really are

Describe processes that underlie how people self-concept

Self-concept: sum total of beliefs people have about themselves Sources of Self-concept; 1. Introspection, 2. Perceptions of our own behaviour, 3. Influences of other people 4. Autobiographical memories 5. Culture 6. Gender 1. Examining one's own inner thoughts and feelings May be inaccurate because of:Confusion, Overestimation of positives, Inability to anticipate future emotions(Affective forecasting) 2. Self-perception theory:Internal cues difficult to interpret people look to their behaviour(Bem, 1972); Facical feedback hyothesis, Intrinsic VS extrinsic motivation, Overjustification effect-tendency for intrinsic motivation to diminish for activities that have become associated with reward or some other extrinsic factor 3. Social comparison theory: People evaluate own abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others (Festinger, 1954) Two-factor theory of emotion: experience of emotion based on two factors: (a) physiological arousal, and (b) cognitive interpretation of that arousal (Schachter, 1959) Upward social comparison-Self-evaluation maintenance model (Tesser, 1988)Downward social comparison-Also between groups, Self-categorisation theory 4.Our memories for past influence how we see ourselves now. Memories not always accurate 5. Individualism;Distinct,Autonomous,Self-reliant Collectivism;Part larger social network, Connected to others 6. Relational interdependence and Collective interdependence Self-schemas: beliefs about oneself that guide processing of self-relevant information, Schematic information:Noticed more readily,Overrepresented in cognition, Associated with longer processing Schematic vs. aschematic dimensions Generally, self-concepts = many self-schemas

Describe psychological tendencies that contribute to human capacity for resilience, including self-efficacy and optimism

Self-efficacy: feelings of competence: • state of mind varies from one specific task and situation to another, Research shown more self efficacy one has, more willing to take on a task, persist and succeed.• Exercise, stop smoking, lose weight• Related to serious health outcomes Dispositional optimism • Optimism generalised tendency to expect positive outcomes. • Optimism associated with positive health, including lower rates of CHD • How optimism promote positive health outcomes? biological: blood samples show optimists exhibit stronger immune responses to stress• behavioural: explanatory style Cognitive processes in stress: Learned helplessness • Seligman - stress results from perceived lack of control • Experience of event we cannot control creates expectation lack control in similar future situations • Don't try to avoid stress (no pro-active coping) • Fail to learn new responses to reduce stress • React to stressful events with fear and depression • Mediated by attributions: • Internal - I caused it • Stable - it is likely to happen again • Global - lack of control in specific or general areas (e.g. specific task v. job as whole) • Individual differences in tendency to make internal, stable, global attributions to aversive events • Attributional styles are linked to health: • Meta analysis found moderate correlations between attributional style and depression • Baseball players who made internal, stable, global attributions for negative events lived shorter lives (r = .26) • Attributional style of Harvard graduates at 25 predicted health at 45 (r = .37) and 60 (r = .25) (Peterson and Seligman, 1987) Kobasa (1982) compared executives who got sick with those who did not -differentiated by hardiness • Hardy individuals exhibit three characteristics: • Sense of commitment and purpose in work, family, life • Openness to new experiences and embracing change • Belief in their power to control outcomes

Explain current theory on why individuals have sense of self-esteem and describe findings regarding gender and cultural differences in self-esteem.

Self-esteem: affective component of self,consisting of person's positive and negative self-evaluations How we see ourselves-How you actually are How we want to see ourselves-How you ought to be according to others and How you want to be Self-Discrepancy Theory;Our self-esteem defined by match or mismatch between how we see ourselves and how we want to see ourselves Actual vs. Ought vs. Ideal selves Three factors have an impact:Amount,Importance, Accessibility Social identity theory;Personal identity-Idiosyncratic traits and Close personal relationships Social identity-Group memberships Prototypes then activated when categorisations become salient

Explain difference between self-report and covert attitude measures and identify when each predictive of behaviour

Self-report Measures; Direct and straightforward, influence by:Wording,Context,Honesty "Bogus pipeline" increase honest responding Covert Measures; Person cannot control (or are unaware of) their responses to these measures e.g Overt behaviour,Lost letter technique,Implicit Association Test How Attitudes Measured; Direct, self-report measures-Person directly reports his or her attitude Indirect, covert measures-Assesses attitudes without people knowing their attitudes being measured When attitudes specific & strong, they predict behavior

Describe similarities and differences between two classic studies of conformity, and assess unique contribution of each to understanding of conformity

Sherif's (1935) studies of autokinetic effect; autokinetic effect an optical illusion: place people in completely dark room, and let them observe pinprick of light for some time, they will have illusion that this light starts moving erratically after some time. Sherif asked individuals to estimate how far light moved on several trials: Their estimates converged on an idiosyncratic value (typical to that individual) Judged distance dot of light moved in darkened room, Autokinetic effect: stationary dot of light will seem to move, Sherif asked ple to estimate how far light moved in groups of 2 or 3 What if ppl make their judgments with others, and state estimates aloud?Conformity, Initially, differ; but over trials, converge on normative value (typical to that group).Sherif put confederate in some groups made exaggerated distance judgments others conformed. Even when confederate replaced, norm remained Whats happening; Ppl need to be certain + confident in correctness of their actions The situation ambiguous and uncertain Ppl looked to others to help define "reality" Once developed, norm persists beyond immediate situation. Would people less influenced if they knew it was an illusion?Would ple less influenced if they could objectively measure movement? Asch's (1955) Conformity Studies; 7 to 9 male participants assembled in a room, Described as Visual Perception study, Shown 2 cards with vertical black lines, Which same length as standard line?Each participant gives their answer in turn On 12 of 18 trials first five participants say wrong answer. Will actual participant in seat 6 also give wrong answer?On average, participants conformed on 37% of trials, About 25% never gave wrong answer, Some conformed almost every trial Whats happening;Unlike Sherif, Asch's task not uncertain or ambiguous. However participants seemed willing to ignore evidence of their own eyes to go along with groups. Why? 1.Some said they knew they were out of step with group, but felt perceptions were inaccurate +group was correct. 2. Some said they actually saw lines as group did. 3. Some said they did not believe group was correct but simply went along with group in order to fit in. Individual Differences; number of studies looked at who most likely to conform, Conformists tend to have Low self esteem/High need for social approval/Low IQ/High anxiety However, personality is poor predictor of conformity Conformity; tendency to change perceptions, opinions, or behaviour in ways that consistent with group norms Conformity 'natural' and automatic Automatic imitation of simple behaviours Early developmental evidence of imitation Conformity has social and psychological functions: No conformity = no social cohesion, no individuality Conformity = certainty in our beliefs, perceptions Cultual context;North America = individualistic culture Indonesia = collectivist culture US, high identifiers more individualistic than low identifiers Indonesia, high identifiers less individualistic than low identifiers, Jetten, Postmes & McAuliffe (2002)

Describe how situational influences impact affect, arousal, and cognition of aggression

Situational influences on aggression; Frustration-aggression hypothesis:frustration always elicits motive to aggress, all aggression is caused by frustration. Motive to aggress psychological drive resembles a physiological drive:lead to displacement - aggression against scapegoat, catharsis reduction of motive e.g. watching/playing sport, aggressive thoughts, aggressive acts Frustration related to aggression, but:frustration not always produce aggressive inclinations and other causes aggression besides frustration. • Evidence supports displacement;Frustration increase aggression towards others, especially disliked others or outgroups • Less consistent evidence for catharsis;Imagined aggression or observation of aggressive models is more likely to increase arousal and aggression than reduce it., Even relatively low levels of aggression loosen restraints against more violent behaviour, Positive responses such as sympathy or humour can be more effective Negative affect;Heat and aggression:people lose their cool more often in hot temperatures and more violent crimes occur in summer, hotter years, and hotter cities Provocation:Most aggressive incidents directly linked to some type of provocation,Provocation is largely subjective, e.g. road rage,Social exclusion major source of negative affect Cognitive processes in aggression • Implicit cognition - unconscious, automatic cognitive processes e.g Stereotypes, Priming • weapons effect: tendency that likelihood of aggression will increase by mere presence of guns • objects associated with (a) successful aggression or (b) negative affect, serve aggression-enhancers Higher order cognition-Rational choice • aggressive behaviour is responsive to cost-benefit analysis and If cost too high, don't aggress -Attributions (cf. perceived provocation) • Hostile attribution bias,some people more prone to attribute others' behaviour to hostile intent and Social rejection - others mean, narrow-minded, selfish -Rumination,reliving anger-inducing event, focusing on angry thoughts, imagining/planning revenge• Increases likelihood of direct and displaced aggression• Reduces self-control via arousal Neuroscience of aggression • Consistent structural and functional abnormalities in brains of violent criminals, antisocial individuals, psychopaths • Abnormalities in areas responsible for:Planning and reasoning,Inhibiting behaviour,Empathy, Emotional regulation Aggressive behaviour strongly affected by learning. • Aggression can be positively as well as negatively reinforced:positive reinforcement: aggression produces desired outcomes E.g. child who throws a tantrum is rewarded with a toy or sweet • negative reinforcement: aggression prevents or stops undesirable outcomes.e.g Child avoids being teased by being aggressive Punishment often used to deter aggression • Prison sentences for aggressive crimes/Corporal punishment of children,Can work if punishment is swift, certain, and proportionate (fair), backfire: Modelling of aggressive parents,Corporal punishment linked to childhood aggression, adult aggression, adult criminality, drug abuse, mental health problems

Explain fundamental processes of social categorisation as well as the core motives that drive this process.

Social categorisation; routinely categorise people based on age, gender, race Stereotype Formation: Culture-Affect how and when categorize people, Social categorization-classification of persons into groups on basis of common attributes, Ingroups vs. Outgroups-Groups you do vs. do not identify with Us vs Them Consequence: Outgroup homogeneity effect Greater similarity amongst members of outgroups than ingroup, Process more info about those part of our ingroup, Dehumanisation-brains perceive outgroups as objects not human Social Identiity Theory-each of us strive to enhance our self esteem, includes personal identity, various collective or social identities based on group we belong to Group: Two or more persons perceived as related because of: Interactions with each other over time, Membership same social category or Common fate

Idenfity three factors set forth by social impact theory

Social impact theory;Social influence depends on three factors: 1.strength of source - status, expertise 2.immediacy of source to target in time and space - not necessarily geographic immediacy (cf. social media) 3.number of sources Same factors work in enabling resistance Good at prediction, weaker on explanation and understanding social influence Conformity-Sherif's study of norm formation with autokinetic effect, Asch's study of conformity with line judments Distinguish normative vs. informational influence Compliance-Sequential request strategies Start low or high to induce compliance Obedience-Milgram's studies

Name three motives that may drive self-presentation and differentiate them from one another

Strategies people use to shape what others think of them and what they think of themselves Two faces of self-presentation: Strategic- How others see you Shape others' impressions in specific ways in order to gain influence, power, sympathy, or approval Goals:Ingratiation to Get along and Self-promotion to Get ahead Expressive- How you see yourself, desire others perceive us as we truly perceive ourselves Seeking validation for your self-concept and How others see you is a means to this end Self-Monitoring-tendency to change our own behaviour to meet demands of social situations High: Behaviour more likely to be context-dependent e.g I would probably make a good actor.I'm not always the person I appear to be. I can deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them.In order to get along and be liked, I tend be what people expect me to be rather than anything else. Low: Use internal cues & values to guide behaviour e.g My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings.I have never been good at games like charades or improvisational acting.I can argue only for ideas that I already believe in.I find hard to imitate behaviour of other people. Affects self-presentation strategies used Positive Self-Illusions (why we think); Adaptive to a point, Example: Depression But straying too far from reality can be self-destructive;May encourage negative behaviors and May alienate us from others Self-Refulation; Self-control a limited resource Drawn from a single reservoir and Can be fatigued Self-regulation; Self-motives, Self-enhancement Self awareness, Selves and identities,Social identity theory, Self-presentation and impression management Ironic Processes; harder you try then more you fail Exaggerated with cognitive load and Thought Motor Control Regulatory focus theory; Promotion focus-Approach motivation to Inspired by positive role models and Respond to tasks framed in terms of gains/non-gains, Prevention focus-Avoidance motivation to Inspired by negative role models and Respond to tasks framed in terms of losses/non-losses, Can be dispositional (formed in childhood) or situational

Which of the following historical events is not cited by your book as a potential example of groupthink? (NASA's decision making about space shuttle Columbia in 2003. decision by Aus Bureau of Sugar Experiment Stations to introduce cane toads. torture of prisoners at Abu Ghraib by US Army personnel)

The behavior of Nazi concentration camp guards during World War II.

Describe role of attachment style in studying intimate relationships

Types of Relationships;• Economic theories led to Quantity but What about Quality?1. Exchange vs. Communal Relationships;-Exchange Relationships: Tit‐for‐tat, Concern with zero balance Who? Strangers, casual acquaintances, business partnerships -Communal Relationships:Respond to needs over time, No concern for who last gave/received benefit Who?Close friends, romantic partners, family members 2. Secure & Insecure Attachment Styles Child Attachment styles;Secure (Leaves then cry) (Returns then beam with delight) Insecure-Anxious(Leaves then cry and cling) (Returns then anger apathy) -Avoidant (Leaves no reaction) (Returns no reaction) Adult Attachment styles; Secure,Happy friendly based on mutual trust Insecure-Anxious, Emotional highs & lows, obsessive preoccupation, extreme jealousy -Avoidant, Fears intimacy doesn't believe in romantic love Close Relationships; • Types of Relationships- Exchange vs. Communal - Secure vs. Insecure Attachment • What is love?- Triangular Theory or Passionate & Companionate Love Intimate Relationships• Between lovers, dating partners, friends, &married couples • Three basic components: 1. Feelings of attachment, affection, & love 2. Fulfillment of psychological needs 3. Interdependence between partners Economic Theories (reward‐based) • Concerned with rewards & costs of relationships 1. Social Exchange Theory;Motivated to maximize profit & minimize loss in relationships • Three components:A. Rewards & Costs (1. Satisfaction determined by more rewards and fewer costs 2. Rewards: Love, companionship, emotional support,sexual gratification 3. Costs: Conflict, compromise, sacrifice B. Comparison Levels 1. Expectations, high/low/expectations met relationship rewarded 2. Alternatives, expectations of alternative relationships, high/low, few alternatives met relationship rewarded C. Investments; 1. something put into relationship that cannot be recovered e.g Time and Other opportunities 2. Investments increase commitment 2. Equity Theory; Balance of benefits and contributions for both partners Inequity led to imbalance causing Overbenefited(Guilty) /Underbenfited(Angry Resentful) Bottom line led to rewards

Summarise immediate as well as long-term effects on aggression of exposure to violent forms of media

Violence depicted in media target of attack and counterattack for decades,If consumers didn't enjoy violence in TV, film, music, videos and video games, media would not featuring it, Evidence that watching violence associates with aggressive behaviour,both short- and long-term, Short-term studies show immediate effects of exposure to violence on aggressive behaviour, Exposure does increase aggression, Longitudinal studies support view that watching violence leads to aggression;Preference for violence in 3rd grade predicted aggression 10 years later (Eron, et al., 1972; Lefkowitz et al., 1977)Violent TV watching by 1st and 3rd graders predicted adult violence 15 years later after controlling for childhood aggressiveness and parental factors (Huesmann et al., 2003)Predicted aggression in both males and females, • Meta-analysis of video game violence studies (Anderson et al. 2010) • Stringent criteria to minimise publication bias • Video game violence positively associated with aggressive behaviour, cognition, and affect • No cross-cultural differences• Significant long term effects on behaviour, cognition and empathy/desensitization• No gender or age differences, How does media cause these effects? • Influences values and attitudes toward aggression • Through habituation become desensitised to violence.• Depictions of violence change values and attitudes through cultivation-media influenced belief that world dangerous place, Does pornography facilitate violence against women?• Little support for direct causal link between pornography use in general and sexual aggression• Type of pornography may make difference• Non-violent, 'domesticated' pornography enjoyed by 81% of men and 66% of women (Great Australian Sex Census, 2012) • Adding violence to pornography increases possibility of harmful effects.• brings together high arousal, negative emotional reactions and aggressive thoughts.• Male-to-female aggression increased after exposure to violent pornography. Vega & Malamuth (2007)• High pornography consumption risk factor only as part of broader complex of risk factors including;General hostility Hostile masculinity (insecure, defensive,distrustful towards women; sexual gratification from controlling women),Impersonal sex (promiscuous, gameplaying orientation to sex) Social learning theory;learn by watching and imitating others• Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) - children witnessed an adult kick and punch bobo doll more physically aggressive later on • By watching aggressive models, people:learn specific aggressive behaviours,develop more positive attitudes and beliefs about aggression in general,construct aggressive 'scripts.' • Nonaggressive models decrease aggressive behaviour Social Role Theory;Aggression more functional and acceptable in social roles than others, Generally more acceptable in traditional male roles (business, leadership, politics, military), Aggressive behaviour within such roles, especially by males,viewed more positively, Eagly & Steffen (1986) and Wood & Eagly (2002) argue this explains gender differences• Males and females occupied different social roles• Roles based on different biological/physical characteristics• No inherent psychological differences, Attribution of corresponding psychological characteristics to genders (gender stereotypes)• Males = agentic, competitive, risk taking, aggressive• Females = communal, emotional, caring, sensitive • Aggression takes many forms - definition is intent to harm, either directly or indirectly • Aggression varies across cultures:Differences in homicide rates; attitudes towards aggression •across time - we are generally getting less violent • Gender diffs - males more violent, but no difference on indirect aggression or aggression towards intimate partners • Evolutionary pressures likely shaped aggressive behaviour • Biological influences include hormones, neurotransmitters, brain function • Aggression involves learned components; Reinforcement,Learning forms of aggression from others,Social roles • Aggression often driven by negative affect; Frustration,Temperature • Involves cognitive processes at implicit and higher order levels • Violent media does cause aggression, pornography may in combination with other risk factors

Describe perceptions of justice/influence of culture

Weapon focus - When weapon used, recognition of offender worsens (Steblay, 1992) - Reasons? • Cue‐utilisation hypothesis (Easterbrook, 1959) - Attention capacity decreases - Weapon = central detail • Unusualness (Pickel, 1999) - When gun expected, memory for other details OK - When gun unusual, memory for other details suffers • Even when viewing conditions are poor, witnesses make ID's just as often

While walking home alone late at night, Winona suddenly hears footsteps behind. She can feel heart pounding, breath quicken and adrenaline racing through her body. Within framework of the general adaptation syndrome, Winona in _______ stage

alarm stage of the general adaptation syndrome

With respect to impact of group size on conformity, Asch found

negligible increases in conformity after three or four confederates

Identify factors that affect pursuit of happiness and subjective well-being

What predicts long-term happiness? • Social relationships • social life, friends, marriage • Employment status • employed = greater happiness • Physical health • health = happiness The Easterlin Paradox • given point in time, people with more money are happier than people with less money • But when income increases across time, happiness does not• Why?• Income adaptation• Social comparison• Aspirations set baseline level of happiness? • Ratings of happiness are more highly correlated among identical twins than among fraternal twins. • Fluctuations in mood that accompany positive and negative life events wear off over time. • Happiness levels relatively stable over time and place • Stress natural part of life • Some stress is good - it is a motivator • It is the accumulation of stressors (even minor ones) that has negative impact on health • The way we think about things - attributions and explanatory styles -can affect the impact of stress • Two main ways of coping with stress Problem-focused and Emotion-focused • Long-term happiness • Relationships, employment, physical health

Which of the following best reflects benefits and cost of being attractive?

While attractiveness often brings social advantage to attractive individuals, it can cause them to doubt sincerity of others' praise for their work.

Which concerning gender differences in aggression is true?

Women use relational aggression more than men

The bystander effect refers to the tendency for

a greater number of bystanders to reduce the probability that a victim will receive help

Self-esteem is all of the following except

a single, stable disposition.

The fundamental attribution error tendency to attribute

another person's behavior to personal factors rather than to situation.

The fundamental attribution error is tendency to attribute

another person's behaviour to personal factors rather than to situation

Define health psychology

application of psychology to the promotion of physical health and prevention and treatment of illness Health psychology looks at: • Understanding links between psychology, social context, biology, and health • Psychological protective and vulnerability factors • How to promote healthy behaviour • Improving coping and QoL in people with illness • Maximising health care delivery

Support for the idea of "sociostat" (social thermostat) is provided by the finding that rats

are less likely to approach other rats after a period of prolonged contact.

Because communicator trustworthiness is important, people tend to be readily impressed by speakers who

argue against their own interests

Three people in same place at the same time, but not interacting with one another are best described as a

collective.

Everyone in fast-food restaurant leaving their leftovers on table as opposed to throwing them away on their way out door, so Jeff left his tray on table as well. This best described as an example of

conformity.

Define aggression

defined as behaviour that is intended to harm another individual Takes many forms:Violent crime,Physical and sexual assault,Verbal abuse,Bullying and cyberbullying,Malicious gossip,Parents physically or verbally abusing children,Inter-spousal conflict,Failing to act to avoid harm to another Proactive aggression, whereby harm is inflicted as a means desired end (also called instrumental aggression).Self defense,Contract killer,Boxer Reactive aggression, whereby means and end coincide; harm inflicted for its own sake. • Road rage,Street brawls,intimate partner violence

Bandura's (1961) study of aggressive behaviour in children

demonstrated children follow adult model's lead in terms of degree and nature of aggression demonstrated

Professor Collison studies the impact of violent video games on aggression. Aggression is the _____ in research

dependent variable

Those with high levels of internal motivation to control prejudice likely to ______________________. Those with high levels of external motivation to control prejudice however, are likely to ______________________.

display the same attitudes regardless of the prevailing social circumstance; alter their attitudes according to the prevailing social circumstance

The tendency for people to think those worse off than themselves when faced with difficulties of their own is called

downward social comparison

Stanford University prison simulation teaches us that

even normal people can be dehumanized by institutional roles and practices.

Explain how individual differences may affect a person's likelihood of helping others and of others helping them.

evidence of individual differences in helping tendencies;Tendency may be relatively stable over time,Differences are part genetically based (individual)Altruistic Personality; Empathy,Internalised and advanced moral reasoning(based on internalised principles, rather than social norms or rules), Overall, individual differences not very strong, or not well understood Interpersonal Influences; Attractiveness • More likely to help physically attractive people. - Attractiveness halo?Reciprocity? • More likely to help friendly individuals. - Costs v. rewards?Reciprocity? Attributions of responsibility • Beliefs about needy person's responsibility influences helping. - lung cancer patients, HIV patients,Overweight, Domestic violence,Homeless• Mediated by empathy Gender and helping • Classic male-helper scenario:'knight in shining armor.' • Classic female-helper scenario:'social support.' • Gender differences in willingness to seek help:- men ask help less frequently than women Good moods lead to helping: reasons - Why feeling good leads to doing good:Desire to maintain one's good mood, Positive expectations about helping, Positive thoughts,Positive thoughts and expectations about social activities -Why feeling good might not lead to doing good:costs of helping are high,positive thoughts about other social activities conflict with helping Bad moods and helping - When negative moods make us more likely to help others:If we take responsibility for what caused our bad mood (e.i., feeling guilty),If we focus on other people- Not as strong and consistent as good moods in relation to helping

Describe influence of situational factors on helping behaviour

factors - Time pressure,Darley and Batsons's (1973) Good Samaritan study - Location, Greater population density associated with less helping and Cost of living negatively correlated with helping - Culture,Economic well-being: more well off, less help provided - Individualistic cultures tend to exhibit more charitable and volunteering behaviour than collectivist Scents and sensibilities - If surrounded by pleasant smell, people more likely to help The sunshine Samaritan - People more likely to help if sunny -puts people in good mood

Sean believes he high sense of control over own health, so when his kidney transplant unexpectedly fails, he is likely to

feel particularly depressed.

Research on subjective well-being demonstrates that

happy people enjoy better physical health than unhappy individuals.

Shawna just gone through break-up with arrogant boyfriend. While hitting punching bag, she imagines punching her boyfriend's head. Shawna believes that engaging in relatively harmless pursuit of hitting punching bag drain energy from more violent tendencies (like her temptation to slit tires of his car or break legs). Research on idea of catharsis suggests that

hitting punching bag will act as positive reinforcement of Shawna's aggressive feelings and hostility.

"Founders of social psychology" Norman Triplett and Max Ringelmann both did research examining:

impact of presence of others on performance

As social perceivers, people's impressions of others are

influenced by physical appearance of a person.

The defining characteristic of aggression is that aggressor

intends to injure another living being.

Realistic conflict theory proposes that

intergroup hostility arises from competition among groups for scarce but valued resources

Providing research participants with information concerning potential risks and benefits of their participation

is part of obtaining informed consent.

Research on brainstorming suggests that

it is typically an ineffective practice, even though people often enjoy doing it.

According to the law of diminishing returns, the 9th person to offer public agreement with a group's position exerts _______ social influence on individual group members compared to the 3rd person to agree with the group position.

less

The primary distinction between altruistic and egoistic helping concerns the

motivations of helper

Implicit attitudes can be difficult to measure because

people are not aware of having them.

Your significant other short-tempered and impatient with you. reaction think, 'Well, s/he's had a very stressful week, so I'll just forget that it happened.' Your reaction would be best described as an example of

relationship-enhancing attribution.

Beliefs about self that guide processing of self-relevant information are called

self -schemas

Self-awareness theory suggests that

self-focus brings out our personal shortcomings.

The most direct and straightforward way to assess an attitude is through the use of

self-report measures.

Cognitive dissonance

sense of discomfort of distress that occurs when a person's behavior does not correspond to that person's attitudes Chronic Diseases in Australia • Chronic disease accounts for 90% of all deaths in Australia • cardiovascular conditions (such as coronary heart disease and stroke) • cancers (such as lung and colorectal cancer) • many mental disorders (such as depression) • diabetes • many respiratory diseases (including asthma and COPD) • musculoskeletal diseases (arthritis and osteoporosis) • chronic kidney disease • oral diseases. • Responsible to 86% of total yrs ppl spend in disability or illness

Prida has witnessed a violent crime involving a knife. Research suggests less likely to identify culprit than in a situation where no knife was present because Prida will

spend more time looking at knife

The theory behind the IAT is that

strong attitudes or evaluative biases are easily accessible within our minds. stronger evaluative bias, less time it takes people to associate particular attributes with attitude object

whether same-sex couples allowed to marry. students discussion with opinions that are somewhat in favour of gay marriage. If group polarisation occurs,

students will be more strongly supportive of gay marriage after the discussion

Sentencing disparity refers to the

tendency for different judges to apply different sentences for same offence

The compliance technique in which compliance to a desired request increased by first gaining compliance to a smaller, but related, request is called

the foot-in-the-door technique.

While outside enjoying sunshine, Claudia happily gives directions to lost tourist. Claudia's willingness to help a stranger is most likely due to

the good mood effect.

People enhance their self-esteem in all of the following ways except (basking in reflected glory. self-serving cognitions. self-handicapping.)

upward social comparison.

Lindy trying to decide whether or not Marisa's behaviour is dispositional. If Lindy relies on correspondent inference theory, would consider all following factors

whether Marisa freely chose behaviour if Marisa's behaviour was expected given situation. intended consequences of Marisa's behaviour

The presence of a weapon reduces eyewitness accuracy because

witnesses tend to focus attention on the weapon to the exclusion of other cues.

Identify five steps in helping process.

• Noticing • Interpreting- overcome pluralistic ignorance • Taking responsibility- overcome diffusion of responsibility • Deciding how to help- competence • Providing help- overcome audience inhibition

Discuss sentencing process and prison experience

• Race - Cross‐race effect • Witnesses remember faces of own race more accurately (Meissner & Brigham, 2001) - More correct identifications - More correct rejections - Reasons? • Attitudes - More prejudicial ppl think "they all look the same" • Interracial contact - More contact with other race makes you better able to distinguish between its members

Recognise problems of, and potential improvements to, eyewitness testimony

• Recall- Report details of original stimulus • e.g. Description • Recognition- Determine whether new stimulus matches original stimulus e.g. Lineup • Memory reconstructive process • Eyewitness testimony weighted heavily Independent variables • System variables- Under control of criminal justice system e.g. Lineup administration • Estimator variables- Not under control of criminal justice system e.g. Race of perpetrator vs. victim Dependent variables • 1. Can witness correctly recall event/crime • 2. Can witness correctly recall perpetrator • 3. Can the witness recognise the perpetrator Recall 1. Can witness correctly recall event/crime 2. Can the witness correctly recall perpetrator • Open‐ended recall• Direct question recall Recall memory • Generate a recollection that is: - Complete Accurate • Fisher et al. (1987):- Open‐ended recall • Interruptions- Usually with specific questions - Direct questions• Specific questions- Short responses- Misdirection?• Order not determined by witness- Distract witness from cohesive narrative - Biggest problem: Leading/suggestive questions Recognition • 3. Can witness recognise perpetrator• Administer lineup Misinformation effect AKA post‐event information effect- Witness presented with inaccurate info - Incorporates info in recall of original memory • Loftus & Palmer (1974):- Car accident - About how fast cars going when hit each other?• smashed/bumped/collided/contacted • Choice of word affected recall - Speed:» Fastest = smashed » Slowest = bumped, contacted - Details» Broken glass • Memory impairment hypothesis- Post‐event information corrupts original memory- Original memory lost and only revised memory exists • Source misattribution hypothesis- Original memory still exists- People confused about source of post‐event information • How?- Co‐witness discussion - Police officer incorporates into question: • Assumption• Incorrect info from another witness Recall memory following delay • Recovered memories- Argue memories traumatic actually be forgotten • False memory syndrome- Even very traumatic memories falsely implanted Recognition memory• Easier more accurate?• Lineup identifications• Confidence‐accuracy relationship, Suspect- Always in lineup • Culprit (Target)- Person who committed crime - May or may not be suspect • Distractors/Foils- Known innocent- Match‐to‐suspect- Match‐to‐description Witness options in target‐absent • Right:- Correct rejection • Correctly reject everyone in the lineup • Wrong:- Foil identification • Incorrectly identify a foil as the perpetrator • Known to police to be innocent - False identification• Incorrectly identify the innocent suspect as the perpetrator• Police already think he's guilty Witness options in target‐present • Right: - Correct identification • Correctly identify guilty suspect as perpetrator • Wrong:- Foil identification • Incorrectly identify a foil as the perpetrator • Known to police to be innocent - False rejection• Incorrectly reject everyone in the lineup• Undermine case against guilty suspect Lindsay & Wells (1985)- Target‐present: • Simultaneous and sequential did equally well - Target‐absent:• Simultaneous: 42% correct rejection • Sequential: 67% correct rejection - People less likely to choose innocent suspect in a sequential lineup than in simultaneous lineup Simultaneous vs. Sequential- Steblay (2001): 30 tests, 4145 witnesses Confidence = Accuracy? • Research shows- Small positive correlation (Cutler & Penrod, 1989) • Relationship is malleable: Some factors increase confidence without increasing accuracy- Feedback- Repeated expression of decision • Recommendation- Get confidence rating immediately after identification decision (Wells, Small, Penrod, Malpass, Fulero, Brimacombe, 1998)

Describe factors affect jury decisions and deliberations

• Research shows - Small positive correlation (Cutler & Penrod, 1989) • Relationship malleable: Some factors increase confidence without increasing accuracy - Feedback - Repeated expression of decision • Recommendation - Get confidence rating immediately after identification decision (Wells, Small, Penrod, Malpass, Fulero, Brimacombe, 1998)