Taylor Chapter 21 Content

ADOLESCENCE (hav)

Accepting his or her body and using it effectively Achieving a masculine or feminine gender role Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults Preparing for a career Preparing for marriage and family life Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior Acquiring an ethical system as a guide to behavior

LATER MATURITY (hav)

Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health Adjusting to retirement and reduced income Adjusting to death of a spouse Establishing an explicit affiliation with the person's age group Adjusting and adapting social roles in a flexible way Establishing satisfactory physical living arrangements

Gould AGES 35 TO 43 YEARS: MIDLIFE DECADE

Adults in this age group tend to continually look inward and question themselves, their values, and life. They see time as having an end and believe they have little time left to shape the behavior of their adolescent children. They may be critical of their own parents, blaming them for many of their own problems.

The pace of growth and development is specific for each person

Both physical and psychological skills and maturation vary among people. For example, while learning to walk, a child may concentrate energies on that task and temporarily lag in language development. Racial variations may also be seen. For example, Asian children tend to be smaller than White children of the same age. In addition, a person's genetics places restrictions on the upper limits that can be achieved in growth and development.

Piaget Cognitive (school yrs)

Concrete operational stage: Develops logical thinking; incorporates others' perspectives; uses abstract thinking and deductive reasoning; tests beliefs to establish values Formal operational stage: Adopts life-guiding values or religious practices

INITIATIVE VERSUS GUILT (PRESCHOOL) (Erikson)

Confidence gained as a toddler allows the preschooler (ages 4 to 6 years) to take the initiative in learning so that the child actively seeks out new experiences and explores the how and why of activities. If the child experiences restrictions or reprimands for seeking new experiences and learning, guilt results, and the child hesitates to attempt more challenging skills in motor or language development.

Fowler STAGE 5: CONJUNCTIVE FAITH

Conjunctive faith integrates other viewpoints about faith into a person's understanding of truth. The person can see the real nature of his or her own beliefs. Along with this realization, the person observes the divisions of faith development among people.

INDUSTRY VERSUS INFERIORITY (SCHOOL-AGED CHILDREN) (Erikson)

Focusing on the end result of achievements, the school-aged child gains pleasure from finishing projects and receiving recognition for accomplishments (Fig. 21-4). If the child is not accepted by peers or cannot meet parental expectations, a feeling of inferiority and lack of self-worth may develop.

Gilligan CONVENTIONAL: GOODNESS

In level 2, moral judgment is based on shared norms and expectations, and societal values are adopted. Acceptance by others becomes critical, and the ability to protect and care for others becomes the defining characteristic of female goodness. This characteristic is upheld through beliefs that person is responsible for the actions of others but that others are responsible for the choices they make. As a woman examines her self-sacrifice, the second transition occurs, with the woman asking if her own needs are not also important. A shift from goodness to truth (as well as a new conception of goodness) takes place.

Gilligan POSTCONVENTIONAL: NONVIOLENCE

In level 3, a changed understanding of self and a redefinition of morality allow reconciliation of selfishness and responsibility. Nonviolence (the injunction against hurting) governs all moral judgments and actions. Care becomes a universal obligation toward self and others. Moral problems are usually considered within the contexts of maintaining relationships and promoting the welfare or preventing the harm of others.

SETTLING DOWN: BUILDING A SECOND ADULT LIFE STRUCTURE

In the settling-down phase (ages 33 to 40), the adult invests energy into the areas of life that are most personally important. The areas of investment are primarily family, work, and community. The person strives to gain respect, status, and a sense of authority.

Gould AGES 22 TO 28 YEARS: GETTING INTO THE ADULT WORLD

Individuals in their 20s feel established as adults and separate from their families, but believe they must still demonstrate their competence as independent adults to their parents. They want to enjoy the present, but build for the future.

Erikson's psychosocial (adolescent to adult yrs)

Identity versus role confusion (adolescence): Exploration for personal identity and a sense of self; development of fidelity Intimacy versus isolation (young adulthood): Development of happy relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and caring; development of love

Gilligan PRECONVENTIONAL: SELFISHNESS

In level 1, the focus is on the girl's or woman's own needs. Should and would are the same. Morality is seen in terms of sanctions by society. Relationships are often disappointing, and as a result, a woman may isolate herself to avoid getting hurt. The transition that follows this level is characterized by the move from selfishness to responsibility—a move that integrates the responsibility to care for oneself with the desire to care for others.

Fowler STAGE 4: INDIVIDUATIVE-REFLECTIVE FAITH

Individuative-reflective faith is crucial for older adolescents and young adults because they become responsible for their own commitments, beliefs, and attitudes. Many adults do not develop to this stage, and for some people, it does not emerge until they are in their 30s or 40s. Searching for self-identity no longer defined by the faith compositions of significant others is a primary concern.

Erikson Psychosocial (school yrs)

Industry versus inferiority: Self-esteem based on feedback from others; development of competence

Erikson Psychosocial (preschool to early school yrs)

Initiative versus guilt: Development of interpersonal skills through activities with others; development of purpose

Fowler STAGE 1: INTUITIVE-PROJECTIVE FAITH

Intuitive-projective faith is most typical of the 3- to 7-year-old child. Children imitate religious gestures and behaviors of others, primarily their parents. They take on their parents' attitudes toward religious or moral beliefs without a thorough understanding of them. Imagination in this stage leads to long-lived images and feelings that they must question and reintegrate in later stages.

TRUST VERSUS MISTRUST (INFANT) (Erikson)

The infant learns to rely on caregivers to meet basic needs of warmth, food, comfort, and forming trust in others. Mistrust can result from inconsistent, inadequate, or unsafe care

PHALLIC STAGE (AGES 3 TO 7 YEARS)

The child has increased interest in sex differences and in his or her own sex (Fig. 21-1). The child experiences conflict and resolution of that conflict with the parent of the same sex (named the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls, based on feelings of intimate sexual possessiveness for the opposite-sex parent). Curiosity about the genitals and masturbation increase during this stage.

Erikson Psychosocial infancy to toddlerhood

Trust versus mistrust (infant): Uncertainty; development of hope Autonomy versus shame and doubt (toddler): Exploration of the limits of abilities; development of will

accommodation

an alteration of existing thought processes to manage more complex information.

Growth

an increase in body size or changes in body cell structure, function, and complexity

Development

an orderly pattern of changes in structure, thoughts, feelings, or behaviors resulting from maturation, experiences, and learning. Development is a dynamic and continuous process as one proceeds through life, characterized by a series of ascents, plateaus, and declines.

Freud's Libido

he underlying stimulus for human behavior as sexuality; general pleasure-seeking instincts rather than purely genital gratification.

Id (Freud)

part of the mind concerned with self-gratification by the easiest and quickest available means.

Environment and nutrition influence all stages of development

true

Freud's theory

unconscious mind, id, ego, superego

What 4 concepts are Erikson's theory based on?

Stages of development Developmental goals or tasks Psychosocial crises Process of coping

MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (hav)

Accepting and adjusting to physical changes Attaining and maintaining a satisfactory occupational performance Assisting children to become responsible adults Relating to the spouse as a person Adjusting to aging parents Achieving adult social and civic responsibility

Havighurst's developmental (adolescent to adult yrs)

Achieving gender-specific social role; achieving emotional independence; acquiring a set of values and an ethical system to guide socially responsible behavior; preparing for marriage, a family life, and a career

INFANCY AND EARLY CHILDHOOD (Hav.)

Achieving physiologic stability Learning to eat solid foods Learning to walk and talk Forming simple concepts of social and physical reality Learning to relate emotionally to parents, siblings, and other people Learning to control the elimination of body wastes Learning to distinguish between right and wrong Learning sex differences and sexual modesty

Havighurst's developmental (middle adult yrs)

Achieving social and civic responsibility; accepting and adjusting to physical changes

Havighurst's developmental (later adult yrs)

Adjusting to decreasing physical status and health; adjusting to retirement

Growth and development are orderly and sequential, as well as continuous and complex.

All humans experience the same growth patterns and developmental levels. Because these patterns and levels are individualized, a wide variation in biologic and behavioral changes is considered normal. Within each developmental level, certain milestones can be identified. For example, the timing of when the infant rolls over, crawls, walks, or talks is fairly predictable.

EGO INTEGRITY VERSUS DESPAIR (LATER ADULTHOOD) (erikson)

As a person enters the older years, reminiscence about life events provides a sense of fulfillment and purpose. Some older adults may not be fearful of dying if they feel they have achieved integrity. If a person believes that his or her life has been a series of failures or missed directions, a sense of despair may prevail.

AUTONOMY VERSUS SHAME AND DOUBT (TODDLER) (Erikson)

As motor and language skills develop, the toddler (ages 1 to 3 years) learns from the environment and gains independence through encouragement from caregivers to feed, dress, and toilet self. If the caregivers are overprotective or have expectations that are too high, shame and doubt, as well as feelings of inadequacy, may develop in the child.

Growth and development are both differentiated and integrated.

As nerve pathways develop, they become more specialized, allowing the growing child to respond to different stimuli. Throughout the lifespan, each new learned ability builds on previously learned abilities so that increasingly complex tasks can be accomplished. For example, the toddler learning to use a spoon combines motor skills, hand-eye coordination, cognitive patterning, and social imitation from watching others. As children grow and develop, the task of learning to use a spoon becomes basic, forming the foundation for learning skills requiring more manual dexterity.

Gould AGES 43 TO 50 YEARS: RECONCILIATION AND MELLOWING

At this phase, adults accept the reality of boundaries for the lifespan and believe that personalities are set. They are interested in an active social life, church activities, community service, friends, and spouse. Life is viewed as neither simple nor controllable, which may result in periods of passivity, rage, depression, and despair.

GENITAL STAGE (AGES 12 TO 20 YEARS)

At this stage, sexual interest can be expressed in overt sexual relationships. Sexual pressures and conflicts typically cause turmoil as the adolescent makes adjustments in relationships.

General guidelines for incorporating principles and theories of growth and development and family dynamics into daily practice of nursing care are listed here. They are provided as suggestions for working with patients of all ages.

Be knowledgeable about the various stages of cognitive, psychosocial, moral, and spiritual development and prepared to support developmental stages typical of certain ages. Maintain flexibility in assessing patients, and respect the uniqueness of each person. Although the literature describes development typical of a particular age, not everyone fits into an exact mold. Anticipate possible regression during difficult periods or times of crisis, then accept and support a person's return to a forward progression in development. Understand that environmental and cultural influences have a strong effect on development, especially psychosocial development. A deprived environment can be detrimental, whereas an enriched environment enhances development. Assess each person with an awareness that within each stage of development, a person may retain some behaviors of a previous stage, attain goals of the current stage, and begin to exhibit behaviors of the next stage. There is a time of transition to the next stage with no definitive beginning or ending. Remember that patients are members of families, and that the family can have both positive and negative influences on the development of individual members. Attempt to support good family relationships and healthy environments that assist members to reach their greatest potential for growth. Provide patient teaching to individuals and their families to aid in their understanding of periods of development. Be ready to provide health care to patients who are ill or who fail to meet developmental goals. Collaborate with other members of the health care team in providing care to prevent or minimize disruption of development and to promote optimal health throughout life. Provide environments and experiences that are developmentally challenging.

the evolution of individual life structure

By Levinson, darrow, Klein, Levinson, and McKee. The theory centers on the belief that the cycle of life at any point in time is formed by the interaction of three components: the self (values, motives), the social and cultural aspects of the person's life (family, career, religion, ethnic background), and the person's particular set of roles (husband, father, friend, student). When anything changes in one component, the whole life structure must then reorganize. According to Levinson and associates, there are three major phases in young and middle adult life: novice, settling down, and midlife transition.

Growth and development follow regular and predictable trends.

Cephalocaudal (proceeding from head to tail) development is the first trend, with the head and brain developing first, followed by the trunk, legs, and feet. The second trend is proximodistal development, which means that growth progresses from gross motor movements (such as learning to lift the head) to fine motor movements (such as learning to pick up a toy with the fingers). The last trend is symmetric development of the body, with both sides of the body developing equally.

Fowler PRESTAGE: UNDIFFERENTIATED FAITH

During the prestage, trust, courage, hope, and love compete with threats of abandonment and inconsistencies in the infant's environment. The strength of faith in this stage is based on the infant's relationship with the primary caregiver.

Gould AGES 18 TO 22 YEARS: LEAVING THE PARENTS' WORLD

During the young adult years, individuals typically struggle with leaving their parents' world and challenging false assumptions from their childlike consciousness (e.g., "Only my parents can guarantee my safety."). However, these assumptions may be replaced with new false assumptions, such as, "Rewards will come automatically if I do what I am supposed to do."

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE (AGES 6 OR 7 TO 11 OR 12 YEARS) (piaget)

During this stage, children learn by manipulating concrete or tangible objects and can classify articles according to two or more characteristics. Logical thinking is developing, with an understanding of reversibility, relations between numbers, and loss of egocentricity, in addition to the ability to incorporate another's perspective. Children become increasingly aware of external events, and realize that their feelings and thoughts are unique and may not be the same as those of other children their age. They have the ability to focus on multiple parts of a problem at the same time.

THE NOVICE PHASE (Levinson, Klein)

Early Adult Transition, Entering the Adult World, The Age-30 Transition

Erikson's psychosocial (later adult yrs)

Ego integrity versus despair: Change in productivity goals and evaluation of success; development of wisdom

Different aspects of growth and development occur at different stages and at different rates, and can be modified.

For example, muscles and bones both grow most rapidly during the first year of life. During the toddler and preschool years, bone growth slows, but muscle fibers increase in size and strength. The most intense period of speech development is between 3 and 5 years of age. Sexual maturity begins during the preadolescent years and progresses into the adult years, but is based on gender and sex role identity established from birth. Many factors can modify growth and development, including nutrition, environment, love and affection from caregivers, and illnesses.

Erickson's psychosocial (middle adult yrs)

Generativity versus stagnation: Establishment of career, relationships, family, and societal engagement; development of care

Heredity

Genetics; addresses transmission of genetics or what is passed down inherited from generation to generation

Freud psychosexual (adolescent to adult yrs)

Genital stage: Reaching full sexual maturity

Ethic of care

Gilligan, 3 stages: preconventional, conventional, postconventional

Freud Psychosocial (school yrs)

Latent stage: No meaningful focus

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (Hav)

Learning physical skills necessary for games Learning to get along with age-mates Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and mathematics Developing a conscience, morality, and a scale of values Achieving personal independence

Havighurst's developmental (School yrs)

Learning physical skills; learning to get along with others; developing conscience and morality; developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and math; developing concepts related to everyday living; achieving personal independence; developing attitudes toward social groups, institutions, and toward oneself

Havighhurst developmental (Preschool to early school yrs)

Learning sex differences; forming concepts; getting ready to read

Havighurst Developmental (infancy to toddlerhood)

Learning to walk; learning to talk; learning to control body waste elimination

MIDLIFE TRANSITION AND ENTERING MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

Midlife Transition Midlife transition (ages 40 to 45) involves a reappraisal of goals and values. The person's established lifestyle may continue, or he or she may choose to reorganize and change careers. This is an unsettled time, with the person often anxious and fearful. There is a focus on leaving a legacy and how short life is. Entering Middle Adulthood This time (ages 45 to 50) revolves around having made choices and having formed a new life structure, and committing to new tasks.

Fowler STAGE 2: MYTHICAL-LITERAL FAITH

Mythical-literal faith predominates in the school-aged child, who is having more social interaction. Stories represent religious and moral beliefs, and the child accepts the existence of a deity. The child can appreciate the perspectives of others as well as the concept of reciprocal fairness.

Freud Psychosexual (Infancy to toddlerhood)

Oral stage: Focus on sucking, biting, chewing, and swallowing Anal stage: Focus on bowel and bladder control; anus becomes the center of gratification

Freud Psychosexual (Preschool to early school yrs)

Phallic stage: Resolving Oedipal/Electra complex

Kohlberg: Moral Development

Preconventional, stage 1: Punishment and obedience—Oriented to obedience and punishment; right and wrong defined by punishments Preconventional, stage 2: Instrumental-relativist—Defines acts satisfying to self and some satisfying to others as right Conventional, stage 3: Interpersonal concordance—Morality of maintaining good relations and approval of others; right and wrong are determined by the majority Conventional, stage 4: Law and order—Being good extends to a person's duty to society; aware of need to respect authority Postconventional, stage 5: Social contract—"Right" and "wrong" determined by personal values; laws are considered, but may be ignored or discounted Postconventional, stage 6: Universal ethical principle—Deeply held moral principles are in accordance with a sense of self and are more important than laws. Few adults ever reach this stage of development

Piaget Cognitive (Preschool to early school yrs)

Preoperational stage: Increased language; increased understanding of life events and relationships

Fowler: Faith Development

Prestage: Undifferentiated faith—Centers on relationship with primary caregiver and the safety of the environment Stage 1: Intuitive-predictive faith—Imitates religious behaviors of others; learning also occurs through stories and images Stage 2: Mythic-literal faith—Accepts existence of deity; strong belief in justice; metaphors and symbolism often taken literally Stage 3: Synthetic-conventional faith—Selection of principles to follow; development of a personal identity; concern for the rights and needs of others Stage 4: Individuative-reflective faith—Angst possible; personal accountability for beliefs and feelings; awareness of conflicts in the complexities of faith Stage 5: Conjunctive faith—Conflicts resolved; identification of truth Stage 6: Universalizing faith—Enlightenment; universality of faith and principles

Gould AGES 50 AND OVER: STABILITY AND ACCEPTANCE

Previous patterns of reflection and contemplation generally result in increased self-approval and self-acceptance. Increased marital happiness and contentment are associated with seeing the spouse as a valued companion.

YOUNG ADULTHOOD (hav)

Selecting a mate Learning to live with a marriage partner Starting a family and rearing children Managing a home Getting started in an occupation Taking on civic responsibility Finding a congenial social group

Gould AGES 29 TO 34 YEARS: QUESTIONING AND REEXAMINATION

Self-acceptance increases as the person's need to prove his or her competence disappears. Marriage and careers are generally well established, and young parents want to accept their own children for what they are becoming without imposing rules. Questions about life in general are still present.

Piaget Cognitive Infancy to toddlerhood

Sensorimotor stage: Basic reflexes; coordinates more than one thought at a time; begins to reason and anticipate events

Fowler STAGE 3: SYNTHETIC-CONVENTIONAL FAITH

Synthetic-conventional faith is the characteristic stage of many adolescents. As the person experiences increasing demands from work, school, family, and peers, the basis for identity becomes more complex. The person has an emerging ideology but has not closely examined it until now. The person begins to question life-guiding values or religious practices in an attempt to stabilize his or her own identity.

Early Adult Transition

The major concerns of the young adult (ages 17 to 22) are to break away from his or her parents, make initial career choices, and establish intimate relationships. Many separations, losses, and transformations are necessary to terminate old relationships. This is also a time to begin to select personal values and establish goals, as the young adult's life structure begins to be more integrated.

GENERATIVITY VERSUS STAGNATION (MIDDLE ADULTHOOD) (erikson)

The middle adult years are marked by involvement with family, friends, and community. This is also a time for becoming concerned for the next generation and desiring to make a contribution to the world. If this task is not met, stagnation occurs, and the person becomes self-absorbed and obsessed with his or her own needs, or regresses to an earlier level of coping.

INTIMACY VERSUS ISOLATION (YOUNG ADULTHOOD) (erikson)

The tasks for the young adult are to unite self-identity with identities of friends and to make commitments to others. Fear of such commitments results in isolation and loneliness.

Entering the Adult World

The years of the middle to late 20s (ages 22 to 28) are a time to build on previous decisions and choices, and to try different careers and lifestyles. By the late 20s, the young adult enters the age-30 transition period. The person often feels uneasy that something is missing. During this transition, decisions are made either to find a new direction in life or to make a stronger commitment to previous choices.

The Age-30 Transition

This represents a transition time (ending around age 33) during which the overriding task of the novice phase—to establish a place in the world and create a viable, suitable life structure—is evaluated. This time of reflection allows for reconsideration of choices and to make changes.

ANAL STAGE (AGES 8 MONTHS TO 3 YEARS)

This stage begins with the development of neuromuscular control to allow control of the anal sphincter. Toilet training is a crucial issue that requires delayed gratification as the child compromises between enjoyment of bowel function and limits set by social expectations.

PREOPERATIONAL STAGE (AGES 2 OR 3 TO 6 OR 7 YEARS) (piaget)

This stage is characterized by the beginning use of symbols, through increased language skills and pictures, to represent the preschooler's world (Fig. 21-2). This stage is divided into two parts: the preconceptual stage (ages 2 to 4 years) and the intuitive stage (ages 4 to 7 years). Play activities during this time help the child understand life events and relationships.

FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE (AGES 11 OR 12 TO 14 OR 15 YEARS) (piaget)

This stage is characterized by the use of abstract thinking and deductive reasoning. General concepts are related to specific situations and alternatives are considered. The world is evaluated by testing beliefs in an attempt to establish values and meaning in life.

SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (BIRTH TO 2 OR 3 YEARS) (Piaget/Inhelder)

This stage is marked by progression through a series of six substages with specific developmental tasks: 0 to 1 month: Demonstrates basic reflexes, such as sucking 1 to 4 months: Discovers enjoyment of random behaviors (such as smiling or sucking thumb), and repeats them 4 to 8 months: Relates own behavior to a change in environment, such as shaking a rattle to hear the sound or manipulating a spoon to eat 8 to 12 months: Coordinates more than one thought pattern at a time to reach a goal, such as repeatedly throwing an object on the floor; only objects in sight are considered permanent 12 to 18 months: Recognizes the permanence of objects, even if out of sight; can understand simple commands 18 to 24 months: Begins to develop reasoning and can anticipate events

LATENCY STAGE (AGES 7 TO 12 YEARS)

This stage marks the transition to the genital stage during adolescence. Increasing sex-role identification with the parent of the same sex prepares the child for adult roles and relationships.

Fowler STAGE 6: UNIVERSALIZING FAITH

Universalizing faith involves making tangible the values of absolute love and justice for humankind. The faith relationship is characterized by total trust in the principle of actively being in relation to others in whom we invest commitment, belief, love, risk, and hope, and in the existence of the future, regardless of what religion or image of faith is involved.

IDENTITY VERSUS ROLE CONFUSION (ADOLESCENCE) (erikson)

With many physical changes occurring, the adolescent is in transition from childhood to adulthood. Hormonal changes produce secondary sex characteristics and mood swings. Trying on roles and even rebellion can be normal behaviors as the adolescent acquires a sense of self and decides what direction to take in life. Role confusion occurs if the adolescent is unable to establish identity and a sense of direction.

A 2-year-old grabs a handful of cake from the table and stuffs it in his mouth. According to Freud, what part of the mind is the child satisfying? a. Id b. Superego c. Ego Unconscious mind

a

A nurse caring for older adults in a long-term care facility encourages an older adult to reminisce about past life events. This life review, according to Erikson, is demonstrating what developmental stage of the later adult years? a. Ego integrity b. Generativity c. Intimacy d. Initiative

a

A school nurse is studying Kohlberg's theory of moral development to prepare a parent discussion addressing the problem of bullying. According to Kohlberg, which factor initially influences the moral development of children? a. Parent/caregiver-child communications b. Societal rules and regulations c. Social and religious rules d. A person's beliefs and values

a

Defense Mechanisms (Freud)

a means of unconscious coping to reduce stress in the conscious mind when the id's impulses cannot be satisfied.

A nurse researcher studies the effects of genomics on current nursing practice. Which statements identify genetic principles that will challenge nurses to integrate genomics in their research, education, and practice? Select all that apply. a. Genetic tests plus family history tools have the potential to identify people at risk for diseases. b. Pharmacogenetic tests can determine if a patient is likely to have a strong therapeutic response to a drug or suffer adverse reactions from the medication. c. Evidence-based review panels are in place to evaluate the possible risks and benefits related to genetic testing. d. Valid and reliable national data are available to establish baseline measures and track progress toward targets. e. Genetic variation can either accelerate or slow the metabolism of many drugs. f. It is beyond the role of the nurse to answer questions and discuss the impact of genetic findings on health and illness.

a, b, e

The nurse caring for infants in a hospital nursery knows that newborns continue to grow and develop according to individual growth patterns and developmental levels. Which terms describe these patterns? Select all that apply. a. Orderly b. Simple c. Sequential d. Unpredictable e. Differentiated f. Integrated

a, c, e, f

A nurse is teaching parents of preschoolers what type of behavior to expect from their children based on developmental theories. Which statements describe this stage of development? Select all that apply. a. According to Freud, the child is in the phallic stage. b. According to Erikson, the child is in the trust versus mistrust stage. c. According to Havighurst, the child is learning to get along with others. d. According to Fowler, the child imitates religious behavior of others. e. According to Kohlberg, the child defines satisfying acts as right. f. According to Havighurst, the child is achieving gender-specific roles.

a, d, e

A nurse examining a toddler in a pediatric office documents that the child is in the 90th percentile for height and weight and has blue eyes. These physical characteristics are primarily determined by which of the following? a. Socialization with caregivers b. Maternal nutrition during pregnancy c. Genetic information on chromosomes d. Meeting developmental tasks

c

A nurse is interviewing a 42-year-old patient who is visiting an internist for a blood pressure screening. The patient states: "I'm currently a sales associate, but I'm considering a different career and I'm a little anxious about the process." According to Levinson, what phase of adult life is this patient experiencing? a. Entering the adult world b. Settling down c. Midlife transition d. Entering middle-adulthood

c

A nurse who is working with women in a drop-in shelter studies Carol Gilligan's theory of morality in women to use when planning care. According to Gilligan, what is the motivation for female morality? a. Law and justice b. Obligations and rights c. Response and care d. Order and selfishness

c

genome

complete set of DNA in an organism, including all its genes

Unconscious mind (Freud)

contains memories, motives, fantasies, and fears that are not easily recalled but that directly affect behavior.

The school nurse uses the principles and theories of growth and development when planning programs for high school students. According to Havighurst, what is a developmental task for this age group? a. Finding a congenial social group b. Developing a conscience, morality, and a scale of values c. Achieving personal independence d. Achieving a masculine or feminine gender role

d

epigenomics

epigenetic changes that occur in many genes or the entire organism

Oral Stage (0-18 months)

infant uses the mouth as the major source of gratification and exploration. Pleasure is experienced from eating, biting, chewing, and sucking. The infant's primary need is for security.

epigenetics

study of changes that occur in organisms due to modification of gene expression and heriditability, not a change in the DNA sequence

genomics

study of the structure and interactions of all the genes in the human body, including interactions with each other and the environment

Ego (Freud)

the conscious part of the mind that serves as a mediator between the desires of the id and the constraints of reality so that a person can live effectively within his or her social, physical, and psychological environment. intelligence, memory, problem solving, separation of reality from fantasy, and incorporation of experiences and learning into future behavior

Superego (Freud)

the part of the mind commonly called the conscience. It develops from the ego during the first year of life, as the child learns praise versus punishment for actions. The superego represents the internalization of rules and values so that socially acceptable behavior is practiced.

assimilation

the process of integrating new experiences into existing schemata.