Space Quizlet

Constellation Program

2004 Bush. Idea that we go back to the moon for exploration and establish a human presence to then go to Mars. Constellation was underfunded and over-budgeted, impossible to meet its goals. Obama cancels it

What are some of the USA's opportunities for US national security decision-making in space?

A. Hardening individual satellites i. Have the technology to do this and is unilaterally implementable ii. However, individual satellites can remain appealing targets B. Deter attacks against Space systems i. Countries may have diff conception of deterrence and security = need a more universal understanding C. Develop terrestrial alternative to space capabilities D. Support international agreements i. Restrictive agreements: treaty-based + rules-based (off diff to define rules, such as what counts as a weapon) ii. Cooperative agreements: civil/scientific. Tit-for-tat. iii. Treaties help with legitimacy + trust-building. E. Use new satellite architecture and orbits. i. Civil + private partnerships as they have been able to lower launch costs (SpaceX)

Who was the first American in Space?

Alan Shepered May 1961 (had some control)

Who carried out the first space walk?

Alexei Leonov, March 1965 (Soviet)

Nixon

Apollo landings occur, approves the development of the space shuttle prog + the Apollo-Soyuz Test project. (first crewed international space mission, carried out jointly by the United States and the Soviet Union in July 1975)

how has global approaches to the search for life changed over history?

Aristotle: earth is the center of the unvierse, everything made up of the elements kepler: orbits are elliptical, uses math principles to describe the universe Newton: all motion followed the same principles Payne-Gaposchkin: stars are made of the same stuff as earth (hydrogen, heliu, carbon)

Reagen

BIF SWAP: establishes the Office of Commercial Space Transportation in 1983, and the "Star Wars" program (Strategic Defense Initiative) that proposed a missile defense system aka a "shield" in space (provides mutually assured destruction - deterrence) b. also signed the Commercial Space Launch Act

Clinton

Begins construction of ISS, enhanced human and robotic exploration Take on more risk

Trump

Big focus on the Artemis Program (return of astronauts to the moon), created the US Space Force

What are the five types of traditional military space activities?

C R/S N M G Cassie Ran/sprinted No Matter Gains Communications Reconnaissance and surveillance Navigation Meteorology Geodesy

W. Bush

Calls for crewed return to moon by 2020, then Mars, completed the ISS Also introduces the Constellation Program to replace the previous shuttle fleet Constellation: Earth--> Moon --> Mars Wanted to establish a sustained human presence on the Moon before Mars.

Obama

Cancelled the constellation and more focus on getting humans to an asteriod by 2025, then Mars, endorses ISS trips with Russian Soyuz, jump-start into commercial flight Augustine Committee 2009: constellation behind schedule, underfunded, over budget, impossible to meet its goals. 230 billion through 2025 to fund.

US/Russian Space Race

Cold war competition between the US and USSR to develop aerospace capabilities including artificial satellites, unmanned space probes, and human spaceflight. Lasted throughout the 60s: until 1965, Russia was winning (first person in space, woman, person to walk etc.) but then the US won bc in 1969, Neil Armstrong and Ediwn Aldrin became the first men to walk the moon (televised landing). Soviets made four failed attempts to launch a lunar landing craft afterwards.

COSPAR

Committee on Space Research (1958), promoted international scientific research in space emphasizing the free exchange of info/results/opinions

Ford

Creates the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) 1976 (to advise the president on the effects of science and tech on domestic and international affairs)

What are some patterns between the presidential administrations positions towards space?

Differences: A lot of back and forth: i. Reflection of bipartisan (cooperation of two political parties that usually oppose each other) ii. Not all space-first policies Similarities: All show drafting a new policy (making their mark) All see Mars as a long-term project/ vision and many see a return to the moon as a way to do this Less funding over time and less motivation (burden of the cold war intense competition slightly eased)

Now we have a lot more space entities, can you name a few more?

ESA (european space agency), JAXA (japan), UAE Space Agency, CNSA (china national space agency), UK Space Agency.

Who carried out the first American space walk?

Ed White, June 1965

Biden

Endorsed artemis, focusing on climate science and earth observations, Space Force branch of the US military remains in tact

Carter

Establishes the right to self defense in space - less peaceful than previous presidents after the OST (saying well if there IS a militarization of space, we need to protect ourselves)

NASA's explorations of moons

Europa: moon of Jupiter, looking for oceans JUICE mission: Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer, investigates the formation of Jupiter system + necessary conditions for habitability Enceladus: moon of Saturn, looking for possible habitat for life Titan: a NASA + ESA mission of sending robotic rotocrafts to Titan to scan the surface

What is the Kessler Syndrome?

Every time there is a collision, it creates more and more debris. Eventually, you cannot go anywhere in orbit without getting constantly hit by space debris. Space is now essential to current civilization (ex. If we can't use satellites, reduction in standard of living)

What are key points of military space competition, in particular satellites, during the 90s and onward?

Expansion of the role of satellites = can also be used to support informing air, sea and land warfare.

H.W Bush

H.W. Bush => "Space Station Freedom", also called for a permanent presence on the moon followed by Mars mission Space station freedom eventually evolved into the ISS i. space station freedom was a NASA project (w/ japan, ESA, CSA -canada) to construct a permanently crewed Earth-orbiting space station in the 80s (never completed bc of cutbacks) ii. ISS made in 1993 by the US and Russia after plans to do separate space stations (freedom) failed due to financial constraints

Is the Outer Space Treaty still well equipped for the 21st century?

Has some weaknesses, as the space environment has changed a. Treaty does not take into account the increase in space entities including privatized ones. Private companies did not sign these treaties (Treaty needs regulations/checks and balances for private/independent entities as spacefaring nations) b. Treaty does not account for the commercialization of space (ie. space mining and tourism) c. Treaty does not address the issue of space debris and space junk. (climate change was not a foreseen crisis) flag of convenience

Reasons for HUMAN Space Exploration

Ideas of nationalism and exceptionalism: God, Glory, Gold, and Geopolitics God: perspective and science, long term survival Glory: national prestige and leadership Geopolitics: international collaboration and deterrance Gold: economy, develop STEm and inspire new technologies - but benefits from tech to protect humans going to mars will help those in earth

How has the American space exploration narrative evolved through different Presidential administrations?

Justice (Johnson) Never (Nixon) Found (Ford) Cassie (Carter) Really (Reagan) Because (Bush) Cole (Clinton) Basically (Bush) Obviously (Obama) Texted (Trump) Bitches (Biden) Johnson Nixon Ford Carter Reagen H.W Bush Clinton H. Bush Obama Trump Biden

What are some of the different types of orbits?

Low-orbit (<2000km): used for GPS, navigation, satellite imaging (this is where ISS is) international space station (tiangong) Medium-orbit (2000< MEO < 36000km), also good for GPS Geosynchronous-orbit [high-orbit] (>36000km) Elliptical Polar Orbit, Suborbital, Elliptical orbit, sun synchronous orbit

The Three US space programs

NASA (civilian space agency) Space Force (military space program) National Reconnaissance office (intelligence space program)

Changes in US Space program funding/spending

NASA spending peaked during Space Race (similar to wartime spending) then dropped compared to the federal budget in the future, the private sector and china may affect the amount of funding for space government funds going to Space X now to fund their initiatives (first privately funded rocket to reach orbit, brought astronauts to space, mars plan)

Asteroid Redirect mission

Obama 2010. Intended to develop a robotic spacecraft to visit a large near-Earth asteroid and collect stuff from its surface. it would then redirect the asteroid into orbit around the moon. i. demonstration of a planetary defense mechanism and lasso-ing a near-earth asteroid ii. figure out the mass, probability of destruction, etc. of the asteeroid to better understand the threats of asteroids

Polar orbit

Orbit where satellites pass above each of the Earth's poles in a single orbit geostationary satellites

Geosynchronous orbit

Orbital period that travels same way as Earth and is used for telecommunication satellites - matches on its axis on equatorial plane

Why is Mars a long term destination? Challenges for Humans on Mars?

PAT: proximity, alignment w priority questions, terraforming a. proximity: it is relatively close, not to cold, days are similar, 38% gravity b. alignment with priority science questions: life there, geology, atmosphere c. terraforming: could we make mars like earth? d. unlock the secrets of the early solar system (earth lost ancient crust bc of Teutonic activity but Mars has that) challenges: life support, radiation exposure, bone density loss, mental health (long journey), communication challenges

Is planetary protection important?

Planetary protection is critical for enabling scientists to study the natural environments of celestial bodies without interfering with possible life forms that may have developed there. Most importantly, it also helps to preserve the terrestrial biosphere from possible contamination by extraterrestrial material.

Space Junk/debris and its problems

Refers to all the pieces of debris that have fallen off rockets, satellites, space shuttles, and space stations and remain floating in space. - fastest accumulation of jnk is in orbits close to earth where the first satellites orbited. the LEO contains roughly half of today's active satellites and half of the known space debris - space debris can last decades in orbit

What is space commercialization?

Satellites, space transportation, touring and mining.

What is SETI, and do you think the US government should fund its research portfolio?

Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (old program funded by NASA founded in 1984 no longer supported) biosignatuers help tell us about earth's history, national prestige, new jobs Yes: NASA has ambitions to identify biosignatures to reveal the existence of life on other planets. This is critically important to understanding our own planet and way of life. Need government backing and will enable this exploration to be done in a just and proper way (follows planetary protection rules, will bring international prestige, creates new jobs) counterargument: taxpayer dollars should not go after identify life in other worlds when we can use this money to fund other space-related technologies and explorations such as getting rid of debris, building more communications networks, etc.many people feel that SETI is unlikely to succeed, too risky to spend a lot of resources on.

What was launched a month later after Sputnik Probe?

Sputnik II (month later) to coincide with the 40th anniversary of Bolshevist Revolution. Never came back to earth.

What was the first satellite to be launched into space?

Sputnik probe 1957. Soviet satellite that started the Space race and first human-made object to orbit the earth. significance: same tech as sending nuclear weapons and at the height of the cold war

What is astrobiology?

The study of life on Earth and of the possibility of life beyond Earth

Who was the first woman in Space?

Valentina Tereshkova (1963) (Russian). she orbited the earth

What are key points of military space competition, in particular satellites, during the Cold War (US side)?

Warning System, Nat Sec (verification, deterrence), Intelligence a. Satellites were used as a warning system for early missile launch and nuclear burst detection as concern by prospect of nuclear attack (detect if missiles launch from space) b. Satellites = pivotal role for international security = mitigate risk of war i.Information to national leaders ii.Verification of threats iii.Nuclear deterrence c. satellite intelligence. Both sides creating anti-satellite weapons (anything that can disrupt / destroy a satellite or its ability to collect/share data)

What did the diff delegations want from the Outer Space Treaty?

World: No nukes US: Reporting of space activities to the UN secretary-general/ public + right to inspect foreign installations. USSR: equal access to tracking facilities on ground + requirement for permission of host country for inspection South Hemisphere: End of colonisation + voice in space politics

People in space acronyms

YG (yo god) = yuri gagarin AS (this is ass) = alan shepard VT (violent times) = avalentina tereshkova AL (ill be ALright) = alexei leonov EW (but ew this sucks) = ed white

Do you think space debris is a problem now? How might we handle it in the future?

Yes big problem, mostly in lower earth orbit, will cause significant damage to a satellite or spacecraft in case of collision. If there is too much debris (which there is now) there will be a chain reaction where more objects will collide and create even more debris to handle it: regulation on space debris, forbid weapons testing, require limiting the production and expulsion of space junk, require cleaning up

Who was the first person in Space?

Yuri Gagarin (Russian) April 1961 (automatic, he had no control)

What are key points of military space competition, in particular satellites, during the 80s + Gulf War (US side)?

a. "Revolution in military affairs" = transition in character of conflict i. Focus on using space information/intelligence + military tactical communications. ii. Belief that an attack on a satellite could trigger a nuclear war. iii. Become symbolic of national strength. b. Examples of use: i. Near real time weather information ii. High capacity secure communications c. Played a Key role in the First Gulf War: (so also = first space war) i. Satellite-based navig, communications, mapped helped secure quick and decisive US victory The GPS devices would enable commanders of M1 Abrams tanks and Bradley Fighting Vehicles to get their exact location

What is Orion?

a. A crew exploration vehicle that can be re-used and is part of the Artemis programme b. It is docked on ISS

What are some examples of how space been a catalyst for technological innovation?

a. Artificial limbs: first designed for space vehicles b. shock absorbers for buildings c. Cell phone cameras d. scratch-resistant lenses e. solar energy f. water purification systems

Why did the Outer Space Treaty work?

a. Borrowed a lot of the language of the Antarctic Treaty. Idea of using this space for peaceful purposes. b. by this time the cold war space was dying off --> people ready for collaboration and flexibility c. value of norm building

What other tools can we rely on for guidance in Space?

a. Custom and precedent i. Rely on customs such as international law, and maritime law. ii. Other treaties/laws; i.e., the Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984 => facilitates private enterprises in their commercialization of space + space tech.

What are some of the priority targets when it comes to searching for life in our solar system? Why?

a. Looking for oceans (signs of life): Europa expedition on Jupiter i. hydrothermal vents (geothermal heated water is discharged --> this suggests life) b. biosignatures: physical or chemical evidence that suggests the presence of a living system. Looking for molecules made up of the same stuff as Earth life (ie stromatolites are Earth-like life forms) reasons: to prove life exists elsewhere, to extrapolate from the history of life on Earth, to map together the genetic relationship of like on earth and elucidate our common ancestors

What were the two main spacefaring entities in the 1960s?

a. NASA - US space program b. (Roscosmos) - known as the soviet space program prior to 1991

What are some of the reasons for sending humans to space as opposed to just machines?

a. Nationalism b. Benefits of new Tech from sending humans c. Economic gains a. Ideas of nationalism + exceptionalism (prestige and leadership) b. Benefits from tech to protect human going to Mars will also help those in Earth (spin-off argument) Eg. Biotechnology f. New technologies; Develop STEM + inspire Counter: Although machines can withstand more radiation than humans c. Humans bring perspective as part of exploration = more than machine d. Long-term survival e. International collaboration + economic gains

What are the key tenets of the Outer Space Treaty?

a. Space exploration/use for the benefit + interest of all c. Space not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty. d. No nukes in space or other weapons of mass destruction e. Moon + other celestial bodies are exclusively used for peaceful purposes + avoid harmful contamination of them f. States responsible for national space activities whether carried out by governmental /non-governmental entities. g. Astronauts shall be regarded as envoys of mankind

What is the 1967 Outer Space Treaty?

a. Treaty on principles governing the activities of states on their exploration and use of outer space, including the moon and other celestial territories. It declares space to be free for exploration and cannot have a claim of sovereignty b. It forms the basis of International space law. ( non-binding language) meaning it has no legal force c. It IS an example of an epistemic community bc new innovation/uncertainty resulted in this international deliberation => treaty (107 countries signed)

What are some US Space policy challenges?

a. Vulnerability of satellites => risks US ability to achieve military objectives in space b.Current geopolitical environment risks escalation in a crisis

The Drake Equation

an equation that lays out the factors that play a role in determining the number of communicating civilizations in our galaxy

What was Alex Roig's argument about city-led diplomacy?

by 2050, 70% of the world is going to be urban populations, 65% of global economic growth is happening in cities. Cities are becoming geopolitical actors themselves with their own strategies and diplomacy. Roig thinks it is time for city-led science diplomacy. The SciTech DiploHub is in Barcelona and is a non-profit public/private partnership that acts as a think tank to identify the very best practices of science diplomacy (links private and public sectors, more freedom than national agencies)

Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines

compliance is not obligatory (not legally binding) a. limits the debris released and minimizes the potential for break-ups during operations b. limits the probability of accidental collision in orbit c. avoids international destruction and other harmful activities d. relies on voluntary sign-ups (compliance thus remains low)

Terraforming Mars

could make the planet habitable for humans in the future by placing a magnetic shield between the planet and the sun and stopping the strip of the atmosphere so it could retain heat. would likely be very expensive. may be unethical. means making the planet more "Earth-like".

Chinese weapons test in 2007

created a cloud of more than 3,000 pices of space debris, the largest ever tracked. Drew attention to the huge issue that space debris poses example 2: iridium-cosmos collusion in 2009 where an inactive Russian communications satellite collided with an active commercial satellite

Elliptical Orbit

good for communication, if you want to spend most of your orbit in a certain region

Reconnaissance

military observation of a region to locate an enemy or ascertain strategic features.

What roles might be played by non-state parties in the economic development of space?

pros: financing (accelerated programs), economic benefits, new tech, bypassing political scrutiny, freedom, more data cons: lack of legal obligation, liability, cooperation Space exploration yields many economic benefits: it creates jobs, supports continued research that aids our everyday lives, and supports the creation of new technologies and businesses. private investment in space initiatives will bolster continued space exploration and innovation, particularly as there exists lengthy time lags between initial government investments and realized outcomes. Thus, private investments bypass the political scrutiny and issues that come with national programs/initiatives. At the same time, non-state parties within space are not bound by the same regulations and treaties as many space agencies and national actors and could thus operate in space in a way that is harmful to other countries or space itself. public research institutes and the private sector should work together to contribute to improving international space data and the uptake of the results. ** example: spacex: first privately funded rocket to reach orbit, brought astronauts to space, has a plan to create a self-sustaining civilization on mars. HUGELY successful.

Artemis Program

return to the moon by 2024, create a small space station in orbit around the moon + extensive cooperation with private companies to build (for example) moon landers, and create the US Space Force. Artemis is similar to Constellation. First return to moon, then establish human presence, then possible crewed missions to Mars feasible.

Johnson

signing of the Outer Space Treaty

suborbital

spaceflight in which the spacecraft reaches space but its trajectory intersects w the atmosphere (does not reach escape velocity)

The Fermi Paradox

the apparent contradiction between the lack of evidence and high probability estimates for the existence of extraterrestrial civilizations.

Sun-synchronous orbit

type of low earth orbit fixed relative orbit with the Sun (same position at same time of day).