Test 1 (Geog 120)
Describe the two divisions of the atmosphere on the basis of composition.
"non Variable" and variable Outer atmosphere Gases are sorted by atomic weight H, He—farther O, N—closer 0.01% of atmospheric mass Inner atmosphere Gases are well mixed, (not ozone layer, water vapor, and pollutants)
What are acid deposition and its consequences?
Acid Deposition : acid snow/rain and in dry form as dust or aerosls - tiny liquid droplets or solid particles Consequences: declining fish pop.and fish kills, forest damage, changes in soil chemistry, damage to buildings sculptures and artifacts.
Compare active and passive remote sensing, and give examples.
Active: direct a beam of energy at a surface and analyze the energy reflected back. An example is radar. A radar transmitter emits short bursts of energy that have relatively long wavelengths toward the subject terrain, penetrating clouds and darkness Passive: record energy radiated from a surface, particularly visible light and infrared. Example: our own eyes and Apollo 17 astronaut camera that made the film of Earth
What are the three abiotic spheres that make up Earth's environment? Relate these to the biotic sphere, the biosphere.
An abiotic sphere is nonliving. Those spheres are the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. These three spheres make up the biosphere. The lithosphere (crust and upper mantle of the earth), the atmosphere (the gasses surrounding the earth), and hydrosphere (the water of the earth)
Draw a simple sketch describing Earth's shape and size.
An oblate spheriod, which means a sphere that is slightly out of round. Equatorial diameter = 12,757 km Equatorial circumference = 40,076km
What is normal lapse rate? Learn how to calculate the temperature at the different altitude if given the temperature of sea level.
Average rate of temperature decrease with increasing altitude in the lower atmosphere. An average value of 6.4C per km or 1000 m. Equation: 3.5 x Change in elevation)=temp loss.
Why the ocean temperature rarely exceeds 88°F?
Continental Effect
Learn how to convert temperature in the three different scale systems if given the relations.
Daniel Fahrenheit (1686-1736, Germany) 32°F M.P. and 212°F B.P. (180 divisions; coldest in lab: 0°F) Anders Celsius (1701-1744, Sweden) 0°C M.P. and 100°C B.P. (decimal system) Lord Kelvin (1824-1907, England) Absolute zero = 0K, 273K M.P. and 373 K B.P. Farenheit to Celsius C = (F-32)/1.8 Celsius to Fahrenheit F = 1.8C+32 Kelvin to Celsius C = K-273 Celsius to Kelvin K = C+273
What are the four driving forces within the atmosphere?
Gravity, Pressure Gradient Force, Coriolis Force, Friction Force.
Define a great circle, great circle routes, and a small circle. In terms of there concepts, describe the equator, other parallels, and meridians.
Great Circle cuts through the center of the earth. A great circle route is the shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface. Small circles do not pass through the earth's center. The equator parallel is a great circle. A meridian is a line connecting all points along the same longitude
What is the difference between temperature and heat?
Heat—energy flow from one system to another due to temperature difference (Hot → Cold) Temperature—measure of the average kinetic energy (motion) of individual molecules in matter
Assess the potential for solar energy applications in our society. What are some negatives? What are some positives?
Insolation on US surface in 35 minutes > burning fossil fuels in a year Building receives 6 to 10 times more energy than to heat it Photovoltaic cells—cheaper, bigger Inexhaustible! Collected → Transformed → Stored Passive solar system—thermal mass (water, concrete, tile) for radiant heat Active solar system—heat water or air for direct use Use big mirrors; temperatures up to 390∞C Collected → Transformed → Stored Photovoltaic cells—light shining on semiconductor material stimulates the flow of electrons Cost competitive Can achieve ~20% efficiency
What are the two primary functional layers of the atmosphere and what does each do?
Ionosphere Extends throughout the thermosphere into the mesosphere Absorbs cosmic rays, gamma rays, X-rays, and shorter wavelength UV rays Changes atoms to positively charged ions Ozonosphere Ozone (O3) absorbs UV energy, converts (reradiates) it to heat energy (infrared), filtering out the harmful effects of the radiation Stable for 100s millions of years Today it is in state of continuous change Chlorine atoms and chlorine monoxide decompose ozone → chlorofluorocarbons used in aerosols and refrigeration
What is jet-stream and its effects on airline schedule?
Jet streams: irregular concentrated band of wind occurring at several different locations that influences surface weather systems.
List the physical characteristics of land and water that produce their different responses to heating from absorption of insolation.
LAND - temp conditions more extreme, land warms and cools rapidly -less evaporation -surface is opaque -land has a lower specific heat -land has no mixing between layers MARINE -temp conditions more moderate, water warms and cools slowly -greater evaporation (higher latent heat) -surface is transparent -water has mobility and mixes in vast ocean currents
What is latent heat? Discuss its distribution pattern on the Earth surface?
Latent heat is heat energy that is stored in one of three states. ice, water, or water vapor. The energy is absorbed or released in each phase change from one state to another. heath energy is absorbed as the latent heat of melting, vaporization or evaporation. heat energy is released as the latent head of condensation and freezing or fusion.
Define latitude and parallel and define longitude and meridian using a simple sketch with labels.
Latitude: Circles the Earth parallel to the Equator and measure the distance North or South of the Equator (imaginary lines). Longitude:Imaginary lines or meridians that circle the Earth from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distances East or West of the starting line is the Prime Meridian. Parallels: Lines of latitude are called Meridians: Lines of longitude are called
What role do clouds play in the Earth-atmosphere radiation balance? Is cloud type important? Compare high, thin cirrus clouds and lower, thick stratus clouds.
Low, thick clouds reflect solar energy back to space, (cool Earth) High, thin clouds absorb upwelling longwave radiation, enhancing green house effect (warming) Reflection 30% Absorption 70% Re-radiation as longwave 70%
Compare the marine effect and continental effect.
Marine Effect: a quality of regions that are dominated by the moderating effect of the ocean and that exhibit a smaller range of minimum and maximum temp, both daily and annually. Continental Effect: A quality of regions that lack the temperature moderating effects of the ocean and that exhibit a greater range of minimum and maximum temp both daily and annually.
What does timekeeping have to do with longitude? Explain this relationship. How is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) determined on Earth?
Our time system is based on longitude, the prime meridian, and the fact that Earth rotates on its own axis, revolving 360 degrees every 24 hours, or 15 degrees per hour (360 degrees / 24 = 15 degrees). UTC is based on average time calculations from atomic clocks collected worldwide. You might still see official UTC referred to as GMT or Zulu).
What are Solar wind and its effects?
Solar winds: Clouds of ionized (charged) gasses emitted by the sun and traveling in all directions from the sun's surface. Effects: on Earth are auroras, disturbance of radio signals and possible influences on weather.
List the five physical factors that operate together to produce seasons.
Sphericity -Revolution -Rotation -Tilt of Earth's axis -Axial parallelism
What is subsolar point (SSP)? Where are the locations of SSP in June 21 and Dec. 21?
Subsolar Point: only point receiving perpendicular insolation at a given moment . The suns is directly overhead. Dec. 21: 23.5 S. Latitude Tropic of Capricorn June 21: 23.5 N. Latitude Tropic of Cancer
Describe seasonal conditions at each of the four key seasonal anniversary dates during the year. What are the solstices and equinoxes, and what is the Sun's declination at these times?
Summer solstice- June 20/21 Summer in NH Winter in SH SSP: Tropic of Cancer (23.5N) Winter solstice- December 21/22 Winter in NH Summer in SH SSP: Tropic of Capricorn (23.5S) Vernal Equinox- March 20/21 Spring in NH Fall in SH SSP: Equator Autumnal Equinox- September 22/23 Fall in NH Spring in SH SSP: Equator
Describe the effect of the Coriolis force. Explain how it appears to deflect atmospheric and oceanic circulations.
The apparent deflection of moving objects (wind, ocean currents, missiles) from traveling in a straight path, in proportion to the speed of Earth's rotation at different latitudes. Deflection is to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere; maximum at the poles and zero along the equator.
Diagram in a simple sketch Earth's orbit about the Sun. How much does it vary during the course of a year?
The earth;s orbit around the sun is presently elliptical- a closed, oval path. The pt where earth's orbit is closest to the sun is perihelion (jan 3) and furthest from the sun is aphelion (july 4). Difference is about 4,828,000km or 3,000,000.
Describe the relationship between automobiles and the production of ozone and PANs in city air. What are the principal negative impacts of these gases?
The nitrogen dioxide and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from car exhaust, in the presence of ultraviolet light in sunlight, convert into the principal photochemical by-products—ozone, peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs), and nitric acid.
What is urban heat island? What factors are responsible for it?
Urban Heat Island; physical characteristics of urbanized regions. Both maximum and minimum temps. higher than those of nearby rural settings. Factors: surfaces typically metal, glass, asphalt, concrete or stone and their energy respond differently from natural surfaces. Irregular geometric shape in a city affect radiation patterns and wind Human activity alters the heat characteristics of the city Urban surfaces are sealed so water cannot reach soil Air pollution is greater in urban areas which increases possible convection and precipitation.
What are wind-chill index and heat index? the relationship between surface air pressure and the air temperature.
Wind-chill index: indicates the enhanced rate at which body heat is lost to the air. As wind speed increases, heat loss from the skin increases. Heat index: indicates the human body's reaction to air temp and water vapor. The water vapor in the air is expressed as relative humidity. It effects the evaporation rate of perspiration from the skin. More water in the air, less water perspiration can be absorbed through evaporation.
Characterize the various functions the atmosphere performs that protect the surface environment.
absorbs cosmic rays, gamma rays, X-rays, and shorter wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation and converts them into kinetic energy. absorbs life-threatening ultraviolet radiation, raising the temperature of the stratosphere
Define the western intensification. How is it related to the Gulf Stream and the Kuroshio Current?
circulation within a gyre that causes water to "pile up" creating a slight hill in the center just like when you stir a pot -the apex of the gyre if offset to the west (due to Coriolus effect) -geostrophic flow (caused by gravity and Corilous effect) within a gyre causes water to flow faster down the steeper western slope of the gyre -This intensifies the western boundary current in the major gyres occurs where an EC runs into a land barrier then turns due to Coriolis,effect. What is EC -flow warm and deep at a high velocity -flow rapidly-which form eddies Example: Japan/Kuroshio Current & Gulf Stream
What are major northward warm currents in North Hemisphere?
equatorial currents
What forces produced ocean currents?
frictional drag of the winds linking the atomosphereic and oceanic systems. Also the interplay of Coriolis force, density differences caused by temp and salinity, configurations of continents and ocean floor, and tides.
Match the items among high/low pressure system—anti/cyclonic -counter/clockwise movement—North/south hemisphere
high pressure- anticyclonic- clockwise- North hemisphere low pressure system- cyclonic -counterclockwise- South hemisphere
What are the characteristics of ITCZ?
identified by bands of clouds associated with the convergence of winds along the equator and is noted on the January and July pressure maps. Thermally caused low-pressure area that almost girdles earth with air converging and ascending all along its extent.
Discuss the distribution of insolation on the Earth surface?
insolation decreases poleward form about 25 latitude in both northern and southern hemispheres. Consistent day length and high sun altitude produce average annual values of 180-220 watts per square meter. Throughout the equatorial and tropical latitudes. In general, greater insolation of 240-280 w/m2 occurs in low-latitude deserts worldwide because of frequently cloudless subtropical desert in both hemispheres.
What is the main methodology governing the geographic inquiry?
involves spatial analysis
What are major controlling factors for temperature?
latitude, altitude, elevation, cloud cover and land-water heating differences
What are upper atmospheric winds?
pattern of ridges and troughs that ar e important in sustain surface cyclonic (low pressure) and anticyclonic (high pressure) circulation.
What is planetesimal hypothesis?
proposes a process by which early protoplanets formed from the condensing masses of a nebular cloud of dust, gas and icy comets. a formation process now being observed in other parts of the galaxy
The following ratios are large scale, medium scale, or small scale?1:3,168,000; 1:24,000; 1:125,000.
small, large, medium
How about the steps and key ideas of scientific method?
step 1: observe and measure step 2: Form and test a hypothesis step 3: Formulate a theory - Application of common sense in an organized and objective manner. - A scientist observes , makes a general statement to summarize the observations, formulates a hypothesis , conducts experiments to test hypothesis, and develops a theory and governing scientific laws.
What cells are the strongest of the four primary pressure areas?
subtropic high-pressure cells and Equatorial Low-Pressure through ITCZ
What is the fundamental power for maintaining the life cycle on the Earth?
sun
What is albedo?
the reflective quality of a surface, expressed as the percentage of reflected insolation to incoming insolation; a function of a surface color, angle of incidence and surface texture. Albedo is the reflective quality of a surface (its intrinsic brightness) Albedo—controls absorption of insolation: 0%—total absorption of insolation 100%—total reflection of insolation
Learn how to calculate the time differences between different longitudes and if pass the International Date Line.
When you cross the International Date Line heading east (toward America), the clock moves back 24 hours, or one entire day. When you go west (toward Asia), the calendar moves ahead one day. - 24 hr/360° = 15°, one hour every 15° longitude
Define wind. How is it measured? How is its direction determined?
Wind is the horizontal movement of air across Earth's surface. Wind speed is measured with an anemometer, and its direction with a wind vane.
Summarize the ozone predicament, and describe treaties to protect the ozone layer.
- A single Cl atom can decompose 100,000 O3 atoms - Cl has an atmospheric residence time of 40 to 100 years -By 1998, 22 million metric tons of CFCs were sold worldwide and released - Reached record losses in 2000 and 2001 Losses in midlatitudes are 6 to 8% every decade Increase in ultraviolet radiation Rate of skin cancer is increasing 4% per year Suppresses human immune system Diminishes crop production Kills microorganisms, disrupting food chain Hole over Antarctica increases each year Ozone Hole of Antarctica. Why? Wind concentrates freed Cl U.S. ban of CFCs in 1978 >½ of U.S. production was exempt 1981 Presidential (RR) order permitted the sale and export of banned products - Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1990, 1992, 1997) All production of CFCs will cease by 2010, stratospheric recovery predicted by 2100
What are most commonly used map projections?
1.) Mercator projection: cylindrical, projection. meridians appear as equally spaced straight lines and parallels appearing as straight lines that are placed closer together near the equator. Poles are stretched fixed at the same length as the equator. 2.) Gnomic projection: planar projections. Projecting a light source at the center of the globe onto a plane that is touching the globes surface. 3.) Albers equal-area conic projection (two std. parallels) 4.) Oval projections
Discuss how the Mount Pinatubo eruption affected the atmosphere (page 136)?
15-20 megatons of sulfur dioxide droplets were injected into the stratosphere; winds rapidly spread these aerosols worldwide. As a result atmospheric albedo increased worldwide and produced a temporary average cooling of 0.5C.
