TESL 500 MID TERM

BICS/CALP

"There are clear differences in acquisition and developmental patterns between conversational language and academic language, or BICS (basic interpersonal communicative skills) and CALP (cognitive academic language proficiency). The conceptual distinction between these two levels highlights misconceptions about the nature of language proficiency which contributes to academic failure among bilingual students. Differences in the rate of acquisition of the two levels need to be considered so that the academic language education of bilingual children with good conversational English ability does not suffer. An instructional program for bilingual students should address: 1. cognitive skills; 2. academic content, and 3. critical language awareness." - It just kind of makes mention of the distinction between BICS and CALP and that failure to take this into account has lead to inappropriate psychological testing of bilingual students and premature exit from bilingual or ESL support programs which lead to academic failure--so the just because a student has BICS that doesn't mean they can be successful in an academic setting because CALP is very different. 4. Understand and be able to distinguish approaches to teaching across age levels, proficiency levels, and sociopolitical and institutional contexts. (Brown, Chaps. 6-8) ( Ch. 6-7; Ch 8).

Review the assigned websites

& Be familiar with the standards (K-12, adults, college/university)

Approach/Method/Technique

-An approach, is a set of assumptions dealing with the nature of language, learning, and teaching. -Method is described as an overall plan for systematic presentation of language based upon a selected approach. -Techniques are the specific activities manifested in the classroom. -An approach defines assumptions, beliefs, and theories about the nature of language and language learning. -A teacher's approach includes a number of basic principles of learning/teaching (these principles are inspired by all of the reading/observing/teaching experience they have had- all of this underlies everything that a teacher does in a classroom). Approaches to language teaching must always be designed for specific contexts of teaching (therefore, approaches are dynamic& changeable, not set in stone) -Design specifies the relationship of those theories to classroom materials and activities. -Procedures are the techniques and practices that are derived from one's approach and design (Richards and Rogers).

Total Physical Response(TPR) (apple book p. 30)

-Developed by James Asher (1977) -Psychologists developed "trace theory" of learning in which it was claimed that memory is increased if it is stimulated or "traced," through association with motor activity. -Asher capitalized on including psychomotor activity/physical activity in language teaching -teacher is a director -heavy use of imperative mood -has limitations, but can be effective in beginning levels.

Community Language Learning (apple book p. 25)

-affectively based method -Charles Curran's Counseling-Learning model of education was extended to language-learning contexts in the form of CLL -lesson anxiety by a supportive community, like a counseling session. Class run as if members need therapy, like a language therapy session -Students in circle, teacher outside the circle and translates the students sentences after students say what they want to say in their native language -If possible, the conversations were taped -affective advantages were evident, but criticisms are its reliance on an inductive strategy of learning, and its success depended largely on the translation expertise of the counselor (as translation is a very complicated process and if subtle aspects of language are mistranslated, there can be a less than effective understanding of the target language.

Desuggestopedia (apple book p. 27)

-founder was Georgi Lozanov, based on his contention that the human brain could process great quantities of material if given the right conditions for learning, among which are a state of relaxation and giving over of control to the teacher -Baroque music (60 beats per minute) to faciliate "super-learning" -Desuggestopedia came from the idea of capturing the importance placed on desuggesting limitations on learning. (Learners all too often feel that learning a foreign language is so overwhelmingly difficult that they can never be successful) -Students encouraged to become "child-like" and thus suggestible -Criticisms/Problems: Questionable data/test results, materials may not be available, is just an attempt to teach memorization techniques rather than language acquisition -Still some valuable things to be learned from Suggestopedia.

Communicative Language Teaching (apple book p. 45)

-many interpretations and manifestations -CLT has the overall goal of promoting language for purposes of communication and for focusing on all of the components of communicative competence (grammatical, discourse, sociolinguistic, and strategic) -Relationship of Form and Function -Focus on flow and fluency/accuracy -Focus on real-world contexts -Autonomy and strategic involvement -Teacher is a facilitator and guide, not an all-knowing font of knowledge -Students in a CLT class are active participants in their own learning process. Learner-centered, cooperative, collaborative learning is emphasized, but not at the expense of appropriate teacher-centered activity.

Guidelines on accounting for cultural issues in your classroom:

1. A student's cultural identity is connected to their emotions. Teachers must practice empathy regarding cultural matters: behavior patterns and expectations; expected relationship to authority, family and peers; ambiguity tolerance, and openness to new ideas and ways of thinking; students' attitudes toward their own and L2 culture; their view of individualism versus collectivism; linguistic conventions of politeness, formality, and other sociopragmatic factors. 2. Recognize the cultural connotations and nuances of English and of the first language of your students. Capitalize on them in your teaching. 3. Use your classroom as an opportunity to educate your students about other cultures and help them to see that no one culture is better than another. Practice in words and deed your respect for your students' emotions and culture. 4. As cultural differences emerge, help your students to appreciate and celebrate diversity. Especially in an ESL context where students in the same class may represent many different cultures, try to make your classroom a model of openness, tolerance, and respect.

Chapter 6: Teaching across age levels Teaching Adults

1. Adults are more able to handle abstract rules and concepts 2. longer attention but keep act short and sweet applies 3. appeal to multiple senses 4. never underestimate emotional factors 5. better able to understand a context-reduced segment of language • Dos & don'ts 1. Do remember they are intelligent grown-ups, show respect 2. Don't treat adults like kids 3. Do give your students as many opportunities as possible to make choices 4. Don't discipline adults in the same way you would do with children.

Ch. 11: Semicontrolled Techniques

1. Brainstorming: a special form of preparation for the lesson, like Setting, which involves free, undirected contributions by the students and teacher on a given topic, to generate multiple associations without linking them; no explicit analysis or interpretation by the teacher. 2. Story telling (especially when student generated): Not necessarily lesson based, a lengthy presentation of story by teacher or student (May overlap with Warm-up or narrative recitation). May be used to maintain attention, motivate, or as lengthy practice. 3. Question-answer, referential: Activity involving prompting of responses by means of referential questions (i.e., the questioner does not know beforehand the response information). Distinguished from Question-answer, display. 4. Cued narrative/Dialogue: Student production of narrative or dialogue following cues from miming cue cards, pictures, or other stimuli related to narrative/dialogue (e.g., metalanguage requesting functional acts). 5. Information transfer: Application from one mode (e.g., visual) to another (e.g., writing), which involves some transformation of the information (e.g.,student fills out diagram while listening to the description). Distinguished from Identification in that the student is expected to transform and reinterpret the language or information. 6. Information exchange: Task involving two-way communication as in information-gap exercises, when one or both parties (or a larger group) must share information to achieve some goal. Distinguished from Question-answer, referential in that sharing of information is critical for the task. 7. Wrap-up: Brief teacher-or-student-produced summary of point and/or items that have been practiced or learned. 8. Narration/exposition: Presentation of a story or explanation derived from prior stimuli. Distinguished from cued narrative because of lack of immediate stimulus. 9. Preparation: Student study, silent reading, pair planning and rehearsing, preparing for later activity. Usually a student-directed or -oriented project.

Grammar Translation (classic method)

1. Goals: a fundamental purpose of learning a language is to be able to read literature written in the target language. To do this, Ss need to learn about the grammar rules and vocabulary of the target language. 2. Role of teachers: The teacher is the authority in the classroom. The students do as the teacher says so they can learn what the teacher knows. 3. Characteristics of teaching and learning process: Ss are taught too much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. 4. Most of the interaction in the classroom is from the Teacher to the students.

Characteristics of a CLT Approach (Brown pg 46-47)

1. Overall Goals: All components of communicative competence. Organizational + pragmatic aspects 2. Form and Function: Techniques are supposed to engage learners in authentic/ pragmatic/ functional uses of lang for meaningful purposes. (Organizational lang forms=not the central focus, but important component). 3. Fluency and Accuracy: Focus on students FLOW. At times fluency may take on more importance than accuracy, but other times students will be encrouaged to attend to correctness. Teachers offer feedback. 4. Focus on real-world contexts: Equip Ss with the skills necessary for communication in unrehearsed contexts. 5. Autonomy and strategic involvement: Ss given opport to focus on their own learning process/Ss made aware of their own styles of learning. This awareness helps develop autonomous learners. 6. Teacher roles: Facilitator/guide, not all-knowing. Coach, encourages Ss to construct meaning through genuine interaction. 7. Student Roles: Ss are active participants. Learner-centered, cooperative, collaborative learning.

Ch. 11: Free Techniques

1. Role-play: Relatively free acting out of specified roles and functions. Distinguished from 2. Cued dialogues by the fact that cueing is provided only minimally at the beginning, and not during the activity. 3. Games: Various kinds of language game activity not like other previously defined activities (e.g., board and dice games making words). 4. Report: Report of student-prepared exposition on books, experiences, project work, without immediate stimulus, and elaborated on according to student interest. Akin to Composition in writing mode. 5. Problem solving: Activity involving specified problem and limitation of means to resolve it; requires cooperation on part of participants in small or large group. 6. Drama: Planned dramatic rendition of play, skit, story, etc. 7. Simulation: Activity involving complex interaction between groups and individuals based on simulation of real-life actions and experiences. 8. Interview: A student is directed to get information from another student or students. 9. Discussion: Debate or other form of grouped discussion of specified topic, with or without specified sides/positions prearranged. 10. Composition: As in Report (verbal), written deevelopment of ideas, story, or other exposition. 11. A propos: Conversation or other socially oriented interaction/speech by teacher, students, or even visitors, on general real-life topics. Typically authentic and genuine.

Ch. 7. Teaching across proficiency levels: Teaching Intermediate Levels

1. Students' cognitive learning processes • Get Ss to continue to automatize, to continue to allow language that clutter the mind to be relegated to automaticity. • Hard drives, pieces of language readily available for immediate use 2. The role of the teacher • Ss should be encouraged to ask questions, make comments • more student-student interaction • learner-centered work. • don't set equal expectations, speaking abilities can vary widely 3. Teacher talk • at a natural pace articulation is clear. • T should not occupy the major portion. 4. Authenticity of language • Ss can be overly concerned about Grammatical correctness and wander into esoteric discussions of grammar details -> This can get them too far from authentic so make sure they stay on track. 5. Fluency and accuracy • Some focus too much on accuracy, others fluency so T should be prepared to offer individualized attention to each. • In general, fluency exercises are a must at this level • Maintain Ss' flow with just enough attention to error to keep them growing. 6. Student creativity • More opportunities to be creative, errors can be a positive sign of language development • Ss are more capable of applying language to unrehearsed situation. 7. Techniques : Techniques can increase in complexity. 8. Listening and speaking goals • Ss can participate in short conversations, ask and answer questions, find alternative ways to convey meaning. • Listening - speaking goals increase steadily. 9. Reading and writing goals • increasing complexity in terms of length, grammar, and discourse • use skimming and scanning sills • writing is more sophisticated. 10. Grammar • Progressive verb tenses, clauses typify. • short, simple explanations • over attention to "sore spots" in grammar can be helpful • keep grammatical mata-language to an ideal minimum.

Ch. 7. Teaching across proficiency levels: Teaching Advanced Levels

1. Students' cognitive learning processes. • Ss can realize the full spectrum of processing, assigning larger and larger chunks to automatic modes and gaining the confidence to put the formal structures/negotiation, conveying of thoughts and feelings in interactive communication • T's task is to assist in the ongoing attempt to automatize language and in the delicate interplay between focal and peripheral attention to selected aspects of language. 2. The role of the teacher • The independence that Ss have acquired must be cleverly channeled into classroom routines that benefit most of Ss. • orderly plans are important • A directive role on your part can create effective learning opportunities 3. Teacher talk • Natural language at natural speed is a must • Make sure your Ss are challenged by your choice of vocab, structures, idioms. • Make sure your Ss have ample opportunities to produce languages so that your role as a provider of feedback takes prominence • Discipline, explanation, and other more complex language functions can be carried out. 4. Authenticity of language : Everything from academic prose to literature to idiomatic conversation becomes a legitimate resource. 5. Fluency and accuracy : If errors are rare, an occasional treatment from you or from peers may be helpful. 6. Student creativity: They are able to apply classroom material to real contexts beyond. 7. Techniques • Tap into a full range of sociolinguistic and pragmatic competencies. • group debates and argumentation, complex role plays • scanning, skimming reading • determining and questioning author's intent. • writing essays and critiques • focus on specific purposes that Ss have. 8. Listening and speaking goals • T needs to be on the lookout for common areas needing work and guide Ss accordingly as they fine-tune thier production and comprehension in terms of register, style, the status of the interlocutor, the specific context of conversational exchange, turn-taking, topic nomination and termination, topic-changing. 9. Reading and writing : closer to native-speaker competence, critical reading. 10. Grammar • Linguistic metalanguage may now serve a more useful role as Ss perceive its relevance to refining language. • Classes need not become saturated but well-targeted deductive grammar has its place.

Ch. 11: Controlled Techniques

1. Warm-up: Mimes, dances, songs, jokes, play. This activity gets the students stimulated, relaxed, motivated, attentive, or otherwise engaged and ready for the lesson. It does not necessarily involve the use of the target language. 2. Setting: Focusing on lesson topic. Teacher directs attention to he topic by verbal or non verbal evocation of the context relevant to the lesson by questioning or miming or picture presentation, possibly by tape recording of situations and people. 3. Organizational: Structuring of lesson or class activities includes disciplinary action, organization of classroom furniture and seating, general procedures for class interaction and performance, structure and purpose of lesson, etc. 4. Content explanation: Grammatical, phonological, lexical (vocabulary), sociolinguistic, pragmatic, or any other aspects of language. 5. Role-play demonstration: Selected students or teacher illustrate the procedure(s) to be applied in the lesson segment to follow. Includes brief illustration of language or other content to be incorporated. 6. Dialogue/Narrative presentation: Reading or listening passage presented for passive reception. No implication of student production or other identification of specific target forms or functions (students may be asked to "understand"). 7. Dialogue/Narrative recitation: Reciting a previously known or prepared text, either in unison or individually. 8. Reading aloud: reading directly from a given text. 9. Checking: Teacher either circulating or guiding the correction of students' work, providing feedback as an activity rather than within another activity. 10. Question-answer, display: Activity involving prompting of student responses by means of display questions (i.e., teacher or questioner already knows the response or has a very limited set of expectations for the appropriate response). Distinguished from referential questions by the likelihood of the questioner's knowing the response and the speaker's being aware of that fact. 11. Drill: Typical language activity involving fixed patterns of teacher prompting and student responding, usually with repetition, substitution, and other mechanical alterations.. Typically with little meaning attached. 12. Translation: Student or teacher provision of L1 or L2 translations of given text. 13. Dictation: Student writing down orally presented text. 14. Copying: Student writing down text presented visually. 15. Identification: Student picking out and producing/labeling or otherwise identifying a specific target form, function, definition, or other lesson-related item. 16. Recognition: Student identifying forms, as in Identification (i.e., checking off items, drawing symbols, rearranging pictures), but without a verbal response. 17. Review: Teacher-led review of previous week/month/or other period as a formal summary and type of test of student recall performance. 18. Testing: Formal testing procedures to evaluate student progress. 19. Meaningful drill: Drill activity involving responses with meaningful choices, as in reference to different information. Distinguished from Information exchange by the regulated sequence and general form of responses.

Direct Approaches: Audio-lingual (apple book p. 6)

1. developed alongside the oral-situational approach in Britain 2. In response to World War II 3. Drew on both the reform movement, and the direct method but added features from structural linguistics and behavioral psychology. 4. 1940s, 1950s, 1960s 5. Lessons begin with dialogues, mimicry and memorization, based on the assumption that language learning is habit formation, grammatical rules are sequenced and taught inductively, listening and speaking are taught first and then reading and writing 6. Accurate pronunciation is stressed from the beginning, Vocab limited and controlled in early stages, Preventing learner errors is huge, language is often manipulated without regard to meaning or context, Activities are carefully controlled so the teacher only has to be proficient in what they are teaching.

Methods (Grammar Translation, Series Method, Direct Method, Audiolingual Method)

A generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives.

Enlightened Eclecticism

A move away from the use of methods toward methodology. When teachers who subscribe to the pluralistic view of methods pick and choose from among methods to create their own blend, their practice is said to be eclectic. Enlightened: broad, full comprehension.

Krashen's Five Hypotheses

Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis Acquisition is a subconscious process Learning is the result of formal instruction Monitor Hypothesis Learner uses "the monitor" for planning, editing, and correcting Natural Order Hypothesis Learners acquire morphemes in a natural order of acquisition Input Hypothesis Acquisition takes place when a learner is exposed to comprehensible input + 1 or i +1 Affective Filter Hypothesis Motivation, self-confidence and anxiety can affect rate of SLA When the filter is "up," acquisition is impeded.

Socioaffective Principles: principle 7 Language Ego

As human beings learn to use a second language, they also develop a new mode of thinking, feeling, and acting —a second identity. The new "language ego," intertwined with the second language, can easily create within the learner a sense of fragility, a defensiveness, and a raising of inhibitions What to do: 1. Supportive attitude 2. techniques challenging but not overwhelming 3. considering language ego states will probably help you determine: who to call on, volunteers, explaining, activities, pairs and groups, how "tough" you can be 4. Students learning ESL in an English-speaking country are likely to experience a moderate identity crisis. - As first defined by Alexander Guiora, a researcher in personality variables in second language acquisition, the language ego is "the identity a person develops in reference to the language he or she speaks"[1]. H.D. Brown notes that "Oneself-identity is inextricably bound up with one's language, for it is in the communicative process...that such identities are confirmed, shaped, and reshaped." Adults, of course, have spent their whole lives defining themselves, and we tend also to really dislike looking stupid in front of other people - hence, the language ego contributes to another affective factor that impacts adults much more than children: inhibition.

The Natural Approaches: 4 stages of SLA. Stage: 1: The Pre-production phase

At this stage if the teacher provides comprehensible input which has meaning for the student, the student with little understanding of the language will be able to build meaning. The teacher will be using visuals, objects, games gestures, body language, and many other techniques to convey the message and to communicate with the student. One of the most important strategies that the teacher will use will be to modify their speech and to build vocabulary through real life situations. The teacher will talk more slowly, will articulate clearly, will sometime emphasize key words, use simple sentences, repeat often and will deal with the concrete rather than abstract ideas.

The Natural Approaches: 4 stages of SLA. Stage 3: The Speech Emergence Phase

At this stage the student is expanding their ability to use longer phrases and sentences. The complexity of their sentence structures is becoming more and more complex. Errors decrease as they progress in this stage of language acquisition.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

CLT is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes learning a language for the purpose of communicating with others. Communication in terms of our language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The communicative competence needed for participation includes not only grammatical competence, but pragmatic competence as well. The term "communicative" attached itself to programs that use a notional-functional syllabus based on needs assessment and language for specific purposes.

Brown

Chapters 2-3

Chapter 6: Teaching across age levels Teaching Children

Children are effortless learning? -> Not really 1. The difference between children and adults (puberty) lies • Children: spontaneous peripheral attention to language forms • Adults: over, focal awareness of attention to the forms 2. Adults are not necessarily less successful in their efforts 3. There are many instances of 6-to 12-year-old children manifesting significant difficulty in acquiring a second language. 1. Intellectual development: • children are in an intellectual stage of "concrete operations" so T need to remember their limitations • Rules, explanations, abstract talk must be approached with caution • Children are centered on here and now 2. Attention span : T's job is to make lessons interesting, lively and fun 3. sensory input: Children need to have all five senses stimulated 4. affective factors: Children are not affected by the inhibitions? NO! they are extremely sensitive to peers 5. authentic, meaningful language.

Theory: Developmental Theory Piaget

Consciousness of adults and onset of formal operations (Piaget) helps adults learn better and faster with plateaus. However, children are better at pronunciation in general. Most experts agree that "age is not important" except for speed of learning (adults are faster).

Ch. 8 Cultural Contexts

Culture- • way of life • context which we exist, feel, and relate to others • collective identity; "blue print" (Larson & Smalley) that guides our behavior Culture establishes a context of cognitive and affective behavior, a template for personal and social existence. • We perceive reality within the context of our own culture, a "created" reality, and a reality not empirically designed. • There is still a tendency to believe our own reality is the "correct" one. Language- is part of culture and culture is part of language. The acquisition of a second language, is also the acquisition of a second culture.

Designer Methods (Community Language Learning, Suggestopedia, d, Total Physical Response, the Natural Approach

Different methods, or approaches, for languages learning.

Discovery Learning

Discovery learning was a popular approach to teaching in the 1960s, Silent Way capitalized on discovery learning.Gattegno (1972) believed that learners should develop interdependence, autonomy, and responsibility. -Silent way teachers would use Cuisenaire rods and wall/fidel charts -Was criticized for teachers being too harsh -Also criticized as students needed more explanations from the teacher, and the rod/chart lessons started to wear out after a few lessons

Relationships of culture and language

ESL- students are guests from other countries learning both a new language and a new culture. EFL- students learn a language imbued with foreign cultural connotations in their home country.

Cognitive Principles: Principle 1 Automaticity

Efficient second language learning involves a timely movement of the control of a few language forms into the automatic, fluent processing of a relatively unlimited number of language forms. Overanalyzing language, thinking too much about its forms, and consciously lingering on rules of language all tend to impede this graduation to automaticity. 1. Subconscious absorption of language through meaningful use. 2. Efficient and rapid movement away from a focus on the form of language to a focus on the purposes to which language is put 3. efficient and rapid movement away from a capacity-limited control of a few bits of pieces to a relatively unlimited automatic mode of processing language forms (often referred to as fluency) 4. resistance to the temptation to analyze language forms Over analyzing and thinking too much interfere with fluency - PATIENCE is key.

Acculturation

Especially in second (as opposed to foreign) language-learning contexts, the success with which learners adapt to a new cultural milieu will affect their language acquisition success and vice versa, in some possibly significant ways. 1. Help students be aware of acculturation and stages 2. importance of second language as part of the process of acculturation 3. be sensitive to students.

Linguistic Principles: Principle 12 Communicative Competence

Given that communicative competence is the goal of a language classroom, instruction needs to point toward all its components: organizational, pragmatic, strategic, and psychomotor. Communicative goals are best achieved, by giving due attention to language use and not just usage, to fluency and not just accuracy, to authentic language and contexts, and to students' eventual need to apply classroom learnings to previously unrehearsed contexts in the real world. Classroom teaching "rules" 1. Grammatical explanations or drills are only part of a lesson; incorporate other components such as functional, sociolinguistic, psychomotor, etc. 2. Some of the pragmatic (functional and sociolinguistic) aspects of language are very subtle and therefore very difficult. Lessons aim to teach such subtlety. 3. Don't forget that psychomotor skills (pronunciation) are an important component of functional and sociolinguistics aspects of language. 4. Give students opportunities to work on fluency without interfering too much to correct them 5. Use authentic techniques; in other words, use language that students would actually encounter in the real world 6. Prepare independent learners that will manipulate language outside classroom.

Production-based method

Grammar translation, direct method, audio-lingual method, the silent way

Teaching Principles: Principle 3 Anticipation of Reward

Human beings are universally driven to act, or "behave" by the anticipation of some sort of reward—tangible or intangible, short-term or long-term—that will ensue as a result of the behavior. 1. Verbal praise and encouragement - short-term reward - but no too much 2. Peer encouragement and support 3. Reminders of progress help students see their development 4. Display enthusiasm and excitement yourself 5. Talk about long-term rewards (what can you do if you learn English?)

Cognitive Code Learning

In an amalgamation of Audiolingual and Grammar Translation techniques, classes retained the drilling typical of the ALM but added healthy doses of rule explanations and reliance on grammatical sequencing material p. 24 Brown

Multiple intelligences

Includes at least 8 types of intelligence, which has led educators to view a number of forms of "smartness" that learners can manifest. A learner who is strong, for example, in interpersonal intelligence may thrive in the context of group work and interaction, while a student who has high spatial intelligence will perform well with plenty of charts, diagrams, and other visuals.

Cooperative Learning

Involves learner-centered characteristics, is not competitive, the students and the teachers work together as a team to pursue goals and objectives.

Functional Syllabuses

Is based on learning to recognize and express the communicative functions of language and the concepts and ideas it expresses. In other words, (this kind of syllabus is based more on the purposes for which language is used and on the meanings the speaker wanted to express than on the forms used to expressed them.) The benefits of a functional-notional syllabus is the learners learn how to use the language to express authentic communication purposes. Learner may be motivated by the opportunity to use the language to express their own purposes, ideas and emotions. Found in CLT approach.

Whole Language Education

It is used to describe, cooperative learning, participatory learning, student-centered learning, focus on the community of learners, focus on the social nature of language, use of authentic natural language, meaning-centered language, holistic assessment techniques in testing, and integration of the "four skills."

Content-based Instruction

It's the integration of content learning (other subject matters of the curriculum) with language teaching aims. When language becomes the medium to convey informational content of interest and relevance to the learner, he/she becomes intrinsically concerned.

Ch. 7. Teaching across proficiency levels: Teaching beginning levels

Keep using target language but keep in mind that their words structures and concepts are limited. 1. Students' cognitive learning processes: • plenty of repetition of a limited words. • let them use practiced language for genuine, meaningful purposes • controlled but more into a peripheral mode as Ss become immersed in the task of seeking genuine information. 2. The role of the teacher • Ss are dependent so teacher-centered is appropriate • Pair, group work are effective. 3. Teacher talk • T's input is crucial • slow speech easier but not too much that it loses naturalness • use simple vocab and structures that are slightly beyond level (i+1) • restrict language to English unless there is distinct advantage of native language. 4. Authenticity of language • Authentic but manageable • Utterances are limited to short, simple phrases. 5. Fluency and accuracy • Fluency is a goal at this level but only with limited lengths • The "flow" of language is important to establish from the beginning. • Attention to accuracy should center on the grammatical, phonological, or discourse elements that are being practiced.. 6. Student creativity : can be creative only with highly controlled language. 7. Techniques • short, simple • some mechanical teach are appropriate ex) drilling, choral repetition. • A good many teacher-initiated questions dominate • Group and pair activities • A variety of teach is important. 8. Listening and speaking goals : meaningful and authentic communication tasks. 9. Reading and writing goals • reading and writing topics are confined to brief but real-life written material • should consider their literacy level in L1 10. Grammar • very simple verb forms, personal pronouns, definite, indefinite articles, singular, plural nouns, simple sentences, a progression • simple to complex • EFL: profit from using native language to explain grammatical points. • ESL: an inductive approach to grammar with suitable examples.

Teacher-centered vs. learner-centered instruction

Learner-centered instruction techniques focus on or account for learners' needs, styles, and goals, they give some control to the student, the curricula includes the consultation and input of the students and do not presuppose objectives in advance, they allow for student creativity and innovation, and they enhance a student's sense of competence and self-worth.*In teacher-centered education, students put all of their focus on the teacher. The teacher talks, while the students exclusively listen. During activities, students work alone, and collaboration is discouraged. Pros • When education is teacher-centered, the classroom remains orderly. Students are quiet, and the teacher retains full control of the classroom and its activities. • Because students learn on their own, they learn to be independent and make their own decisions. • Because the teacher directs all classroom activities, they don't have to worry that students will miss an important topic. Cons • When students work alone, they don't learn to collaborate with other students, and communication skills may suffer. • Teacher-centered instruction can get boring for students. Their minds may wander, and they may miss important facts. • Teacher-centered instruction doesn't allow students to express themselves, ask questions and direct their own learning.

Learner-centered instruction

Learner-centered vs. teacher-centered It includes: - Techniques that focus on learners' needs, styles, and goals - Techniques that give some control to the student - Techniques that allow for student creativity and innovation - Techniques that enhance a student's sense of competence and self-worth.

Ch. 11: Textbooks

Most common form of material support. Teacher must find a creative way to use textbook - probably preselected for class Textbook adaptation: Devise a plan to teach or creatively use chapters in a book (recall exercise in class from Brown book, pg. 189).

Needs Analysis

Not easy to define, needs assessment is an important precursor to designing the goals of a course in that it can identify the overall purposes of the course "gaps" that the course is intended to fill. Objective needs are those that can be relatively easily measured, quantified, or specified with agreement by the administrators on what constitutes defined needs. Subjective needs are often of equal or greater importance as they focus on needs as seen through the eyes of the learners themselves.

Ch. 10:

Outline

Ch. 14:

Outline.Ch. 14 outline: Larsen Freeman?: is covered on the top: pages 1-3 from study guide - Describe informed approaches from the post-method era: enlightened eclecticism, task-based language teaching, learner-centered instruction, cooperative learning, interactive learning, whole language education, and content-based instruction. Which method or methods do you prefer? Explain why.

Read Larsen-Freeman

P. 222-223

Methodology

Pedagogical practices in general (including theoretical underpinnings and related research). Whatever considerations are involved in "how to teach" are methodological. Additional definition of methodology, Brown pg 41: The systematic application of validated principles to practical contexts.

Task-based Instruction

Peter Skehan (1998: 95) defines task as an activity in which: - Meaning is primary - There is some communication problem to solve - There is some sort of relationship to comparable real-world activities - Task completion has some priority - The assessment of the task is in terms of outcome It is NOT a new method, it just puts task at the centre of methodological focus. It views the learning process as a set of communicative tasks directly linked to the curricular goals they serve Task-based instruction forces you to carefully consider all the techniques you use in the classroom.

Direct Approaches: Silent Way (apple book p. 28)

Rested more on cognitive arguments than affective Caleb Gattegno-->founder Characterized by a problem-solving approach to learning 1. Learning is facilitated if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and repeats what is to be learned 2. Learning is facilitated by accompanying (mediating) physical objects 3. Learning is facilitated by problem solving involving the material to be learned.

Ch 8. Second and Foreign Language Contexts:

Second language contexts- those in which the classroom target language is readily available out there. (Teaching English in U.S. or Australia) Foreign language contexts- those in which students do not have ready-made contexts for communication beyond their classroom. Obtainable through- language clubs, special media, books, or a tourist (efforts necessary to create such an opportunity). (Teaching English in Korea). Some confusion exists when you have for example an English speaking country like the U.S. with a large number of Spanish speakers. Therefore, you can have authentic use of language through Spanish speaking communities, and media (television, radio, newspapers). Classroom hours are only a fraction of students language learning hours. Second Language context allows for students to have more opportunities to interact with the language outside of the classroom. ESL Advantage- • Homework having student speak to a person outside of the classroom, listening to a radio or TV program, reading a newspaper, writing a letter to a store or charity. • Encourage students to seek out opportunities for practice. • Encourage students to seek corrective feedback from others. • Have students keep a log or diary of their extra- class learning. • Plan and carry out field trips (to a museum, for example). • Arrange a social mixer with native English speakers. • Invite speakers into your classroom. Foreign language context has more challenges. Intrinsic motivation is a big issue since student may not see relevance of learning English. • Use class time for optimal authentic language input and interaction. • Don't waste class time on work that can be done as homework. • Provide regular motivation-stimulating activities. • Help students to see genuine uses for English in their own lives. • Play down the role of tests and emphasize more intrinsic factors. • Assigning English-speaking movies, tv shows, or radio, getting an english-speaking conversation partner, doing outside reading, writing journal or diary in English.

Linguistic Principles: Principle 11 Interlanguage

Second language learners tend to go through a systematic or quasi-systematic developmental process as they progress to full competence in the target language. Successful interlanguage development is partially a result of utilizing feedback from others. What kind of feedback to offer? 1. Distinguish between systematic interlanguage errors and other errors; help student understand 2. Tolerance for certain interlanguage forms 3. Don't make student feel stupid - say I understand why you.... 4. Message to students - Mistakes are not "bad" 5. Try to get students to self-correct 6. Provide ample affective feedback to encourage them to speak 7. point at errors with kindness and sympathy.

Curriculum

Specifications for carrying out a particular language program, features include primary concern with the specification of linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing, and materials to meet the needs of a designated group of learners in a defined context.

Ch. 11: Drills

Structural pattern drills have only one correct response from a student, and have no implied connection with reality. The student repeats a word or phrase whether or not he/she understands it or not: Teacher: The cat is in the hat. Student: The cat is in the hat. A meaningful drill may have a predicted response or a limited set of possible responses, but it is connected to some form of reality: Teacher: The woman is outside. (pointing out the window at a woman) Where is the woman? Student: The woman is outside. Teacher: Right, she's outside. As the process continues, the teacher reinforces certain grammatical or phonological components. if the exercise is communicative, then it offers the student the possibility of an open-ended response and negotiation of meaning, thus it is not a drill, instead it can be thought of as quasi-communicative practice.

Socioaffective Principles: principle 8 Willingness to Communicate

Successful language learners generally believe in themselves and in their capacity to accomplish communicative tasks, and are therefore willing risk takers in their attempts to produce and to interpret language that is a bit beyond their absolute certainty. Their willingness to communicate results in the generation of both output (from the learner) and input (from the learner). In many cultures risk-taking is not encouraged; instead correctness and right answers are expected 1. Make students see you believe in their ability 2. Go from simple to more difficult techniques 3. Create an atmosphere that encourages student participation 4. Provide reasonable challenges 5. Respond to attempts to communicate with positive affirmation - praise them.

Teaching Principles: Principle 6 Autonomy

Successful mastery of a foreign language will depend to a great extent on learners' autonomous ability both to take initiative in the classroom and to continue their journey to success beyond the classroom and the teacher. • student should "chart" his/her own pathway to success • culture? does it help or hinder autonomy? Consider this: 1. Beginners need more teacher guidance, but still teacher needs to help them develop a sense of autonomy 2. Implement activities that allow creativity 3. Interactive activities 4. Encourage creativity and praise students 5. provide helpful feedback, but not so much that they don't have an opportunity to be creative 6. Suggest opportunities for students to practice outside of the classroom.

Teaching Principles: Principle 5 Strategic Investment

Successful mastery of the second language will be due to a large extent to a learner's own personal "investment" of time, effort, and attention to the second language in the form of an individualized battery of strategies for comprehending and producing the language. A. Importance of recognizing styles and strategies learners use in the process of learning B. The need for attention to each individual Problem: numerous learner preferences - e.g. visual vs. auditory; group vs. individual; multiple strategies used by students Solution: use a variety of techniques. Not a complete solution, but definitely something to consider. Dilemma: not easy to reach all students at the individual level.

Comprehension-based method

TPR(Total Physical Response), The natural approach.is a general approach that includes methods that give importance to input, especially in the form of listening comprehension. Teaches the learner to speak in a foreign language through reception of input.

Task-based Language Teaching

Tasks ultimately point learners beyond the forms of language alone to real-world contexts, tasks specifically contribute to communicative goals, their elements are carefully designed and not simply haphazardly or idiosyncratically thrown together, their objects are well specified so that you can at some later point accurately determine the success of one task over another, tasks engage learners, at some level, in genuine problem-solving activity. Task-based Language Teaching focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language.

Ch. 11: Techniques

Technique is a superordinate term that refers to various activities that either teachers or learners perform in a classroom, and basically include all task and activities. they are planned and deliberate choices, made by the teacher. Techniques exist along a continuum of possibilities between highly manipulative and very communicative. On the highly manipulative side, a technique is controlled almost exclusively by the teacher and requires a predicted response from the students. Choral repetition and substitution drills are examples of this extreme. * At the communicative extreme, student responses are completely open-ended and therefore unpredictable. Examples include story telling, brainstorming, role-plays, certain games, etc. Keep in mind that a modicum of teacher control, whether overt or covert, is or should be always present in the classroom. * The manipulation-communication scale does not correspond to the beginning-to-advanced-proficiency continuum. The extent to which a communicative technique can sustain itself in the classroom will often be a factor in the overall proficiency level of your class.

Ch. 11: Techniques & Materials

Techniques & Materials

Ch. 12:

Technology in the Classroom (Outline)

Chapter 6: Teaching across age levels Teaching Teens

Teens are in between childhood and adulthood, therefore a very special set of considerations applies to teaching them 1. intellectual capacity adds abstract operational though around the age of 12, some sophisticated intellectual processing is increasingly possible and linguistic metalanguage can have some impact 2. Factors surrounding ego, self-image, and self-esteem are at their pinnacle. Teens are ultra sensitive to emotional selves. Keep self-esteem high 1. avoiding embarrassment 2. affirming each person's talents and strengths 3. allowing mistakes and errors 4. de-emphasizing competition between classmates 5. encouraging small-group work where risks can be taken more easily .

Natural Approach

The Natural Approach was developed in the 1980's by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen. It is based on the idea that what happens when an individual acquires a second language is very much like what happens when they acquired their first language. In this approach there is a focus on content rather than a focus on form. Overt error correction is avoided and dialogues and pronunciation drills are equally avoided. Oral language development (speaking) comes before reading and writing. Also, even though the instruction is in the target language, the students first language may be used in class. The goal of the Natural Approach is to develop basic communicative skills. (BICS) The following are key concepts which are part of the Natural Approach: Comprehensible Input Low anxiety Content rather than form Vocabulary Development Natural stages to Speech Development (4) Real life learning situations Focus on communication In the Natural Approach, the Teacher corrects errors through modeling. The teacher also allows for a silent period and does not force speech from students. The teacher will modify instruction to meet the needs of the individual students. The student will progress naturally through the 4 stages of language acquisition. (Pre-Production, Early Production, Speech Emergency, and Intermediate Fluency) A key point for the teacher to remember is that speech production comes slowly and should never be forced. (Remember how long it takes for a baby to begin to talk). Second language learners will gain language skills in a sequence of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The teacher should make all of the input for the student comprehensible and interesting.

The Natural Approach 4 Stages of Language Acquisition

The Natural Approach, which was developed by Krashen and Terrel in 1983, is one of the methodologies used to help second language learners acquire English. This approach contains the theory that students pass through 4 stages of language acquisition. The 4 stages are: Stage 1: The Pre-Production Phase Stage 2: The Early Production Phase Stage 3: The Speech Emergence Phase Stage 4: The Intermediate Fluency Phase.

Ch. 9: Curriculum Design

The first step for curriculum design, or usually first step is a situational analysis; meaning, the educational settings, class characteristics, faculty characteristics, governance of course content, and assessment and evaluation requirements should be examined Educational Setting: societal and cultural norms the course is situated, physical condition--everything from the classrooms, the resources, etc. Class Characteristics: Size, cultural differences, etc. Faculty Characteristics: What are the qualifications of the teachers--training experience, educational level, etc.? Governance of Course Content: Who determines the course content? Can the teacher make up their own content or adapt content to their own? Assessment and Evaluation Requirements: How are courses evaluated and revised, if at all? What are the grading norms and assessment of the students.

Teaching Principles: Principle 4 Intrinsic Motivation

The most powerful reward are those that are intrinsically motivated within the learner. Because the behavior stems from needs, wants, or desires within oneself, the behavior itself is self-rewarding; therefore, no externally administered reward is necessary. • Classroom techniques have a greater chance of success if they are self-rewarding in the perception of the learner - fun, interesting, useful, challenging.

Linguistic Principles: Principle 10 The Native Language Effect

The native language of learners exerts a strong influence on the acquisition of the target language system. While that native system will exercise both facilitating and interfering effects on the production and comprehension of the new language, the interfering effects are likely to be the most salient. 1. Regard learners' errors as important windows to their underlying system and provide appropriate feedback on them 2. Not everything about native language will cause error 3. Think directly in target language.

Teaching Principles: Principle 2 Meaningful Learning

The process of making meaningful associations between existing knowledge/experience and new material will lead toward better long-term retention than rote learning of material in isolated pieces. 1. Appeal to student's interest, academic and career goals. 2. Use student's previous experiences and knowledge when introducing new terms. 3. Avoid: too much grammar, abstract principles and theories, drilling or memorization, not clear activities, not useful activities, mechanical techniques, etc.

The Natural Approaches: 4 stages of SLA. Stage 2: The Early Production Phase

The student at this stage is beginning to speak using words or short phrases. The student will progress through this phase with assistance in the form of activities which encourage dialogues, interviews and yes/no questions and answers. At this stage the teachers feedback to the student is important because it will allow for more opportunities to use language which in turn results in more feedback and more comprehensible input.

The Natural Approaches: 4 stages of SLA. Stage 4: The Intermediate Fluency Phase

The student is now able to use more complex sentence structures and has a much better comprehension of the language. At this stage the student may be receiving content instruction in their second language, using a variety of specially designed academic instruction. They will continue to progress until they have full proficiency in the second language. (Considering the Natural Language Approach, how should we approach the delivery of instruction for students who are limited in English? These are some of the points that need to be considered.)

Comprehensible input. Comprehensible approach, maximize input, aid processing maximize output.

They had the goal of lowering learners' affective filters in order to foster acquisition.

Whole Language Education

Two interconnected concepts are brought together in whole language: • Language is not the sum of its many dissectible and discrete parts. Since part of the wholeness includes the interrelationship of the four skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing) we are compelled to attend to at least two of those skills in our classroom • Whole language is a perspective "anchored in a vision of an equitable, democratic, diverse society" (Edelsky 1993: 548). So, teaching a language enables learners to understand a system of social practices that both constrain and liberate.

(Brown, Chap. 9)

Understand the broader view of curriculum design for selecting goals and objectives for a program: situational analysis, needs analysis, and course syllabus.

Eclectic Approach

We need to be "cautiously eclectic in making enlightened choices of teaching practices that are solidly grounded in the best of what we know about second language learning and teaching. What we need: * Not a new Method, but rather a unified approach and effective tasks and techniques * An approach results from: * A combination of reading, observation, discussion, teaching. * An approach is constantly evolving, as a result of: - Own experience as learner - Own experience as teacher - Observation of other classes Readings / study - Your approach will change according to: New experiences / observations New results in SLA research + different interpretations of results Choices tailored to specific contexts.

Interactive Learning

When we speak, the extent to which the intended message is received is a factor of both production and the listener's reception. Most meaning is a product of negotiating. An interactive course provides for such negotiation, by means such as: - Doing a significant amount of pair work and group work - Receiving authentic language input in real-world contexts - Producing language for genuine, meaningful communication - Performing classroom tasks that prepare students for actual language use - Writing to and for real audiences.

Socioaffective Principles: principle 9 Language-Culture Connection

Whenever you teach a language, you also teach a complex system of cultural customs, values, and ways of thinking, feeling, and acting. Classroom applications: 1. discuss cross-cultural differences - emphasize that no culture is better than the other 2. activities that illustrate culture-language connection 3. Teach cultural connotations, especially the sociolinguistic aspects of language 4. Screen for culturally offensive materials 5. explain to students what you take for granted in your culture.

Ch. 11: Task

a specialized form of technique, or series of techniques closely allied with communicative curricula, and must minimally have communicative goals.

Ch. 11: Techniques

are specific activities manifested in the classroom that are consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach. Techniques are virtually synonymous with the terms, task, activity, procedure, practice, behavior, exercise, and strategy.

Course Syllabus

can be conceptualized in two steps; a syllabus is what most institutions refer to as a sequential list of objectives, topics, situations, skills and forms to be taught. An example of a syllabus is a communicative syllabus, this syllabus sets goals for the course, suggested objectives for units and possibly for lessons, a sequential list of functions, a sequential list of topics, a sequential list of grammatical, lexical and or phonological forms, a sequential list of skills, matched references throughout to textbook units, possible suggestions of assessment.

Interactive Learning

doing a significant amount of pair work and group work, receiving authentic language input in real-world contexts, producing language for genuine, meaningful communications, performing classroom tasks that prepare [students] for actual language use "out there," practicing oral communication through the give and take and spontaneity of actual conversation, writing to and for real audiences, not contrived ones.

Ch. 11: Procedure

encompasses "the actual moment-to-moment techniques, practices, and behaviors that operate in teaching a language according to a particular method.

Ch. 11: Activity

may refer to anything that learners do in the classroom, usually limited in time, preceded by some direction from the teacher, with a particular objective. Activities include role plays, drills, games, peer-editing, small-group information gap exercises, and more.

Theories: Critical Period Theory Lenneberg

proposes that because of biological processes, the brain is less able to learn language after a critical period (puberty) Evidence for this has been shown in mentally disabled children who cease linguistic development at puberty Children with brain damage recover more favorably than adults Children appear to learn effortlessly.

Brown Ch.4: Teaching Principles

teaching Principles

Content-based Instruction

the integration of content learning with language teaching aims, more specifically, it refers to the concurrent study of language and subject matter, with the form and sequence of language presentation dictated by content material. -Lang becomes medium to convey content of interest/relevance -Increases intrinsic motivation/autonomy within Ss -Ss focus on subject matter that is important to their lives.

Chapter 8: 'Sociocultural, Political and Institutional Contexts' Culture

underlies every human being's emotion and cognition; governments, politics, and policies are equally powerful influences on our behavior; and finally, our educational institutions are products of culture and policy, and indeed are often microcosms of one's political milieu.

Cooperative and Collaborative Learning

• A cooperative classroom involves the learner-centered characteristics • Students share information and come to each others' aid, they assume a more active role in learning • Opportunities to integrate language with content instruction are provided • Frequency and variety of SL practice through different types of interaction are increased Forming teams (task of the teacher): • Heterogeneity in a team maximizes the possibilities for peer tutoring and improves intercultural communication across groups • Heterogeneous team: gender, ethnicity, language proficiency, and academic achievement • Teams should be changed frequently • Team activities should be structured and roles assigned to each member (leader, secretary, reporter, etc.) Advantages: - Promotes intrinsic motivation - Heightens self-esteem - Creates caring and altruistic relationships - Lowers anxiety and prejudice.

An Enlightened approach

• As an enlightened, eclectic teacher, your approach to language teaching methodology is a theoretically well informed global understanding of the learning-teaching process, where your readings interact with observing, discussing, and teaching. • The interaction between your approach and your classroom practice is the key to dynamic teaching.

Communicative Language Teaching

• Classroom goals are focused on all of the components of communicative competence. • Language techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes. • Organizational language forms are not the central focus. • Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlying communicative techniques • Students ultimately have to use the language, productively and receptively. Classroom tasks must equip students with the skills necessary for communication in contexts outside the classroom. • Students are given opportunities to focus on their own learning process through an understanding of their own styles of learning and through the development of strategies for autonomous learning. • The role of the teacher is that of facilitator and guide.

Humanistic-psychosuggestive method

• Humanistic & Psychosuggestive-based: Suggestopedia, Community language learning.