South Asian Realm

Regional Issue...Who should Govern Kashmir?

"Kashmir should be part of Pakistan!" —Everywhere else, Muslims went to Pakistan and Hindus to India. —Why doesn't "democratic民主的" India allow a referendum? —Muslims unfairly accused of terrorism for fighting to unite with Pakistan. "Kashmir belongs to India!" —Kashmiri maharaja wanted autonomy from "extremist" Pakistan. —In Pakistan, non-Muslim minorities are not tolerated, and it's a failed democracy. —The quality of life is much better for people in India than in Pakistan.

The Geopolitics of Modern South Asia: Partition and Independence

1. British India could not survive self-rule as a single political entity(实体): —Tensions between Hindu印度教 and Muslim穆斯林 interests —As the colony moved toward independence, a major political crisis developed that eventually resulted in the separation of India and Pakistan. 随着殖民地走向独立，一场重大的政治危机最终导致了印度和巴基斯坦的分离。 2.Partition: —The subdivision分部 of the British Indian Empire into India and Pakistan at the end of colonial rule on August 15, 1947. —Based on the geography of Hindu and Muslim majorities —— Muslims were in the majority in the western and eastern sectors of British India, but smaller Islamic clusters were scattered throughout the realm. —Groups did coexist(共存) in some areas —New boundaries caused a displacement(迁徙) 3.New cultural and geopolitical(地理政治学的) landscape 4.Comparing before and after geographies: —Muslim exodus out of Hindu India —Hindu migration out of West and East Pakistan 巴基斯坦(Bangladesh孟加拉国) ——in Bangladesh, which was named East Pakistan at the time of partition, it declined from 30 percent to just over 8 percent today. 5.Refugee migrations: —"Forced" or "voluntary"?

The Demographic Transition

1. Different regions and countries are in different stages of the transition. 2. Focus on natural growth only. 3.Fertility rates人口出生率 - the number of births per woman in child bearing age - is dropping throughout the region except for Afghanistan

Hinduism / Caste system

1. Hinduism —Emerged out of Vedism(吠陀教) texts and local beliefs 2.Caste system(种姓制度): —Social stratification(层化) —Solidified巩固 powerful position of Aryans —Legitimized(合法) through the religious belief system —Brahmins婆罗门 had the highest rank —Lower castes determined by past lives —Seems to be eroding(侵蚀) due to globalization, economic growth, and urbanization

Dependence on Agriculture and Climate Change

1. It is the direct dependence of well over half the population of South Asia on agriculture that makes it particularly vulnerable to climate change. 2.extreme weather events - have tripled in the last 35 years —Heat waves —Excessive monsoon rains outside of monsoon season —Droughts 3. Climate change mitigation— infrastructural and disaster planning to adapt to these growing threats (e.g., better water storage, levies, dikes). - however, myriad institutional and bureaucratic hurdles stand in the way, and financial resources in South Asia are limited.

The Geopolitics of Modern South Asia: Chinese Border Claims

1. Jammu and Kashmir: — China claims the northeastern extension of India's Jammu and Kashmir State. —This issue has been stalemated in recent years, but officially neither China nor India shows any sign of conceding. 2.Tibet西藏 —In recent years, China has been pressuring the government of Nepal, wedged between India and Tibet, to discourage Tibetan immigration and to constrain the activities of Tibetans already in the country. 3. Arunachal Pradesh阿鲁纳恰尔邦（印度城市名）: —China claims the bulk大多数 of the Indian State of Arunachal Pradesh ( land of the dawn lit mountains ) based on its assertion声明 that the boundary, established in 1914, was never ratified批准的 by Beijing even though it was approved by the then independent Tibetans themselves. 4.Brahmaputra River雅鲁藏布江 —China plans to build dams水坝 jeopardizing危害 the main water supplies of northeastern India and Bangladesh孟加拉国（亚洲国家）

The Significance of Agriculture

1. More than half of South Asia s workforce is employed in agriculture, ranging from about 40 percent in Pakistan to nearly 70 percent in Nepal: —Low productivity and the contribution of agriculture—only around 20 percent —Incomes in rural areas are much lower than in the towns and cities 2. Millions depend on good harvest each year: —Influenced by topography and rains —— the wet monsoon brings life-giving rains to the southwestern (Malabar) coast, ——a second branch from the Bay of Bengal sweeps across north central India toward Pakistan ——losing strength (and moisture) as it marches westward. —Rice in wetter areas（eastern India and Bangladesh, the southwestern coastal strip） —wheat in drier areas(northwestern India and Pakistan ) 3. The government needs to create rural policy: —To increase agricultural productivity and standard of living

Emerging Markets and Fragmented Modernization: Economic Liberalization经济自由化

1. Neoliberalism新自由主义: —Privatization of largely state-managed economies —Deregulation to stimulate business activity 2.Economic growth and higher per capita incomes: —Most of the growth is in manufacturing, services, and, in India, information technology —More open economies have attracted increased foreign investment— urban middle class has emerged —Uneven as many are still impoverished and rural 3. greater economic and social inequality—most people live in rural villages with traditional lives 4. However, there are 8 megacities —Delhi-New Delhi, Mumbai孟买, Karachi卡拉奇, Dhaka达卡, Kolkata加尔各答, Lahore拉合尔, Bengaluru班加罗尔, and Chennai金奈 ——populations that exceed 10 million ——grown rapidly over the past two decades —Overwhelming populations, poor environmental conditions, increasing gap between rich and poor —The reason that surging flow of rural‐to‐urban migrants that drives the growth of towns and cities all across South Asia. —— it is better to be poor in the city than in the countryside, simply because cities offer opportunities that do not exist in the villages

South Asia's Population Geography:Population Density and the Question of Overpopulation

1. Population density 人口密度is the number of people per unit area. —Arithmetic density is数学密度 the number of people per area. —Physiological density生理密度 is the number of people per unit of arable 耕地(agricultural) land: ——More meaningful measure for understanding the ability of a country to support its population size 2.Overpopulation人口过剩 and "carrying capacity[铁路] 承载能力" —High population growth and densities unsupportable 3.Depends on circumstances: —Not all high-density countries are struggling. —Human resource: productivity, education, or technology help use natural resources efficiently. —South Asia's large population is illiterate文盲, undereducated受教育不足的, and not productive. ——A burden rather than a resource ——Too many are insufficiently productive

South Asia's Population Geography

1. Population geography focuses on the spatial aspects of demography人口统计学 and the influences of demographic change on particular countries and regions. 2.Relative sizes of South Asia's area and population: —China's territorial extent is almost three times as large as India's and equally as populous. —The total population of Subsaharan Africa is less than half of South Asia s, in an area almost five times as large. .

Birthplace of Civilizations and Religions: Indus Valley Civilization 文明和宗教的诞生地:印度河流域文明

1. Sindhu(信德) — both Indus (for the river) and India (for the later state) very likely derived from this name. —circa大约于 2500 BC —The Indus Valley civilization was centered on a pair of major cities, Harappa 哈拉帕（巴基斯坦城市）and Mohenjo Daro莫亨霍达罗, which may have been capitals during different periods of its history; in addition, there were more than 100 smaller urban settlements. —Although the influence of this civilization extended as far east as present-day Delhi德里 2.Decline due to: —it did not last because of environmental change —because the political center of gravity shifted southeastward into the Ganges Basin.

Foreign Invaders:The European Intrusion

1. The British took advantage of the weakened and fragmented power of the Mughals and followed a strategy commonly known as "indirect rule." 英国人利用了莫卧儿势力的削弱和分裂，采用了一种通常被称为间接统治的策略 —They left local rulers in place as long as the British extracted the desired trading arrangements. 只要英国人争取到他们想要的贸易安排，他们就会让当地统治者就位 —Thanks to arrangements with the British, many local maharajas became wealthier than ever before: 2. British colonialism coincided(同时发生) with the industrial revolution —South Asia became, in large part, a supplier of raw materials needed to keep the factories going in Manchester曼彻斯特, Birmingham伯明翰, and other British industrial centers其他英国工业中心. — The colonialists seen established trade as competition and required India to import products from Europe —Extensive transport network developed Irrigation projects —coastal urban development —British raj英属印度 - produced a new elite精英 within the Indian population

The Missing Girls

1." fragmented modernization支离破碎的现代化"; last stages of the demographic transition yet young males outnumber young females 2.Sex ratio 男女人口比例 The skewed曲解的 ratio of girls and boys 3.Gender bias性别偏差: —Higher value on boys: more productive and support parents —Female infanticide杀婴 —Abortion流产 of females: ultrasounds超音波 and rising incomes —"Bachelor angst单身汉的焦虑" leading to change in attitudes

Foreign Invaders: The Reach of Islam

1.10th-century arrival: —Overland into the Indus Valley印度河流域 (today's Pakistan巴基斯坦) 2.13th-century establishment of Delhi Sultanate德里苏丹国: —controlled much of the northern tier of peninsular India. 3.16th-century Mughal Empire莫卧儿帝国: —Centered in Afghanistan(阿富汗), ousted the Delhi Sultanate德里苏丹国 —16th and 17th centuries, Mughal Empire expanded Islam伊斯兰教 with tolerance to Hindus; built Taj Mahal泰姬陵 4.Decline of Islam: —18th-century Mughal Empire in decline —Resurgence of Hindu religion

Birthplace of Civilizations and Religions: Aryans and the Origins of Hinduism 雅利安人和印度教的起源。

1.Arrival of Aryans in northern India, circa 1500 BC: —peoples speaking Indo‐European印欧语系 languages based in what is now Iran 伊朗 —Aryans began the process of integrating the Ganges Basin's isolated tribes and villages孤立部落和村庄 into a newly‐created cultural system —Resurgence(死灰复燃) of urbanization 2.Aryan cultural influence: —Sanskrit(梵文) language — a new social order to the vast riverine flatlands of northern India. —Out of the texts of Vedism吠陀教 and local creeds当地的信条 there arose a new religion—Hinduism—and with it a new way of life.

Buddhism and Other Indigenous Religions

1.Buddhism: circa 500 BC in eastern Ganges Basin —0.8 percent of the population adheres to Buddhism in India; —State religion in Bhutan(不丹) and very strong in Sri Lanka(斯里兰卡) (around 70 percent) 2. Jainism(耆那教（印度非婆罗门教的一派）): emerged alongside Hinduism —It is well known for its uncompromising stand on nonviolence and vegetarianism. 它以在非暴力和素食主义上毫不妥协的立场而闻名。 —Purist(纯化论者), the deeply spiritual form of Hinduism（印度教） —0.5 percent of the population 3.Sikhism(锡克教): circa AD 1500, following Islam's arrival —Blend of Islamic and Hindu beliefs —About 2 percent of the population

The Geopolitics of Modern South Asia: Indian Ocean Geopolitics

1.Control of Indian Ocean Basin海洋盆地: —China needs access to markets and is building military bases in Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), and Djibouti. —India responds by strengthening its navy and building alliances in Southeast Asia（Indonesia and Vietnam.）. 2.U.S. - China - India relations: —Informal alliance between the U.S. and India to prevent Chinese expansion and support India globally 3.Economic interdependence互相依赖: —Terms of trade are currently to China's advantage. —China-India trade is growing.

South Asia's Physiography: Physio-graphic Regions Southern plateaus

1.Deccan(德干高原) —The Deccan (meaning South) tilts toward the east so that its highest areas are in the west and most of the rivers flow into the Bay of Bengal. 德干(意为南部)向东倾斜，所以它的最高点在西部，大部分河流流入孟加拉湾。 —Eastern and Western Ghats (steps) descend from the plateau to narrow coastal plain 东部和西部的Ghats(台阶)从高原下降到狭窄的海岸平原 ——Much wet monsoon precipitation to the West Ghats equals one of India's most productive agriculture zones 西Ghats的多雨季风降水相当于印度最多产的农业区之一 2.North of the Deccan lie two other plateaus —the Central Indian Plateau to the west 西至印度中部高原 —the Chota Nagpur Plateau to the east 东部的丘塔那格布尔高原

The Geopolitics of Modern South Asia: The Specter of Terrorism

1.Indian terrorist attacks: —Risk of Islamic violence directed against Indians is rising —High profile attack in 2008 in Mumbai —Roots in Pakistan: ——Lashkar-e-Taiba: aims to return Kashmir to Islamic rule. 2.Pakistan and terrorist groups: —Pakistan's northwestern frontier is effectively controlled by the Taliban. —Pakistan is under U.S. pressure to secure the border. 3.The geopolitical chess game between India, Pakistan, and the U.S —The U.S. refuses to choose sides in Kashmir —Needs both India and Pakistan as allies

Indo-European languages/Dravidian languages/Other languages

1.Indo-European languages: —Rooted in Sanskrit（梵文） — in the western and northern parts of South Asia 2.Dravidian languages(达罗毗荼诸语言): —Dravidian languages that were indigenous to the realm even before the arrival of the Aryans. —Dominate in the South 3.Other languages: —Sino-Tibetan（汉藏语系）— India's northern and northeastern fringes —Austro-Asiatic（南亚语系）—eastern India and neighboring Bangladesh

Emerging Markets and Fragmented Modernization

1.Staggering令人惊愕的 growth: —"India Shining" and the new era for India is considered key: ——rising growth rates for the realm's national economies ——rewards from globalization and modernization ——tightening integration into the world economy 2.Dramatic unevenness戏剧性的不均匀: —Poverty: over half of people in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh live in poverty. ——Afghanistan and Nepal rank among the poorest countries on Earth ——fully one-third of Pakistan s population lives in miserable poverty ——and female literacy still lingers below 50 percent. ——about 40 percent of the children (mostly female) in South Asia are malnourished and underweight —Benefits of economic growth are not spread around.

South Asia's Physiography:A Tectonic(地质) Encounter

1.Tectonic collision: —Indian Plate(印度板块) and Eurasian Plate(欧亚板块) —Accordion(折叠)-like crust deformation(变形) 2.Himalaya(喜马拉雅) Mountains: —High elevation conditions —Permanent snow and ice provide meltwaters —Headwaters of great rivers: ——Ganges River(恒河), Indus River(印度河), and Brahmaputra River(雅鲁藏布江)

Demographic Burdens 人口负担

1.The proportion of the population that is too old or too young to be productive and must be cared for by productive population (ages 20 to 50) 人口年龄太大或太年轻而不能生产的人口比例，必须由生产人口来照顾(20至50岁) —A country with low death rates and high birth rates will have a relatively large share of old and young people, and thus a large demographic burden. 一个低死亡率和高出生率的国家将会有相当多的老人和年轻人，因此有很大的人口负担。 —Obviously, the way to reduce this burden is to lower birth rates. 显然，减轻这种负担的方法是降低出生率。 —High demographic burden 2.Population Pyramid graphic of age-sex structure —India's burden greater today and less in future 人口金字塔图形的年龄性别结构 ——印度现在的负担更大，未来的负担更小

The Demographic Transition人口转变

1.The relationship between population change and economic trends 2. Demographic Transition shows the structural change between birth and death rates resulting in population growth, stagnation, and decline 人口过渡显示了出生率和死亡率之间的结构性变化，导致人口增长、停滞和下降 3.Note that Stage 2 and part of Stage 3, with high birth rates and low death rates (due to healthcare advances), entail a sizeable population expansion. 注意，第二阶段和第三阶段的一部分，由于高出生率和低死亡率(由于医疗保健的进步)，需要大规模的人口扩张。

Gender in South Asia

Discrimination歧视 against women and girls: 1.Lack of sanitation[医] 环境卫生 in workplaces, schools, slum neighborhoods and public spaces —Major implications for health and social functioning(toilets) —Affects females school attendance and completion rates（Lack toilets） 2.Incidents of rape —Blamed on the liberalized behavior of women, increasing mass media coverage, and assertiveness of women 人们将其归咎于女性的自由行为，增加了大众媒体的覆盖面，以及女性的自信。 3.Difficult to make generalizations about gender relations across this most populous of all geographic realms- different religions and gender relations over a large and populous realm 在这个人口众多的所有地理领域中，很难对性别关系做出概括——不同的宗教和人口众多的领域中的性别关系

The Geopolitics of Modern South Asia: Contested Kashmir(克什米尔)

Forward capital: Islamabad's placement in the embattled interior as a claim to northern frontiers 前沿资本:伊斯兰堡在四面楚歌的内陆地区的位置是对北方边界的要求。 Kashmir and partition: 1. It had about 5 million inhabitants at the time, nearly three-quarters of them Muslims, but the maharajah of Kashmir himself was a Hindu. 当时约有500万居民，其中近四分之三是穆斯林，但克什米尔的王公本人是印度教徒。 2. When he decided not to join Pakistan and instead aimed to retain autonomous status, —The Muslim uprising supported by Pakistan. —The maharajah called for help from India. —After more than a year's fighting and through the intervention of the United Nations, a cease-fire line left most of Jammu and Kashmir (including nearly four-fifths of the territory s population) in Indian hands. —Eventually, this line now known as the Line of Control began to appear on maps as the final boundary settlement, and Indian governments have proposed that it be so recognized. 3.Today: Pakistan demands a referendum vote, however, India claims there is a place for Muslims in India, but not Hindus in Pakistan

The Geopolitics of Modern South Asia: India-Pakistan印巴

From the moment of their separate creation in 1947, India and Pakistan have had a tenuous relationship: 自1947年印巴两国独立建国以来，两国的关系一直很脆弱。 1. In 1971, a costly war of secession, in which India supported East Pakistan. 1971年，一场代价高昂的分离战争——印度支持东巴基斯坦——导致了这一不寻常安排的失败。 2. India s encouragement of independence for Bangladesh emphasized the continuing tension between Pakistan and India, which had already led to war in 1965, to further conflict during the 1970s over Jammu and Kashmir —Nuclear arms changes this conflict from a regional problem to a global problem 3.Muslims in India: —Complicates geopolitics复杂地缘政治 between the two countries and within India —Today, Muslim in India is approaching 200 million (14.2 percent of India s population) the largest cultural minority in the world and just about equal in size to Pakistan s entire population. 如今，印度人口已接近2亿(占印度人口的14.2%)，是世界上最大的文化少数民族，其人口规模与巴基斯坦的总人口相当。 —At the same time, conflict with Pakistan can have detrimental有害 effects on Hindu Muslim relations inside India, and over the years it has led to communal violence and deadly clashes. 与此同时，与巴基斯坦的冲突可能对印度国内的印度教穆斯林关系产生不利影响，多年来，这种冲突已导致集体暴力和致命冲突。 —Today that issue is further complicated by the alleged involvement of some Indian Muslims in terrorist activities within India that were orchestrated from Pakistan. 今天，这一问题进一步复杂化，因为据称印度穆斯林在巴基斯坦境内策划的恐怖主义活动中牵涉其中。

South Asia's Physiography:The Monsoon

Monsoon: annual rains —As the subcontinental landmass heats up during the spring, a huge low‐pressure system is formed above it. 当大陆板块在春季升温时，形成了一个巨大的低压系统。 —This low‐pressure system begins to draw in vast volumes of air from over the ocean onto the subcontinent. 这个低压力系统开始从大洋上方的大量空气进入次大陆。 —Air is pushed up in elevation along the foothills 在山麓的高地上，空气被推高。 —When the inflow of moist oceanic air reaches critical mass in early June, the wet monsoon has arrived. It may rain for 60 days or more. 6月初，当潮湿的海洋空气流入临界量时，雨季到来。可能会下雨60天或更久。 —The Himalaya mountain wall blocks the onshore‐flowing airstream from spreading into the Asian interior and the rain from dissipating. 喜马拉雅山墙阻挡了陆地上流动的气流，从蔓延到亚洲内部和雨水的消散。 —Critical for India's agriculture as 2/3 of farmland there is no access to irrigation 对印度农业来说至关重要的是，印度有2/3的农田没有灌溉渠道

South Asia's Physiography:Physiography Regions

Northern mountains —The northern mountains extend from the Hindu Kush and Karakoram ranges(dry and barren) in the northwest through the Himalaya in the center (Everest, the world's tallest peak, lies on the crest line that forms the Nepal China border) to the ranges of Bhutan and the Indian State of Arunachal Pradesh(green and forested ) in the east. 北部的山脉从西北部的兴都库什和喀喇昆仑山脉(干旱荒凉的)延伸至中部的喜马拉雅山脉（珠穆朗玛峰，世界上最高的山峰，位于形成尼泊尔中国边界的山脊线上）到位于东部的不丹和印度的阿鲁纳恰尔邦(绿色和森林)。 —ransitional foothills：with many deeply eroded valleys cut by rushing meltwater, lead to the river basins below. 过渡性山麓地带：有许多被融水冲蚀的峡谷，通向下面的河流盆地 River lowlands —The belt of river lowlands extends eastward from Pakistan's lower Indus Valley (the area known as Sindh) through India's wide Gangetic Plain and then on across the great double delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra雅鲁藏布江 in Bangladesh 孟加拉国. 河流低地带从巴基斯坦的印度河下游河谷（称为信德地区）向东延伸，通过印度的恒河平原，然后穿过孟加拉国恒河和雅鲁藏布江的大双三角洲 —In the east, this physiographic region is often called the North Indian Plain. 在东部，这个地形区域通常被称为北印度平原。 —To the west lies the lowland of the Indus River, which rises in Tibet(西藏), crosses Kashmir(喀什米尔), and then bends southward to receive its major tributaries from the area known as Punjab 旁遮普(Land of Five Rivers) to the east. 西部是印度河的低地，它在西藏上升，越过克什米尔，然后向南弯曲，从被称为旁遮普省(五条河流的土地)的地区向东面接收它的主要支流。

Defining the Realm

Subcontinent: —Divides oceans —Divided by mountains, deserts, and fertile valleys Cultural diversity: —Influenced by the environmental diversity —Unified by British colonial period —Religious partitions: Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist ——Pakistan's place in the region ——Pakistan(巴克斯坦) and India linked culturally and in the fight over Kashmir(克什米尔) ——Afghanistan(阿富汗) consider being in a transition zone due to relationships between here, southwest Asia, and central Asia