SWRK274

What is evidence-based practice?

"Evidence-based practices are interventions for which there is consistent scientific evidence for showing that they improve client outcomes." Evidence-Based Social Work Is A Concept Awaiting Implementation Much discussed , Required in EPAS , Not clearly Defined , Not yet implemented in pure form

Nominal Measurement

"In Name Only"- no mathematical interpretation Mutually exclusive categories; Lowest level of measurement; Numbers assigned to nominal measures do not have meaning; cannot be ordered; All members of the set are assigned the same number; You can count the number in each category, but cannot do anything else with these numerals. Exhaustive Did you get the intervention or not? Gender ( "female" "male" "transgender") Religious affiliation ("Orthodox Jew," "Catholic," "Methodist," "Hindu") Occupation: In terms of the variable "Occupation," you can say that a lawyer is not equal to a nurse, but you cannot say that the "lawyer" is "more occupational" or "less occupational" than the nurse

NASW Code of Ethics

(e) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should: obtain voluntary and written informed consent from participants, when appropriate, without any implied or actual deprivation or penalty for refusal to participate; without undue inducement to participate; and with due regard for participants' well-being, privacy, and dignity. Informed consent should include information about the nature, extent, and duration of the participation requested and disclosure of the risks and benefits of participation in the research. (f) When evaluation or research participants are incapable of giving informed consent social workers should provide an appropriate explanation to the participants obtain the participants' assent to the extent they are able, and obtain written consent from an appropriate proxy. (g) Social workers should never design or conduct evaluation or research that does not use consent procedures, such as certain forms of naturalistic observation and archival research, unless rigorous and responsible review of the research has found it to be justified because of its prospective scientific, educational, or applied value and unless equally effective alternative procedures that do not involve waiver of consent are not feasible.

NASW Code of Ethics

(h) Social workers should inform participants of their right to withdraw from evaluation and research at any time without penalty. (i) Social workers should take appropriate steps to ensure that participants in evaluation and research have access to appropriate supportive services. (j) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should: protect participants from unwarranted physical or mental distress, harm, danger, or deprivation. (k) Social workers engaged in the evaluation of services should: discuss collected information only for professional purposes and only with people professionally concerned with this information. (l) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should: ensure the anonymity or confidentiality of participants and of the data obtained from them. Social workers should inform participants of any limits of confidentiality, the measures that will be taken to ensure confidentiality, and when any records containing research data will be destroyed.

NASW Code of Ethics

(m) Social workers who report evaluation and research results should: protect participants' confidentiality by omitting identifying information unless proper consent has been obtained authorizing disclosure. (n) Social workers should report evaluation and research findings accurately. They should not fabricate or falsify results and should take steps to correct any errors later found in published data using standard publication methods. (o) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should: be alert to and avoid conflicts of interest and dual relationships with participants, should inform participants when a real or potential conflict of interest arises, and should take steps to resolve the issue in a manner that makes participants' interests primary. (p) Social workers should educate themselves, their students, and their colleagues about responsible research practices.

What makes a good research question

1. Feasibility: Can you start and finish an investigation of your research question with the resources that you can obtain and in the time that is available? 2. Social Importance: Will an answer to your research question make a difference in the social world, even if that is only in terms of helping people understand a problem they consider important? 3. Scientific Relevance: Does your research question help to resolve some contradictory research findings or a puzzling issue in social theory? (King, Keohane, & Verba, 1994)

Consent form checklist

1. How the research participant was chosen/invited to participate and how many will be involved. 2. Who is conducting the study. 3. The purpose of the study. 4. Where the study will take place and how long it will last. 5. What is required of the research participant. 6. Possible risk or discomforts. 7. Possible benefits of participation. 8. Alternatives associated with non-participation. 9. Any cost of participation. 10. Payment or incentives for taking part in study. 11. Stopping or ending participation. 12. What happens if medical attention is needed. 13. Who can answer questions about the project.

Why is research important in Social Work Practice?

1. It is unsafe to assume that whatever a trained social worker does will be effective! Key terms today include: "Evidence-based practice" "Research-informed practice" "Outcomes-based practice" "Practice-based evidence" 2. Social work practice consists largely of interventions and procedures that have not been adequately tested! To date, the social work field has reviewed at best maybe 30-40 percent of all social work interventions currently used in social work practice! 3. Social workers need to distinguish credible findings from weak research methodology. 4. Social work is occasionally attacked from other disciplines and practice fields as not having its own professional knowledge. 5. If the social work services we are offering are not effective and other social work services (treatments; programs) are, we are harming our clients by perpetuating current services. But first, you have to know what services and programs are "effective" ALWAYS be critical of effectiveness- population evaluated? Methods? Outcomes? MORE on this later!

Conceptualization/Operationalization Steps

1. Select the most important variables to study; 2. State exactly what is meant by each variable; 3. Specify how each variable is to be measured; 4. State the value categories or values that each variable can assume.

Why is this class important?

1. We have the responsibility to be accountable to our clients. They have the right to know why we are utilizing certain interventions. CSWE requires schools to "impart an understanding of and appreciation for the necessity of a scientific approach to knowledge building and practice, including the systematic evaluation of practice". NASW Code of Ethics requires that practitioners "critically examine and keep current with emerging knowledge relevant to social work and fully utilize evaluation and research evidence in their professional practice" 2. Pragmatics Most social work practitioners today utilize some research methods in their work, and this requirement will continue to expand. 3. Reality Social workers do not always rely on research evidence in their professional activities. Social workers rely on supervisors, colleagues, personal experiences, and authoritative texts for practice guidance. Information that may often be biased and at odds with research evidence. 4. Movement to Evidence-Based Practice (EBP)! The conscientious and judicious use of current best evidence (research knowledge) in decision-making about interventions at all social work system levels. Social workers should be explicit about the outcomes planned, the rationale for intervention decisions, and their professional knowledge of these interventions.

Concepts

A concept is a mental image that summarizes a set of similar observations, feelings, or ideas. Conceptualization is the process of specifying what we mean by a term. In deductive research, conceptualization helps to translate portions of an abstract theory into specific variables that can be used in testable hypotheses. In inductive research, conceptualization is an important part of the process used to make sense of related observations.

Research ethics: why do we care? What makes research ethical or not? Impetus for ethics in research

A few widely publicized research studies are better known for their contribution to an increased concern for the protection of research participants than for the scientific knowledge they produced (e.g. The Tuskegee Airmen experiments, Millgram Experiments) Prior to the Nuremberg trials (killing persons for spare body parts for other experiments; famine experiments to observe body deterioration; forced to drink seawater and observe death cycle), little attention had been paid to the rights of prisoners and other vulnerable groups. They were regarded as convenient targets for experimentation.

Movement to EBP

A social worker with healthy skepticism for newly proposed practice developments. A social worker who possesses the inclination and skills needed to successfully identify, locate, critique, implement, and evaluate practice relevant research/science information. A social worker who is able to point to specific evidence-based interventions and programs that are promising, effective, and those that have been discredited.

Questions with Aims

Aim 1: To explore what facilitated success for social work faculty in obtaining their requisite degrees. How did American Indian faculty experience (and find success) obtaining the requisite professional degrees for faculty appointments? Aim 2: To explore the experience of American Indian faculty academia overall and in social work academe specifically. How do American Indian Social Work faculty navigate (integrate, experience) their culture and their profession? What challenges unique to their cultural identities do American Indian faculty experience in their professional roles?

Protection of personal information

Allow participants to respond anonymously if possible. Even researcher cannot associate a particular response with a particular person. If anonymity not possible, confidentiality guaranteed Respondents identity is known only to the researcher. No one else can link respondent to their information. Separate identifying information from the research data. Use code numbers and store in a locked cabinet. Do not ask for identifying information unless it is necessary for the study

Ordinal Measurement

Also mutually exclusive; With a fixed order (rank ordered); Indicates rank and nothing more, so numbers assigned have no numerical properties; Ranks orders are not equal interval scales; At this level, you specify only the order of the cases (logical rank order), in "greater than" and "less than" distinctions. A common ordinal measure used in social service agencies is client satisfaction. You may ask clients to indicate whether they are "very satisfied," "satisfied," dissatisfied," or "very dissatisfied" with a particular service. A client who responds "very satisfied" is clearly more satisfied than a client who responds "dissatisfied" - but not twice as satisfied or 2 units more satisfied. Likert Scales

Deciding if Your Research Meets these Ethical Guidelines

As researchers, we do not make this decision alone. Now, all research must pass Internal Review Boards (IRB) to ensure participant safety and follows the tenets of Belmont Report IRB reviews all study procedures and its overall purpose to ensure these principles met to the highest degree possible (e.g. checking the informed consent process, assessing quality of confidentiality safeguards) Many IRB's offer extensive online ethics training prior to engaging in IRB approved research St. Olaf Training Requirements

Hipster

Buzzfeed operationalizes "Hipster" at four levels of "hipsterness" "Insufferable hipster scum" "Hipster- admit it, you're secretly pleased you got this, aren't you?" "Hipster: You got: hipster. Which makes you the same as every other 16-35 year old in the western world that likes anything beyond mainstream popular culture." "Not a hipster: You're like normal and stuff, not a jerk."

Types of relationships

Causation → predicts clearly and unequivocally that the values of the IV produce the different values of the DV Correlation → relationship between two variables believed to covary Association → states a belief in an association between variables; asserts that certain value categories of one variable tend to be found with certain values of another variable No relationship → variables commonly believed to be related may in fact have no relationship at all.

Types of Relationships

Causation → predicts clearly and unequivocally that the values of the IV produce the different values of the DV Correlation → relationship between two variables believed to covary Associationstates a belief in an association between variables; asserts that certain value categories of one variable tend to be found with certain values of another variable No relationship → variables commonly believed to be related may in fact have no relationship at all.

Key Terms in Problem Formulation

Conceptual Definition—specifying abstract concepts or the process through which we specify precisely what we will mean when we use particular terms Operational Definition—translation of conceptual variables into observable (i.e., measureable) terms; indicators that give meaning to a variable by spelling out what the researcher must do to measure it.

elements of hypothesis

Consistency of Conceptualization Relevance to Problem Completeness Specificity Potential for testing

Descriptive: Who are the people without housing? How many are women?

Cultural breakdown, personal histories/characteristics Purely descriptive, no more depth Why is it important? Quantitative data, see patterns/demographics → what services and resources are needed and where to direct them

Deductive vs. Inductive Logic

Deductive Method Researcher begins with a theory, then derives one or more hypotheses from it for testing (quantitative). Inductive Method Theories are developed from the analysis of research data (observation) (qualitative).

Discrete vs continuous variables

Discrete—variables with finite number of distinct and separate values (e.g., gender, political affiliation, military rank) Continuous—variables that theoretically, can take on an infinite number of values (e.g. age, income) Nominal-discrete Ordinal-discrete (but often treated as continuous) Interval-discrete & continuous Ratio-discrete & continuous

Key Principle #3: Justice

Ensuring reasonable, non-exploitative, and well-considered procedures are administered fairly — the fair distribution of costs and benefits to potential research participants — and equally Must balance the right to receive services versus the responsibility to evaluate services and determine effectiveness The difficulty today in the social work practice field is that we have only researched at best 30%? of all interventions/programs used for efficacy (effectiveness). Conversely, we do not know if 60-70% of social work interventions/treatments/programs are helpful or not. This is our responsibility and charge that the field is currently taking very seriously. BUT- difficult as cannot deny services in the process of testing effectiveness

Shaw (2007) suggests we must also remember...

Ethical aspects of research Consideration of our role in the process Knowledge if social and political contexts and uses of research To conduct research in emancipatory ways

SW Research ethics

Ethical issues generally revolve around two related questions: 1. Who should benefit or suffer from the researcher actions? 2. Whose rights should take priority over those of others?

When confronted with an ethical dilemma (6 steps)

Examine your options. Write down all of your options and the ramifications. Conduct a literature review to see how other evaluators have handled the situation. Read code of ethics. Discuss the problem with colleagues and IRB and ask for feedback. Talk with your supervisor. Deliberate and decide.

Experimental (evaluative): What services help the homeless?

Example: Is the housing placement program at a local homeless shelter effective at moving people who are homeless into a stable housing situation? What information do you need to know to answer that question?

Explanatory: Why do people become homeless? Personal choice? Work aversion?

Explain why phenomenon is happening Specify causality x → y Statistical analysis/regression models (different interventions based on contextual issues)

What questions can social science research answer?

Exploratory, Descriptive, Explanatory, Experimental

Going back to our questions...

Exploring the effect of a intercultural competency intervention on social work students... What is the impact of an intergroup dialogue program on intercultural sensitivity of social work students? What is the impact of an intergroup dialogue program on cultural knowledge of social work students? What is the impact of an intergroup dialogue program on the social justice action of social work students?

What is the question (Do mandatory arrest policies decrease domestic violence recidivism?) Other quantitative examples:

Exploring the effect of an intercultural competency intervention on social work students... What is the impact of an intergroup dialogue program on intercultural sensitivity of social work students? What is the impact of an intergroup dialogue program on knowledge of systems of oppression of social work students? What is the impact of an intergroup dialogue program on the social justice action of social work students? Exploring how ACT affects rates of institutionalization for people with mental illness... Are rates of clients' use of institutional settings—both hospitals and jails—reduced after treatment by an ACT team? Do clinicians' and clients' perspectives about clients' improvement in selected treatment areas differ? What factors predict declines in admission to an institution?

Criteria of problem statement

Express or explore a relationship between two or more variables Clearly stated and unambiguously, typically in question form (i.e., asks a question) Problem and problem statement imply possibilities of empirical testing Only one relationship per question- do not "double barrel" your questions

What is research?

Faulkner Faulkner (2009): "Research is...the assimilation of knowledge and the gathering of data in a logical manner in order to become informed about something"

Voluntary Participation

Free to decide to participate, no coercion. Must be competent to understand choices. If mentally impaired or a minor, legal guardian gives consent, and participant gives assent (when possible) Consent must be: Orally explained if needed. In language they understand. Written, if can read. Written in simple language. Details on content of informed consent forms later Self determination Right to withdraw at any time with no negative consequences. Potential participants should be given sufficient information through informed consent about the study to determine any possible risks or discomforts as well as benefits including: Purpose of research; Expected duration of subjects participation; Procedures to be followed; Identification of any procedures that might be experimental; Any potential risks identified; Participants given the opportunity to ask questions.

Question formulation process

Gathering information Categorizing ideas and questions Selecting research questions/creating problem statements Constructing operational definitions of the concepts and variables represented in the question (more on this next week!)

The Social Scientific Approach

Greatly reduces potential sources of error in everyday reasoning. Relies on logical and systematic methods to answer questions. Allows others to inspect and evaluate our methods.

Ratio Measurement

Highest level of measurement; Mutually exclusive categories; Rank order; Equal spacing between categories; and, An Absolute Zero point! If a measure is zero on a ratio scale, then there is a basis for saying that some object has none of the property being measured Can perform all arithmetic operations Income; Number of Children, Number of Sessions, etc. On a ratio scale, 10 is two points higher than 8 and is also two times greater than 5. Ratio numbers can be added and subtracted, and because the numbers begin at an absolute zero point, they can also be multiplied and divided (so ratios can be formed between the numbers).

Exploratory: What is it like to be homeless? Scary/shameful/insecure?

How to conduct → interviews, talk to homeless people about experience/life Mostly qualitative (can be quantitative with newer research)

Things to consider when selecting existing measures...

How valid and reliable is the measure? How accurate is the cut-off score? Is the administration feasible? How sensitive is the measure? Is the measure affordable? Is the measure acceptable to the staff/client? Was the measure tested on "my" population? Standardized?

Operationalizing Concepts - Must Start with Good Conceptualization

If your task is to measure "unemployment" in the labor force of an urban area, your definition (conceptualization) of "unemployment" is critical. "Unemployed v. Employed" You must first define, "labor force," for example, 3-year-olds do not count, but must specify. How about, "all persons over 14 who are employed, looking for work, or waiting to be called back to a job" Okay, but what does "looking for work" mean?

Voluntary Participation: Protected Populations and Former Clients

In addition to minors, special protection offered to pregnant women and prisoners Can you assume prisoners within correctional facilities are volunteering? What about your clients (or former) as program evaluation participants? Would the client agree if a relationship did not already exist? Can you be certain obligation, gratitude, or even fear is not influencing the decision?

As a research participant, what would you want to know going into the process? How would you want to be treated? What would you want to know when the research is concluded? Foundations of Research Ethics

In the United States, the Belmont Report (a product of the National Commission for the protection of human subjects) of 1978 mandates research honor three key principles: Respect for persons, Beneficence, Justice

How do we operationalize concepts? Ways to Measure!

Indicators: a single question is used to measure a concept (e.g. What is your total income?) Scales and Indexes: the sum or average of several questions is used to measure the same concept (e.g., The Beck Depression scale) Improved Validity Improved Reliability Increased Level of Measurement (MORE ON ALL OF THIS NEXT WEEK)

How do we operationalize concepts? Ways to Measure!

Indicators: a single question is used to measure a concept (e.g. What is your total income?) Scales and Indexes: the sum or average of several questions is used to measure the same concept (e.g., The Beck Depression scale, CES-D) Improved Validity Improved Reliability Increased Level of Measurement

Hallmarks of EBP

Individualized assessment (strengths, needs, values, preferences of client) Well-formulated question (database query) Well-executed search of research literature Deciding its applicability to clients Considering the evidence together with the values and preferences of the client.

Qualitative research

Is admittedly subjective Seeks to understand Produces hypotheses Data often processed as received Research is the instrument Uses inductive logic Descriptive knowledge

Level of Measurement

LOOK at SLIDES FOR QUIZ REVIEW 1. What is the level of measurement for the the variable, "Number of Presidential Elections In Which Respondent Voted in Entire Life", measured by the number the respondent reports? → RATIO 2. What is the level of measurement for the variable, "political ideology", measured as "Very Conservative", "Conservative", "Moderate", "Liberal" and "Very Liberal"? → ORDINAL 3. What is level of measurement for the variable "political party affiliation", with values "Democrat", "Independent", "Republican" or "Green"? → NOMINAL 4. What is the level of measurement for the variable "Political Ideology Scale", measured on a scale of 6-24, where 6=Very Conservative and 24=Very Liberal? → INTERVAL

Other ethical considerations

Laud Humphrey's study of same sex sexual behavior (1974- Watched and examined roles in sexual encounters in public bathrooms, took license plates of men involved in sex act, then later showed up at their "married household", and interviewed the family without disclosure) raised the consensus that: Data gathered and sometimes recorded for one research purpose can sometimes, but not usually, be utilized for an unintended research purpose Need to respect privacy People should be able to control when and under what conditions people have access to information about their beliefs, values, and behaviors. Research should not warrant threats to privacy. Offer participants an opportunity to destroy data. Videotaping an unknowing subject is seen as unethical.

Good Social Work Research

Lessens the tendency to answer questions about the social world from ego-based commitments, excessive devotion to tradition, and/or unquestioning respect for authority. Example of ego-based commitment: "My experience volunteering in a homeless shelter has taught me all I need to know about the homeless." Example of excessive devotion to tradition: "Change our policy? But we've always done it that way!" Example of unquestioning respect for authority: "My professor told us that most people are homeless due to mental illness, not the state of the economy." GOOD Research does not negate commitments, tradition, authority- creates a system of checks and balances!

Levels of IRB Review

Level of review (how many people involved in the assessment and detail of the examination) depends on the type of research and type of sample (who is to participate in the research) Exemption certificate Much secondary data research Educational research Research cannot include: Minors (except educational), Pregnant women, Prisoners, Patients, Individuals with mental disabilities, Deception, Discomfort or harassment beyond what is experienced daily Expedited - Minimal risk Full Review if research involves: Vulnerable populations More than minimal risk St. Olaf IRB- Types 1,2 and 3

What is good research?

Much debate on which research most valid, useful, accurate, applicable Generally, rigor is key (applying methods appropriately, meticulously, ethically and skillfully) Some favor certain methods, others value all forms of evidence equally (more on this later!!) The quantitative/qualitative debate (more on this later)

Creating all necessary measures

Must assign measures to our... Independent variables Dependent variables Control Variables/Confounding variables

Cross-cultural research

Must consider implications of not only race/ethnicity but class, sexuality, ability, age, gender, religion/spirituality and other cultural identity positions When asking for demographic information, do so with as much self-determination as possible (e.g. not only discrete racial categories) Spend time immersing yourself directly in the culture of the researched group Use scholars from that culture in your literature review, as research partners, consultants, etc. Do not assume measurement instruments used in prior studies of other cultural groups can yield valid information for the group of interest (check the "normed" group) Measurement equivalence Linguistic Conceptual Measurement (must have first two to have this) Look for differences among varying levels of acculturation- being aware of the sensitive nature of this term (may look at adaptation- ability to move between cultures) Consider pros and cons of who conducts interviews Assess your own cross-cultural competence and potential biases

Operationalizing Key Variables

Must have good methods of measuring Independent variables Dependent variables Control variables Only once we have done above can we determine if there are any relationships among our key variables

Literature reviews

Must include good, empirical articles An empirical article is based on observations and reports of an actual study that was designed and completed by the authors. The authors provide information about the people who were in their sample, how the data was collected, and the findings.

Evolution of Ethical Standards for Research

Nuremberg Code (1948) Rights of human subjects Necessity of voluntarism & informed consent Favorable risk-to-benefit ratio Right of voluntary withdrawal from research without penalty Helsinki Declaration (1964) All human research subjects are to receive the best available at the time Interests of individual subjects shall have priority over the interests of society National Research Act (1974) Direct result of the Tuskegee study Established the modern system of Institutional Review Boards for federally funded research (biomedical and social & behavioral) Belmont Report (1978) Ethical standards Defining principles of research ethics

Deception

Occasionally must deceive participants about the true purpose of the study Should not occur unless there is no other way. Benefits must outweigh the harm. Consent forms should state that participation may involve deception. Always try another way before resorting to deception.

From concepts to observations

Operationalization is the process of connecting concepts to observations. The goal is to devise operations that measure the concepts we intend to measure—in other words to achieve measurement validity. Researchers develop an operational definition including: What is measured How the indicators are measured The rules used to assign value to what is observed

NASW Code of Ethics

Our Social Work Ethical Mandates (a) Social workers should monitor and evaluate: Policies, the implementation of programs, and practice interventions. (b) Social workers should promote and facilitate: evaluation and research development of knowledge. (c) Social workers should critically examine and keep current with emerging knowledge relevant to social work and fully use evaluation and research evidence in their professional practice. (d) Social workers engaged in evaluation or research should: carefully consider possible consequences should follow guidelines developed for the protection of evaluation and research participants. gain approval from the appropriate institutional review boards.

Hypotheses Examples

Participation in an intergroup dialogue program will improve students' intercultural sensitivity more than those who engage in course work alone. (positive) Participation in an intergroup dialogue program will have the same effect on student's cross-cultural knowledge as social work education without the dialogue component. (no relationship) Students who participate in an intergroup dialogue program are more likely to engage in specific social justice action than those who engage in course work alone. (positive)

Research Process

Phase 1—Problem Formulation Phase 2—Designing the Study Phase 3—Data Collection Phase 4--Data Processing Phase 5—Data Analysis Phase 6—Interpreting the Findings Phase 7—Writing the Research Report

Scientific Guidelines for Social Work Research to KEEP IN MIND

Plan and carry out investigations systematically Document all procedures and keep them transparent Specify the meetings of terms Maintain a skeptical stance toward current knowledge Replicate research and build social theory

Relationships Expressed by Hypothesis

Positive Relationship → DV increases as the IV increases Negative Relationship → variables move in opposite directions—as one increases the other decreases Curvilinear Relationship → nature of the relationship changes at certain levels of the variables

Interval Measurement

Possess the characteristics of ordinal levels; Mutually exclusive categories Inherent order Adds equal spacing between categories; Zero is arbitrary, so cannot make ratio statements (twice or three times as hot, cold, etc.); Temperature scales IQ scores

Phase 1 - problem formulation

Process by which a question for research is identified, developed, and joined to a method of investigation (quantitative or qualitative) that can effectively deliver an answer to the question (Anastas & MacDonald, 1994) A difficulty or problem is recognized for which more knowledge is needed. A question, formally called a research question, is then posed. How do we decide on a problem? AKA: Problem Sources Personal, social, and cultural values Practice experience/recognizing a gap, noticing something is missing Requests for Proposals (RFPs) for research funding Dissatisfaction or disagreement with existing ideas Personal history Professional and agency considerations Opportunity or luck Outline: The Process and Problems What is the Problem? What does the Research Foundation say about the problem? (review literature) What is the Theory (if any)? (key concepts/terms defined and organized) Develop Questions What is the Strategy? Is it Ethical? Criteria for Research Problems: Relevancy of the Problem, Researchability of the Problem, Feasibility of the Study, Ethical Acceptability Narrowing the topic - a must for researchers! Start broad, get narrow (key step—review of the available literature) Question(s) must be narrow, specific and answerable by observable evidence (empiricism) Feasibility—scope, time, costs, ethical considerations & cooperation from others (key issue!)

Key Principle #1: Respect for Persons

Protecting the autonomy of all people and treating them with courtesy and respect Obtaining truly informed consent from participants to participate In a nutshell, participation must be voluntary

Report Writing Ethical Guidelines

Provide an honest accounting of how the research was carried out and where the initial research design had to be changed. Maintain a full record of the research project so that questions can be answered if they arise. Avoid "lying with statistics" or using graphs to mislead. Acknowledge the sponsors of the research. Thank the staff who made major contributions. Be sure that the order of authorship for co authored reports is discussed in advance and reflects agreed-upon principles.

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

Quantitative Most often used for explanatory or evaluative (experimental) research (sometimes descriptive). Goal is to develop an understanding that correctly reflects reality. Qualitative Most often used for exploratory (and descriptive) research. Goal is to develop an "authentic" understanding of a social process, individual experience or setting.

Variable: age - what is your age?

Ratio "Give number" Interval "1-10"; 11-20"; "21-30"; "31-40"; "41-50", etc Ordinal "1-10"; 11-25"; "26-32"; "33-40"; "41+" Nominal "Under 30" or "30 and older"

Good Social Work Research

Reduces the likelihood of overgeneralization, the tendency to choose to look only at things that are in line with our preferences or beliefs. Example: Jack Olson abused alcohol. Is that true of all people who are homeless? Avoids illogical reasoning, when we prematurely jump to conclusions or argue on the basis of invalid assumptions. Example: You propose individuals who are homeless don't want to work, but the evidence indicates that many are unemployed because of a shortage of jobs or a tendency for those who are unemployed to have mental or physical disabilities. Can reduce the risk of selective or inaccurate observation. Example: If you're convinced that all people who are homeless are prone to violence, you can find many confirming instances.

Voluntary Participation and Compensation

Reimburse for costs incurred: Babysitting; Time from work; Transportation. Balance with threat of undue inducement. Is it still voluntary if the participant needs the money? Consider. Folks may fabricate information to be eligible for payment. Other options: Lotteries; Tokens, small incentives

What is evidence? (What information do we use to make practice decisions? Are some of these sources more valuable than others?)

Scientific Evidence Empirical Information is collected through observation Collected systematically and purposefully Replicable/Replicated **Objective and free of bias is the goal Non-scientific Evidence Personal experience Personal observation Anecdotal reports (not scientifically collected/analyzed) Assertions by "authorities" Feelings or intuition

Quantitative research

Seeks to be objective Seeks to explain Tests hypotheses Data analyzed after collected Reliance on standardized instruments Uses deductive logic Predictive knowledge

Literature Reviews

Social research foundation Formulate a GENERAL research question before you begin to search, even though the question will change/get more specific. Identify the question's parts and subparts, and any related issues that you think may play an important role in the research. List the authors of relevant studies that you are aware of, possible keywords that might specify the subject for your search, and perhaps the most important journals that deal with your topic. For example, if your research question is "Do mandatory arrest policies decrease domestic violence recidivism?" you might consider searching the literature electronically for studies that mentioned "mandatory arrests," or just "arrests and domestic violence," as well as "domestic violence and recidivism." You would also want to check back issues of Violence Against Women or Crime and Delinquency, two journals that have published articles on this topic

Social work and the social world

Social science methods help social work researchers and practitioners to examine: Social Policies; Social Programs; Social Work Interventions.

Lit reviews - "empirical"

Some articles will report findings from other studies. These are not usually "empirical" articles as they usually do not contain information about how the study was conducted. May inform research but also need some original work Some articles are advocacy or policy writings that cite other authors' work, these are also not "empirical."

Research with Current and Former Clients

Special precautions with clients (or former): Clients must not (and be aware they will not) suffer loss or disadvantage if they decline. Preexisting relationships should not be damaged. Neutral person should be available for support. Should be anonymous.

Quantitative questions

Suggest a specific relationship between variables independent variable(s) on dependent variable(s) e.g., Is A related to B? How are A & B related to C? How is A related to B under conditions C & D? May explore the causes of phenomenon to inform future points of intervention or promote understanding May explore how an intervention impacts specific outcome variables

Qualitative questions

Tend to explore processes or experiences of participants in regard to a particular phenomenon Typically do not evaluate specific outcomes May look at differences of experiences among groups What are the coming out processes for adolescents who identify as transgender? How do case management providers develop therapeutic alliances in everyday practice? How do case management providers manage adherence problems in everyday practice?

Conceptualization example: substance abuse

The DSM-IV defines substance abuse as the "repeated use of a substance to the extent that it interferes with adequate social, vocational, or self-care functioning." Many researchers use the above definition. Definition is stated in clear and precise language. It also reflects a particular theoretical orientation (the "disease model").

Key Principle #2: Beneficence - do no harm

The philosophy of "Do no harm" while maximizing benefits for the research project and minimizing risks to the research subjects Includes not inducing any unnecessary pain and suffering (physical, psychological, emotional, threat to reputation) Balancing the benefits of research knowledge with the consequences for research participation Also must attend to protection of personal information for all participants

What is measurement?

The process of describing abstract concepts in terms of specific indicators by the assignment of numbers or other symbols to these indicants in accordance with rules. Involves assessing how much or to what degree a variable is present. Process of moving from the abstract or theoretical level to the concrete.

The Imperative for Social Work Research

The profession of social work must demonstrate that services delivered to clients are effective. Directives to do this is from: Government, Managed Care Insurers, Local Funders Most importantly, social work practitioners should be accountable to their clients in the delivery of practice.

What is theory? (How does it fit into this problem formulation business?)

Theories have a special place in social research because they help us make connections to general social processes and large bodies of research. Building and evaluating theory is, therefore, one of the most important objectives of social science. A social theory is a logically interrelated set of propositions about empirical reality Deterrence Theory or Labeling Theory

Steps in measurement

Translate conceptual into operational definitions Determine level of measurement Find existing or create or own measures (may be a series of questions creating a scale, may be a single indicator) Ensure reliability/validity of our selected measures Measure it!! (using a predetermined research design and sample- more on this later in semester!)

First answer on Midterm

True

Lit Review: why?

Unless the literature is reviewed, we don't know if the question we posed has been asked, the variables, the problems encountered by others, measures used, direction of the research Prime source of selecting research question Identification of variables to be used in study

Voluntary Participation, consent, and research with Minors

Used to be able to send note home with children/youth explaining the study and parents rights to not have their child participate. Now, due to the Family Privacy Act you must expressly obtain written consent unless a waiver is obtained, and always for any sensitive research. Sexual; illegal; antisocial; self incriminating; psychological problems, etc. always require written consent from parent 40-50% of parents fail to respond to mailed or students delivered requests for consent - Problem? In addition to parental consent, when possible, must also obtain assent from minor participant

Key Terms for Hypothesis Writing

Variables-specific concepts or theoretical constructs we are investigating Must exist in at least two different states or capable of taking on more than one value Include: Independent->any characteristic, event or situation presumed to affect another variable (manipulated or controlled by the researcher) Dependent->variable presumably affected by an independent variable Extraneous->alternative explanations for relationships observed between independent and dependent variables Control->variables that we seek to control in our design that may explain away the relationship or lack thereof between the IV & DV Unit of Analysis—objects or events under study (individuals, social roles, positions, relationships, social groupings, social artifacts) Hypothesis—a statement that postulates the relationship between the IV and DV; a tentative statement that predict what we expect to find about the way variables may covary Stated in either present or future tense, never in the form of a question

Do mandatory arrest policies decrease domestic violence recidivism? For this research question....MIDTERM EXAMPLE QUESTIONS

What concepts require definitions? How might we conceptualize them? How might we operationalize them? Formulate an hypothesis for this question. What is the dependent variable? Independent variable? What extraneous variables might explain the relationship? What should we control for as a result?

4 Key Questions

What exactly do you want to study? Why is it worth studying? In what ways does the proposed study have significance for practice and policy Does it contribute to our general understanding of things?

Lit Review: Key Questions

What have others said about this topic? What theories address it and what do they say? What research has been done previously? Are there consistent findings or do past studies disagree? Are there flaws in the body of existing research that you feel you can remedy? How will your study relate to, yet go beyond, the previous studies? How has the prior work influenced your proposed study?

Conceptual and Operational Example

What is the impact of an intergroup dialogue program on intercultural sensitivity of social work students? Conceptual definitions: Intercultural sensitivity, "the ability to discriminate and experience relevant cultural differences" Operational definition: Intercultural Sensitivity: as measured by the Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI). This theory-based instrument with established reliability and validity measures intercultural sensitivity along the continuum of ethnocentrism to ethnorelativism. The inventory is a paper and pencil test with fifty questions. It has five scales measuring degree of resolution for five steps on the continuum of ethnocentrism to ethnorelativism

Level of measurement

When we know a variable's level of measurement, we can better understand how cases vary on that variable and so understand more fully what we have measured. The mathematical precision with which the values of a variable can be expressed is the level of measurement. The nominal and ordinal (or categorical; discrete variables) levels of measurement, which is qualitative, has no mathematical interpretation The quantitative levels of interval and ratio—are progressively more precise mathematically (continuous variables)

Ethics Exercise

You are interested in studying social networks/supportive individuals in the lives of youth in your program nearing adulthood (age 16-18). You are hoping to identify how they use these networks to address various challenges/decisions in life as they prepare for young adulthood. What areas do you think would be of interest to explore regarding youth transitioning to adulthood (e.g. post high school plans, problems with parents)? With these topics in mind, how will you obtain consent from all your participants? What are the pros and cons of the consent process you intend to use? What risks do you see being possible for your participants? What level of St. Olaf IRB review will you expect? Will you choose to pay participants? Why or why not? Are there other ethical considerations to consider in this case?, If so, what are they? How might you address them?

Are You Getting Ahead of Yourself? 6 common mistakes

believing that all problems are research problems beginning by "knowing" what will be found beginning with a research hypothesis beginning with a research design beginning with a data collection instrument beginning with a method for statistical analysis

Newest EBP Model

look at slides/final notes for diagram