Space, Plate tectonics, Minerals, Magma and Igneous Rocks, Volcanic Eruptions (EES 21 Ch 1-5)

Which of the following statements are true about partial melting?

- Partial melting results in magmas that are more felsic in composition than the parent rock - Felsic components of the parent rock tend to go into the liquid state first during partial melting. - As more of the rock melts during partial melting, the magma becomes more mafic than the original melt that formed.

The International Space Station travels at 25,000 km/hr. How long would it take an object traveling that speed to go from Earth to the Sun?

250 days

Sort statements as being true of the lithosphere or asthenosphere.

Lithosphere: -relatively rigid -outermost layer Asthenosphere: -relatively soft (plastic) -higher density

How did archaeologists produce the cast of a Pompeii victim shown here?

They filled open spaces in the debris with plaster.

identify the statements true of volatile materials and refractory materials.

Volatile: -melt/evaporate at lower temps -freezing yields ices -hydrogen and helium are examples Refractory: -freezing yields rocky/metalic solids

The distinctive vertical joints seen in this basalt flow most likely formed as a consequence of which of the following?

contraction into hexagonal forms during the final stage of cooling

What process yields minerals growing in lava as it cools, as illustrated in diagram A?

crystallization

An immensely thick succession of basalt flows, each of which spread over a vast area, is called a __________.

large igneous province

What is the composition of the lava in the video?

mafic

What common adjectives can be used to describe the luster of a mineral?

resinous dull earthy pearly

What process produced the purple garnet crystals in the rock in photo G?

solid-state diffusion

The tan layers in photo B are likely __________.

pyroclastic debris

Why don't geologists refer to sand on a beach as a rock?

Sand on a beach is composed of loose, unconsolidated minerals.

identify statements that are true of Earth.

-It formed from the third protoplanet from the Sun -It has one moon.

Select statements true of the Hawaiian Hot Spot.

-It produced the Emperor Seamounts -It produced the Hawaiian Islands.

Geologists observe a rock thin section under a petrographic microscope to definitively identify its mineral makeup. Which of the following makes a petrographic microscope different from a standard microscope?

-It transmits polarized light through the thin section. -It has the ability to rotate the thin section slide.

identify the statement(s) that are true of nebulae.

-Nebulas are vast swirling clouds of gas and dust floating in space. -A single large nebula can be a nursery for a large number of stars -Most of a nebula is hydrogen and helium left over from the Big Bang -Solar systems form within a nebula.

Identify statements true of Pangaea.

-Pangaea was one of several supercontinents that have formed and broken up during Earth's history -Rates of seafloor spreading in the Atlantic Ocean are compatible with what is known about the breakup of Pangaea -The regional-scale folds visible in the Appalachian Mountains are remnants of Pangaea's formation.

Imagine that you are a Greek philosopher living 2,000 years ago. If you were to lecture on the structure of the Universe to students, which of the following statements would help your students distinguish between stars and planets?

-Stars appear to revolve around a fixed point. -Planets move in complex paths independent of stars.

Which of the following statements about differentiation are true?

-The core formed as a result of differentiation -The mantle formed as a result of differentiation

identify ways in which heavier elements form.

-in stars -during supernovae explosions

Based on your observations, what are the likely types of lava flow or features that might be produced at the vent's opening to the ground surface?

-pahoehoe -a'a'

In which two ways can sedimentary rocks form?

-precipitation of mineral crystals out of water solutions -cementing together of grains broken off pre-existing rocks

What characteristics define a mineral?

-solid -often inorganic -naturally occurring -crystalline material with a definable chemical composition

Which of the following characteristics would be helpful to a geologist who is attempting to visually identify the rock makeup of an outcrop?

-the amount and type of weathering of the outcrop -the presence or absence of bedding or foliation -the presence or absence of faults or folds

1. Up to what elevation can you live without needing supplemental oxygen? 2. At 100 km/h (62 mph), how long would it take to drive a distance equal to the thickness of the breathable atmosphere?

1 - 5.5 km 2 - 3.3 minutes

1. How can pyroclastic debris cause casualties close to an explosive eruption? 2. In what way can ash that has been carried to higher levels of the atmosphere pose a threat far from an eruption? 3. How have volcanic eruptions affected climate?

1 - Areas can be buried in lapilli and several meters of ash. 2 - It can get into aircraft engines as well as corrupt important sensors and may ultimately lead to a crash. 3 - Volcanic eruptions cause ash and sulfur dioxide to linger in the stratosphere, blocking sunlight and cooling Earth.

1. What can cause a volcano to change shape before erupting? 2. What can a volcanic hazard map tell us? 3. Can a lava flow be diverted? 4. Volcanoes often warn us before erupting. What types of events might signify an impending eruption?

1 - As magma rises through the volcano, it pushes the crust out, causing deformation. 2 - the potential impact of a volcanic eruption in a given area 3 - Yes. Dams, explosives, and even water have been used to divert flows. 4 - wildlife deserting the area around the volcano; earthquakes; change in the volcano's shape; increased emissions of gas and steam

1. Describe the process by which oceanic lithospheric mantle forms. 2. Is the lithospheric mantle thicker beneath a mid-ocean ridge or beneath a continental shelf? 3. Why are abyssal plains deeper than mid-ocean ridges?

1 - As newly formed oceanic crust moves away from the ridge axis, the crust and the mantle directly beneath it gradually lose heat to the ocean above, forming lithospheric mantle. 2 - beneath a continental shelf 3 - Older lithosphere sinks down into the asthenosphere because it is thicker, colder, and denser than younger lithosphere.

1. How does a lahar form? 2. Why can lahars threaten communities far from an eruption?

1 - Lahars form when water mixes with volcanic ash. 2 - Lahars can flow into stream valleys and travel tens of kilometers, potentially causing flooding and damaging structures.

1. Given what you see in Image D, does the lava display high or low viscosity? 2. Lava eventually covered 35 km3 of land and flowed into the sea (as seen in Map C). What characteristic of the land surface determined the direction of flow? 3. As Map C shows, the East Rift lies beneath the Leilani Estates housing development. Note all the older eruptive vents along individual fissures. As new cracks emerged, spewing sulfurous gas beneath the neighborhood, officials ordered an evacuation. Why? 4. The dark-colored lava flows on the map represent young lava flows. Where do they appear to originate? 5. Why is active volcanism restricted to the Big Island?

1 - Low viscosity; high-viscosity lava cannot flow freely like the lava in the image. 2 - the slope of the surface 3 - Evacuations were ordered because the gas emissions were indicative of an upcoming eruption. 4 - from long fissures 5 - The Big Island is currently over an oceanic hot spot.

1. What causes the melting that provides the basalt lava extruded at mid-ocean ridges and along rifts? 2. Unlike mid-ocean ridges, some continental rift volcanoes also produce felsic pyroclastic debris. Why?

1 - Melting is due to hot mantle rock rising to shallow depths beneath the ridge, which subsequently undergoes decompression melting. 2 - Because as basalt rises through continental crust, heat transfer partially melts the continental crust, creating a felsic magma.

1. How can glass be distinguished from a mineral? 2. A rock that forms from molten material is called _________ whereas a rock that forms from a preexisting rock and undergoes changes in heat and pressure is called ________. 3. A material that can exist as a gas on the Earth's surface is called 4. How do sediments differ from melts?

1 - Minerals have a crystal form; glass does not because its atoms are not arranged in an orderly manner. 2 - igneous; metamorphic 3 - a volatile 4 - Sediments are loose, unconsolidated grains; melts are liquids that were derived from solids.

1. How does Earth's inner core differ from its outer core? 2. Which layer is responsible for the magnetic field?

1 - The inner core is solid; the outer core is liquid. 2 - outer core

1. Minerals are classified by specifying the principal __________. 2. Which mineral class does quartz belong to?

1 - anion or anion group 2 - silicates

1. Which of the following are types of pyroclastic debris? 2. Which type of pyroclastic debris, which may consist of minuscule shards of glass, becomes tuff when lithified? 3. What is volcano-sedimentary debris?

1 - ash, blocks, lapilli 2 - ash 3 - previously deposited material that breaks up, travels downslope, and redeposits.

1. Why aren't the spectators in Photo A running from the lava flow? 2. Could they outrun a pyroclastic flow?

1 - because these types of flows move slowly enough for people to get out of the way 2 - No. Pyroclastic flows move in excess of 100 km/h and can reach 300 km/h.

1. What causes the difference between ruby and corundum? 2. The dispersion of light of a gemstone is referred to as the gem's __________.

1 - impurities in the mineral 2 - fire

1. What is the central area (A) called? 2. What is the composition of A? 3. What is the composition of the material in B?

1 - the sun 2 - dust particles 3- ice particles

1. What phenomena cause volcanic explosions? 2. How does a caldera form?

1 - water being heated by magma; groundwater coming into contact with magma; gas in the magma 2 - from eruptions that result int withdrawal of magmatic support in the crust, causing collapse

Order the steps in continental rift formation.

1) The lithospheric mantle begins to stretch horizontally and thin vertically. 2) The crust fractures, and faults develop. 3) Large fault blocks of crust slide down into the widening rift. 4) Magma erupts as lava, creating volcanoes along and near the center of the rift.

Order the events chronologically that occurred in the formation of our Solar System.

1. An accretionary disk formed 2. A protosun formed 3. Rings formed in the protoplanetary disk 4. Planetesimals collected to form protoplanets

What are the stages of planet formation according to the nebular hypothesis?

1. Nebula formed from hydrogen and helium 2. Gravity pulled gas and dust inward to form an accretionary disk 3. Dust and ice particles began to stick together, forming planetesimals 4. More collisions led to protoplanets; proto Earth became round due to gravity 5. After earth formed, it was hit by a protoplanet that ejected debris which then formed the moon 6. Earths atmosphere formed from volcanic gases

Place in chronological order the events that led to the formation of the Earth.

1. The Earth cleared its orbit of all other matter, making it a true planet 2. The moon formed 3. Volcanic activity occurred, releasing gases 4. An atmosphere formed

Order the steps that lead to seafloor spreading.

1. The asthenosphere beneath diverging plates rises and melts 2. A magma chamber forms beneath the ridge axis 3. Magma rises to the surface and erupts via submarine volcanoes 4. Newly formed crust is moved laterally away from the ridge

Place in chronological order the events that led to life as we know it on Earth.

1. The oceans formed 2. Photosynthetic organisms appeared on Earth 3. Oxygen accumulated in the atmosphere 4. Multicellular life developed rapidly on Earth

Order the steps of volcanic island arc formation.

1. a subduction trench forms where the subducting plate bends downward into the mantle 2. an accretionary prism begins to form 3. magma, created by flux melting of the mantle, rises through the overriding plate. 4. Lava erupts onto the surface, forming volcanoes.

What is the approximate distance from Earth to the Sun?

150,000,000 kilometers

Sort the following bathymetric features based on their typical depth.

2-2.5 km: mid-ocean ridges 4-5 km: abyssal plains

How does a planet differ from a protoplanet?

A protoplanet is a large, nonspherical body smaller than a planet.

Based on your observations of the lava eruption at the West Mata volcano, which statement is most likely to be true of the igneous rock being formed?

Basaltic rock is being formed that has small mineral crystals due to the fast cooling that occurs in water.

Sort outcomes of continental collision versus those related to ocean-ocean (oceanic) convergence.

Continental collision: -crustal thickening -mountain building Oceanic Convergence: -subduction -volcanism

How are continental hot-spot volcanoes different from oceanic hot-spot volcanoes?

Continental hot spots are extremely explosive while oceanic hot spots have more passive lava flows.

How does the crust of a continental shelf differ from the crust in a continent's interior?

Continental shelf crust is generally thinner and below sea level.

How are fracture zones oriented relative to the axis of a mid-ocean ridge?

Fracture zones run perpendicular to a mid-ocean ridge axis.

How did Wegener use a map of fossil distribution and rock types to support his hypothesis of continental drift?

He found similar rocks and fossils on continents that are currently separated by ocean and deduced that the continents must have been connected at some point.

Today, the USGS researches all of the spheres of the Earth system. Sort the following USGS mission areas into groups according to the Earth system sphere with which they are most closely associated.

Hydrosphere: -Water Geosphere: -minerals -land use Biosphere: -ecosystems -environmental health Atmosphere: -climate

Match each stellar characteristic to the type of star it is associated with.

Intermediate Mass Star: -is similar in mass to our own sun -carbon core develops toward the end of its existence -forms a white dwarf as its last stage of existence Massive Star: -iron core develops toward the end of its existence -forms a neutron star as its last stage of existence

Why do astronomers use light-years to define distances between stars?

It is a convenient way to measure vast distances.

Identify the statement that best describes the role of magma mixing in altering magma composition.

It is thought that separate magma chambers can undergo mixing via the creation of connections between the two chambers.

Determine which properties go with which areas in the crust and upper mantle.

Lithosphere: composed of rigid upper mantle and crust Oceanic crust: rocky layer composed of basalt, approximately 3-10 km thick Continental crust: layer composed of granitic rock; approximately 70 km at its thickest

Why does an X-ray passing through a crystal produce a geometric pattern, such as the one in diagram C?

Minerals have regular structures

What's the difference between a crystalline igneous rock and a clastic sedimentary rock?

Minerals in crystalline igneous rocks are held together by interlocking crystals, and in clastic sedimentary rocks grains are held together by cement.

Can the pattern of glacial striations be explained if continents have always been in their present-day locations?

No, because glacial ice moves toward coastlines, as many of the striations indicate, not toward the middle of continents.

Could a planet like Earth have formed around a first-generation star?

No. First-generation stars formed from nebulae that had only elements 1 through 5 on the periodic table, whereas Earth's core is composed primarily of iron (26 on the periodic table).

Which type of basaltic lava flow has a ropy surface, and which a rubbly surface?

Pahoehoe lava has a ropy surface. 'A'ā lava has a rubbly or rocky surface. (ropy)

How does a protoplanet differ from a moon?

Protoplanets orbit the Sun; moons orbit planets.

Which of the following best describes the geocentric model of the Universe?

The Earth is the center of the Universe, and the stars and planets rotate around it

Which statement is true about the formation of the Moon?

The Moon formed from debris created when Earth suffered a catastrophic protoplanet collision.

Which of the following best describes the helioentric model of the Universe?

The Sun is the center of the Solar System, and the planets orbit around it.

The ball-and-stick model in diagram B is a representation of the arrangement of Na+ and Cl- ions in halite (salt). Why are the blue balls larger than the white balls?

The anions are represented by the blue balls and are larger because the extra electrons make them larger than cations, represented by the white balls.

Obsidian is a volcanic glass that forms when lava cools very quickly and consists of a solid mass of glass through and through. Why is obsidian not classified as a mineral?

The atoms or molecules in obsidian do not have a crystalline structure.

What would be the significance of finding a precipitated mineral on another planet?

The planet may have or have had liquid water on it.

Does the rock composition differ between point X and point Y? Do the temperatures at these points differ?

The rock composition is the same, but the temperature is different, with point X being cooler than point Y.

How did Wegener use this map to justify his continental-drift hypothesis?

Wegener speculated that the distribution of late-Paleozoic sedimentary environments defined climate belts on Pangaea and therefore the position of the continents.

Why did most geologists of Wegener's day reject his hypothesis?

Wegner could not explain how or why continents were moving

Does this nebula contain any uranium?

Yes, because the Crab Nebula represents a supernova explosion whose extreme high temperatures allowed for the formation of heavier elements.

Physicists have shown that the 92 naturally occurring elements in the universe form during the life cycle of stars. During what stellar process are the very large elements (those heavier than iron) created?

a supernova explosion

Why does Iceland protrude above sea level and sit astride a submarine plateau, as shown on Map B, while the rest of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge is relatively narrow and deep?

because Iceland formed over a hot spot and astride the mid-Atlantic ridge

What are the two types of layering that can occur in rocks?

bedding and foliation (foliation; inequant)

select the item(s) that may show us what planetesimals looked like inside.

chondritic meteorites

Which of the following terms describes the features seen in this outcrop of basalt?

columnar joints

What process yields sulfur crystals at a volcanic vent, as shown in photo D?

precipitation from gas

What process yields the mineral crystals found on the floor of a salty desert lake as it dries out, as shown in diagram C?

evaporation of supersaturated water and the precipitation of salt

As magma cools and minerals begin to form, the composition of the resulting magma becomes more

felsic

Choose the most likely product of partially melting a rock of intermediate composition.

felsic magma

The image shows Mount St. Helens two years after its 1980 eruption. Given the shape of the volcano and presence of a lava dome (source of the steam), what is the most likely composition of the associated magma?

felsic to intermediate

According to the nebular theory of planet formation, which type of force was responsible for causing particles in the protoplanetary disk to clump and bind together, growing from soot-sized specks into boulder-sized blocks, and eventually into planetesimals?

gravitational

What changes in the crust do scientists look for when using seismology and seismic networks to mitigate volcanic hazards?

noise/vibrations caused by magma moving through rocks

Clarence King was the first director of the USGS. His main focus for the agency at the time was mining geology. Mining geology would involve which type of natural resource?

non-renewable resources

Which of the following best describes the habitable zone?

the distance from the Sun where temperatures range between 0°C (freezing) to 100°C (boiling)

Which of the following is not one of Earth's domains?

the moon

An apparent polar-wander path for a continent represents ______________.

the movement of a continent relative to fixed magnetic poles (remained in)

Lahars are a volcanic hazard that can occur both during an eruption and while a volcano is dormant. Which event below must happen for a lahar to form while a volcano is dormant?

very heavy rainfall over the dormant volcano