Sports Psychology Final ENU

According to Sage (1977) which aspects of effort constitute motivation? a. direction b. duration c. intensity d. a & c

d. a & c

If a golfer shifts attention just before a tee shot, from the length of the fairway and the direction of the wind to focusing only on the ball, her attention has shifted from _____ to _____. a. broad-internal; narrow-internal b. broad-internal: narrow external c. broad-external; narrow-internal d. broad-external; narrow-external

d. broad-external; narrow-external

Hysteresis is the process whereby the relationship between arousal and performance is different depending on whether the arousal is on its way up or down, but only when cognitive anxiety is high. (T/F)

True

Motivation has been defined simply as the direction and intensity of one's efforts (T/F)

True

State anxiety is perceived as facilitative or debilitative depending on how much control the person perceives. (T/F)

True

The drive theory suggests that as an individual's arousal or state anxiety increases, so too does performance. (T/F)

True

The processing efficienty theory suggests that anxiety has two roles, one is a motivational one, anxiety causes increased effort, the second is a that it makes additional demands on working memory, through worry, causing distraction. These can work against each other. (T/F)

True

Automatic self talk process

Unconscious incompetence Conscious incompetence Conscious competence (and coping) Unconscious competence (and coping)

Define capacity theory of attentional processes

Variable allocation: Individuals are flexible and can choose where to focus their attention, allocating it on more than one task at a time Multiple resource pool: Attention is distributed throughout the nervous system (like microprocessors) with each microprocessor having its own unique capabilities and resource-performance relationship Interference of two tasks (Wickens, 1984) : Same modalities - Physical skills Same memory codes - Confusion or conflicting information received from memory Same stages of processing - decision making Some Tasks Don't Use Resources Attentional (serial) v Automatic (parallel) processes.

Anxiety

Viewing anxiety as facilitative leads to superior performance. State anxiety is perceived as facilitative or debilitative depending on how much control the person perceives. Developing cognitive skills and strategies helps individuals view anxiety as facilitative.

Ego-oriented athletes:

Want to be better than others

Learned helplessness is:

When a person perceives that their actions have no effect on the desired outcomes

How did Hardy and Parfitt (1991) manipulate physiological arousal?

(free response)

Individuals who are of task perception or orientation are expected to show adaptive learning patterns in comparison to an ego orientated person. Explain what is meant by adaptive learning patterns.

(free response)

Name 3 things that divided attention can enable elite athletes to do that novices may find difficult?

(free response)

Name 4 key characteristics of attention that are important when related to sport.

(free response)

Name two other methods of measuring physiological arousal apart from self report questionnaires?

(free response)

Describe self-handicapping?

(free response)

4 steps of self talk

1. Awareness 2. Thought Stopping 3. Cognitive Restructuring 4. Practice & Understand Process

What are the 4 parts of the stress process?

1. Environmental Demand 2. Individuals perception of the environmental demand 3. Stress response 4. Behavioral consequences

4 characteristics that are important when related to sport

1. Selective Attention 2. Maintaining attention over time 3. Awareness of the situation 4. Changing focus when necessary

What are the 3 dimensions of attention required for optimal performance?

1. width of attention 2. direction of attention 3. the flexibility to alter width and direction.

Self Handicapping

A self attributional process which, win or lose, protects self-esteem & perceptions of competence May engage in reckless activity to have an excuse -Anticipated threat to self esteem Uncertainty about one's ability Self-presentational concerns - how others will react to their successes and failures

Self-handicapping is

A self-attributional process which protects self-esteem

According to Ericsson how many hours are required to become an expert?

10,000

Cognitive evaluation theory

A person's interpretation of the reward rather than the actual reward itself

Motivational Climate refers to:

A teacher controlling and motivating, The environment created by the society

Dual task paradigm in elite athletes

Able to focus on correct cues once- Primary (PT) and secondary tasks (ST), individually as well as both together In sport this is usually one closed skill + one verbal/manual response to a signal.

Achievement Goal Theory

Achievement Goal + Perceived Ability = Achievement Behavior

Competitiveness

Achievement behaviour in a competitive context, with social evaluation as a key component

Anticipation and RT in Elite athletes

Anticipation linked to experience & knowledge Situation and movement specific reaction times

Which are the 3 psychological needs included in the self-determination theory?

Competence, Relatedness, Autonomy

Conscious processing theory

Anxiety disrupts performance as it encourages skills that are automatic to come under conscious control. i.e effort is reinvested, causing a regression to an earlier stage of learning.

Processing efficiency theory

Anxiety has two roles, one is motivational, anxiety causes increased effort, the second is a that it makes additional demands on working memory (Short term Memory), through worry, causing distraction. These can work against each other.

Define anxiety

Anxiety is a negative emotional state with feelings of worry, nervousness, and apprehension associated with activation or arousal of the body. Although anxiety may be experienced as a negative state. It can have a positive effect on motor performance.

Arousal

Arousal consists of physical activation and interpretation of arousal Like State Anxiety, it can be facilitative or debilitative depending on how much control the person perceives. Self-confidence and enhanced perceptions of control are critical to perceiving anxiety as facilitative Interaction of physiological activation and arousal interpretation is more important than actual levels of each. Athletes should have well-practiced self-talk, imagery, and goal-setting skills for coping with anxiety.

Define arousal

Arousal is a blend of physiological and psychological activation, varying in intensity along a continuum. Arousal is psychologically neutral. It can be experienced positively of negatively.

What is the drive theory?

As an individual's arousal or state anxiety increases, so too does performance

Self Fulfilling Prophecy- Theory to Practice

Assessment & Attributions: -Sources of information? -Accuracy of initial assessment & ongoing evaluations -Check coach & athlete attributions -Encourage task orientation & positive attributions Promote equal practice time & attention: -Check coach behaviour & athlete perceptions -Opportunities for all to improve -Individual instruction after errors not prescriptive praise/instruct -Skill improvement as formative assessment & reinforcement -Interaction with all athletes to elicit their perceptions Minimise negative experiences Provide individual attention & help Provide success experiences: -Realistic goals/skill development -Realistic/ balanced evaluation skills Utilise Goal setting: -Process/ task orientation -Ego/ outcome? Long Vs Short? -Think about coaches practice set up Ensure players are well prepared Measure performance accurately & provide feedback Use participatory modelling

Advanced cues of elite athletes

Attend to them earlier/ prepare earlier Extract more information from advance cues Recognise redundant stimuli to reduce mental load

Ego Perception - Maladaptive learning patterns

Attribution of failure to lack of ability Ineffective learning strategies, focus on ability Low effort & persistence Learned helplessness & low satisfaction

Decision making in elite athletes

Ball flight prediction of landing position

Ego orientated

Be better than others Challenged when feeling competent (accept) Threatened when feeling incompetent (avoid) Task difficulty related to high normative standards Problems: -Maintaining high perceived competence -Success in comparison to others = No control -Reduce efforts -Fear failure -Make excuses

Peak performance

Being absorbed in the present and having no thoughts about past or future Being mentally relaxed and having a high degree of concentration and control Being in a state of extraordinary awareness of both the body and the external environment.

BET attention style

Broad External Focus (effectively integrate many external stimuli at one time)

BIT attention style

Broad Internal Focus (think several things at once)

Achievement motivation and competitiveness influence behavior including:

Choice of activity (seeking out opponents who are worse, the same level or better than them?) Effort to pursue goals (eg how often you practice) Intensity of effort (eg how hard you train) Persistence (EG when the going gets tough- behaviour in the face of adversity)

Intrinsic motivation is maximised when an individual feels:

Competence Autonomy (control) Relatedness

self determination theory

Competence Autonomy Relatedness

Task Perception - Adaptive learning patterns

Effective learning strategies Positive attitudes to the activity Increased effort & satisfaction

Psychological measures for assessing attention

Electroencephalogram (EEG) (Brain activity) Heart Rate

Emotional importance in performance

Emotional factors such as the pressure of competition play a critical role in creating internal sources of distraction= "choking" refers to an individual's poor performance under pressure. Not just related to performance drop but the mechanisms building up to them- i.e. occurring in situations of emotional importance. The combination of physical and attentional changes effects performance.

The correct order of the stress process is the following

Environmental demand, Individual's perception of the environmental demand, stress response, Behavioural consequences

What are situational sources of stress and anxiety?

Event importance and Uncertainty

Expectancy/Performance Relationship

Expectancy Cues: -Person cues & Performance information Expectation influence Coach Behaviour: -Frequency & quality of interactions -Quantity & quality of instruction -Type & frequency of feedback Performance indirectly/directly influenced Outcome reinforces expectations

In the cognitive evaluation theory locus of causality means how competent the athlete feels. (T/F)

False

The conscious processing theory suggests that anxiety facilitates performance as it encourages skills that are automatic to come under conscious control (T/F) -(POSSIBLE SHORT ANSWER)

False

Motivational; Climate

Goal orientation literature focuses on understanding the causes of development & consequences of motivation rather than amount Pre-disposition & Situation = Personal meaning of achievement and cognitive, affect, & behavioural patterns at any time The perception of the climate is key and makes a difference

Reversal Theory

How arousal affects performance depends on an individual's interpretation of his or her arousal level. Arousal can be interpreted as pleasant/excitement or as unpleasant/anxiety. Arousal interpreted as pleasant facilitates performance.

According to Gill 2000, achievement motivation incorporates

Master a task, Persistence in the face of failure

Why Arousal Influences Performance

Increased muscle tension and coordination difficulties Narrowing of attention Attending to inappropriate cues Performance worries and situation-irrelevant thoughts

The inverted U hypothesis

Indicates a symmetrical relationship between arousal and performance

Individualised Zones of Optimal Functioning theory suggests that:

Individuals have a personal bandwidth of optimal anxiety

How does Sage (1977) define motivation?

Intensity and direction of one's efforts

Self talk process

It's all about being happy to be a good 'coper' until it becomes automatic

The main attributional categories are

Locus of control, locus of causality and stability

The differences between experts and novices occur due to the expert's ability

Make quicker decisions, predict the flight of the ball

In the Hardy and Parfitt (1991) study, physiological arousal was manipulated by

Making the players run shuttles

examples of achievement motivation

Master a task/Strive for task success Achieve excellence Overcome Obstacles Persist in the face of failure & adversity Perform better than others Take pride in exercising talent Challenge oneself through choice of activity Pursue goals with intensity & effort

According to the need achievement theory, the key factors that influence achievement behavior are:

Motive to achieve success or avoid failure

Self reports for assessing attention

NASA: Task Load Index SWAT: Mental Effort Load TAIS: Test of Attention & Interpersonal Style

NAR attention style

Narrow Attentional Focus (Narrow when required)

Which are the 4 different types of attentional focus according to the Nideffer model?

Narrow internal, Narrow external, Broad internal, Broad external

Which of the following are potential negative effects of arousal on performance?

Narrowing of attention, Coordination difficulties, Increased muscle tension

potential problems with attention in sport

Not focusing on relevant cues (selective attention - which ones to look at and which ones to disregard) Not maintaining focus over time (vigilance) Not having awareness or understanding of the situation Not shifting attention focus when necessary

OET attention style

Overloaded by external stimuli (errors due to attending to irrelevant external factors)

OIT attention style

Overloaded by internal stimuli (errors due to attending to irrelevant internal factors)

Competence Motivation Theory

Participants Higher: -Perceived cognitive & physical competence -General self-worth -Expectations for future success Former gymnasts has higher perceptions of physical & social competence than current gymnasts But we appear to be motivated by what we think we are best at High perceived physical comp are motivated by skill development High perceived social competence are motivated by social affiliation

According to Bandura which of the following concepts have a greater impact on self-efficacy ?

Performance Accomplishments

Self Efficacy Theory (in order of Size of Impact They Have On Self Efficacy)

Performance Accomplishments Vicarious Experiences Verbal Persuasion Perceptions of Arousal

ABC's of psychology

Positive emotions: Pride, enjoyment, happiness, excitement of challenge Achievement behaviours: Task goals, seeks challenges, performs well in evaluation, increased effort & persistence, relaxed under pressure Useful Cognitions: Concentration, focus, achievement goals, high expectations, self worth and control, attributions

Explain what is meant by deliberate practice

Practicing a task with the aim of increasing skill mastery

Countering Self Handicapping

Pressure reducing strategies (perceptions, expectations, process focus). Encouragement of realistic expectations (protect self-esteem). Demonstration of capacity to perform (ability). Identification and encouragement of accurate performance attributions. Encourage perceptions of future control. Use of replacement phrases.

Define selective theory of attentional processes

Process some things and ignore others (Cocktail Party Phenomenon) Single channel: Information is processed through a single and fixed capacity channel Spot Light Analogy

What are the ways to measure arousal, stress, and anxiety?

Psycho-physiological signs (heart rate, respiration, skin conductance, biochemistry, e.g cortisol) Trait Anxiety - Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT, Martens, 1977) State Anxiety - Competitive Sport Anxiety Inventory - 2 (CSAI-2, Martens, et al., 1990)

RED attention style

Reduced Attentional Focus (breakdown when shifting from internal to external or vice versa)

____ & ____ are theories of attentional processes

Selective & capacity

According to the graph is it the athlete's self-determination or their perceived competence which is the most important to satisfy in terms of influencing intrinsic motivation?

Self-determination

Task orientated

Skill mastery Be challenged Be better than last time Competence Task difficulty self-referenced Values - Strong work ethic - Persistence in the face of failure - Optimal performance - No fear of failure - Greater control = more intrinsically motivated

Which attributions are associated with which expectations?

Stable - It will happen again Unstable - Who knows what will happen Internal - It's my fault ******** it! External - You Little Bas**d Controllable - I can sort that out Uncontrollable - Swept along in current

Define state anxiety

State anxiety refers to "right now" feelings that change from moment to moment state anxiety is 'Multidimensional' - with a somatic component and a cognitive component. Arousal -> State Anxiety -> Cognitive or Somatic (Body)

What are structures for attention

Stimulus senses used Memory codes verbal (said & seen) or visual (picture & word as visual) Stages processing (input, internal processing & output)

According to Deci and Ryan's (1985) Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET), what is meant by perceived locus of causality?

The controlling aspect of a reward (what causes the persons behaviour)

Feedback

Too much positive feedback has been shown to reduce Intrinsic Motivation Criticism contingent with performance with correction info has shown to increase IM while praise reduce IM

What are the 2 types of anxiety

Trait & state

What are personal sources of stress and anxiety?

Trait anxiety, self-esteem, and Confidence/ self-efficacy

Define trait anxiety

a general disposition to respond to a variety of situations with high levels of state anxiety. Trait anxiety is a personality disposition that is stable over time.

Bandura (1977) developed the theory of: a. Self-efficacy b. Self-confidence c. Self-belief d. Self-worth

a. Self-efficacy

Processing Efficiency Theory contends that increases in anxiety have two main effects; one is ............. and the other................ Complete the sentence; a. motivational, attentional. b. Emotional, behavioural. c. Cognitive, emotional d. Affective, cognitive.

a. motivational, attentional.

In Catastrophe Theory when cognitive anxiety is high increasing physiological arousal has what impact? a. None b. Increases performance up to a threshold or cusp after which performance catastrophes will occur. c. Increases performance linearly. d. Increases performance up to an optimal level and then gradually declines.

b. Increases performance up to a threshold or cusp after which performance catastrophes will occur.

Psychophysiological research on attentional processes in archers and pistol shooters (e.g. Hatfield, Landers & Ray, 1984) has revealed that accuracy is increased when performers' brain waves are in which frequency? a. beta b. alpha c. delta d. gamma

b. alpha

Multidimensional Anxiety Theory

based on the assumption that competitive anxiety is comprised of two distinct parts; a cognitive component, and a somatic component, both having dissimilar effects on performance. components can be manipulated independently of one another The cognitive component has been defined as the negative expectations and concerns about one's ability to perform and the possible consequences of failure. The somatic component is the physiological effects of the anxiety experience, such as an increase in autonomic arousal with negative physiological effects, like palpitations, tense muscles, shortness of breath, clammy hands

The Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) assesses: a. Self-esteem. b. Cognitive anxiety. c. Trait anxiety. d. State anxiety.

c. Trait anxiety.

According to Jackson & Baker (2001), mental skills that can be used to help concentration in rugby goal kicking include: a. thought stopping, self talk, visual cueing & imagery b. mood words c. arousal control, goal setting, association d. a & b

d. a & b

Self-efficacy for sports performers is defined as the a. degree of certainty that they will cope when under pressure b. degree of certainty about their ability to be successful in sport c. degree of certainty that they will win d. degree of certainty that they have the ability to perform a task successfully

d. degree of certainty that they have the ability to perform a task successfully

In McGrath's (1971) 4 stage model of the stress process. Stage 1 is; a. The behavioural consequences of stress, b. Cognitive Anxiety c. Somatic Anxiety d. Environmental Demands.

d. environmental demands

Two key factors that influence motivation according to the goal achievement theory are: a. perceived control and perceived competence b. self esteem and goal orientation c. external and internal rewards d. perceived competence and achievement orientation

d. perceived competence and achievement orientation

Mental capacity in Elite athletes

focusing on the correct cues and avoiding the irrelevant ones creates SPARE MENTAL CAPACITY Also capable of information CHUNKING- so can deal with more information that a novice.

Attention and concentration have the potential to ______?

impair performance

If the perceived locus of causality is internal then intrinsic motivation ______

increases

If there is positive info of competence then Intrinsic motivation _______

increases

Automaticity

occurs without attention of the performer. does not give rise to conscious awareness. does not interfere with other mental activities

Arousal is multifaceted and consists of

physical activation and interpretation of arousal

Define attention

the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought.

Catastrophe Model of Anxiety

proposes four specific relationships between cognitive anxiety, physiological arousal and performance 1. Cognitive anxiety (worry) has a positive linear relationship with performance when physiological arousal is low 2. Cognitive anxiety will have a negative relationship with performance when physiological arousal is high 3. When cognitive anxiety is low, physiological arousal has an inverted U-shaped relationship with performance 4. When cognitive anxiety is high, increased levels of physiological arousal lead to a catastrophic drop in athletic performance.Once this catastrophic drop in performance has occurred, a large reduction in physiological arousal is required to bring performance back on to a higher level, again.

Individualized Zones of Optimal Functioning (IZOF) Hypothesis

proposes that there are individual differences in the way people react to anxiety. Some tend to succeed when anxiety is low while others tend to succeed when anxiety is high.

Elite athletes are good at ______ & _______

realizing patterns & intensity and timing of focus

2 sources of stress and anxiety

situational and personal

Inverted U hypothesis

suggests that optimal performance occurs at an intermediate level of arousal while both low and high levels of arousal will result in impaired performance. a little excitement and stress associated with competition can have a positive effect, but a situation that is too stressful is detrimental. Optimal levels of arousal vary between people doing the same task. for the same person doing different tasks optimal levels of arousal may vary the optimum arousal levels tend to be lower for more complicated tasks.

Motivation

the direction and intensity of one's efforts Important in sport because: 10,000 hours of training to become an expert Deliberate practice Rewards appear to come later.....sometimes much later Commitment to one activity over another Sacrifice 'normal social life'/career/life stability Balancing academia/work with training & competition

Define achievement motivation

the precise characteristics associated with achieving excellence, gaining superior skill sets and maximizing learning.

broad-internal

used to analyze and plan

narrow-external

used to focus exclusively on one or two external cutes

narrow-internal

used to mentally rehearse an upcoming performance or control an emotional state

broad-external

used to rapidly assess a situation