Test #3 (FINAL)
Massed vs distributed practice
Few long sessions - massed Many shorter sessions - distributed For retention: distributed sessions bc shorter times
graphic rating scale (GRS)
identifies a number of categories (usually 10-12), briefly describes each in a few sentences, and presents numerical scales that raters mark to evaluate the ratee's performance in each category. (lots of errors, the ambiguity of the trait to be rated and to the anchor)
Severity of job stress depends on what?
the magnitude of demands that are being made and the individual's sense of control or decision-making latitude he or she has in dealing with them. Scientific studies based on this model confirm that workers who perceive they are subjected to high demands but have little control are at increased risk for cardiovascular disease.
behavior modification
the use of operant conditioning (positive reinforcement) techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior. The greater the reinforcement, the more rapid the worker learns.
Drawbacks of the BARS
-applies to only one job category (a wide range of jobs would require the development of a BARS instrument for each) -the procedure time is time consuming and costly -research has shown that the BARS format is psychometrically no better than well-designed GRS formats in terms of rater reliability.
motivator-hygiene or two-factor theory (herzberg)
-motivator needs: the nature of the work and its level of achievement and responsibility --> produce job satisfaction (i.e. achievement, recognition, interesting work, increased responsibilities, advancement, and growth opportunities) -hygiene needs: aspects of the work environment such as pay and supervision, working conditions, salary, safety, company policies *Despite its limitations, the theory can be valuable aid to managers because it points out that improving the environment in which the job is performed goes only so far in motivating employees*
Factors in establishing and implementing a training program
1) identification of objectives 2) selection of materials/methods 3) instruction 4) evaluation
Two categories in behavioral theories of leadership
1. those that were concerned with tasks 2. those that were concerned with the people
job dissatisfaction
10%-13% in the US, strongly influenced by the kinds of questions asked and by personal characteristics of the respondents. Age, sex, race, intelligence, length of job experience, personality and occupational level affect this.
Occupational pressures are believed to be responsibile for:
30% of workers suffering from back pain 28% complaining of "stress" 20% feeling fatigued 13% with headaches
What percent of job turnover is due to stress?
40%
Rating errors and biases
Even the most seasoned rater can fall into rating traps. Evaluators should be aware of common rating errors in order to insure that all employees will receive an impartial assessment of their abilities.
Essay method
A trait approach to performance appraisal that requires the rater to compose a statement describing employee behavior 1) can convey qualitative info that could not be tapped by a numerical scale 2) do so in a meaningful behavioral detail 3) specify developmental improvement steps 4) serve as a detailed permanent record that both appraisee and appraiser can refer to again and again. cons: requires time and writing skill, therfore it's rarely used, only for top-level managers
job stress is also very costly with the price tag for U.S. industry estimated at over $300 billion annually as a result of:
Accidents absenteeism employee turnover diminished productivity direct medical, legal, and insurance costs workers' compensation awards as well as tort and FELA judgements
Behavior modeling
An approach that demonstrates desired behavior and gives trainees the chance to practice and role-play those behaviors and receive feedback. Allows employees to ask questions and gain insights from those with first-hand experience.
Case studies training method
Apply knowledge to a simulated real-world scenario Good for applying knowledge, not necessarily creating new knowledge used for supervisory positions
Why do performance appraisals usually fail?
Because of inherent conflicts in the evaluation process
How much does it cost to replace an average employee today?
Between $3,000-$13,000
How can these various aspects of performance appraisals be measured?
By either objective or subjective procedures, although practical concerns have led to a reliance in most organizations on supervisory judgements
managing stress
Exercise, diet, meditation, arbitration
Violence in the Workplace
Caused by involuntary turnover has become a major organizational problem, sexual harrassment
behavioral theories of leadership (1940s-1950s)
Focuses on the behaviors of the leaders as opposed to their mental, physical, or social characteristics. *Leaders are made, not born* Research and practical experience has shown that the best trainers in business and industry are trained both as teachers and in the job skills to be taught.
3 major forms of ranking
Forced distribution straight ranking paired-comparisons
Formative VS summative evaluations
Formative: looking at specific components of the training and see what worked or what didn't work Summative: overall evaluation, was this training effective in accomplishing the objectives? Blended format: part of the course can be taught online and another part can be taught face-to-face
Stress due to job security
Has skyrocketed! Due to economic recessions and lay offs, stress has been prevalent because people don't know if they can keep their job for the future.
Choosing a training method
Identify the type of learning outcome that you want training to influence Consider the extent to which the learning method facilitates learning and transfer of training Evaluate the costs related to development and use of the method Consider the effectiveness of the training method
Acquired needs important implications for the motivation of employees
Managers need to understand the dominant needs of their employees to be able to motivate them. Similar to expectancy theory.
Politics with managers
Managers who display a firm commitment to equity and refuse to play office politics can inspire other employees to focus on professionalism and performance rather than political maneuvering in the office.
Transfer of learning
Positive transfer: what i'm learning during training will carry over to the job Negative transfer: what I learn during training becomes an obstacle to job performance, it doesn't carry over
How Maslow's Hierarchy applies to work setting
Providing generous benefits that include health insurance and company-sponsored retirement plans, as well as offering a measure of job security, will help satisfy SAFETY needs. Social needs may be satisfied by having a friendly environment and providing workplace conducive to collaboration and communication with others. Self-actualization needs may be satisfied by the provision of development and growth opportunities on or off the job, as well as by work that is interesting and challenging.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
EAP: Employee assistance programs
Services provided by employers to help workers cope with a wide variety of problems that interfere with the way they perform their jobs
The need for achievement (McClelland)
The extent to which an individual has a strong desire to perform challenging tasks well and to meet personal standards for excellence. -these people like working conditions in which they have responsibility and take calculated risks and set moderate achievement goals. They constantly need feedback on their progress and seek challenging jobs.
Transformational Leadership (2000s)
The transformational leader is not contrained by their followers' perception but are free to change their followers' views. They challenge and inspire with a sense of purpose an excitement. Rules and regulations are flexible. These attributes provide a sense of belonging among the employees bc they can identify with the leader. Three components: 1. Charisma 2. high energy 3. risk taking
computer-assisted instruction (CAI)
The use of computers to help people learn or improve skills at their own pace. It assesses the knowledge of the trainee, then delivers training material appropriate to his or her level. Trainees receive constant feedback bout their performances, and they cannot advance to more difficult material until they have mastered the more basic. Level of difficulty depends on who is taking the test. - cost is high and need license for use -training time is cut short and trainees generally react positively to this method
McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X - the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to perform. Theory Y - the assumption that employees are creative, enjoy work, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction.
identification of objectives
Training goals should be measurable. These goals are typically established by using methods such as job analysis, critical incidents, performance appraisal data and needs assessment surveys
Friedman and Rosenman (1974)
Type A behavior pattern, hostility predicts heart disease better than any other causal factor (smoking, diet, cholesterol)
Americans working harder and longer
U.S. workers put in more hours on the job than the labor force of any other industrial nation, where the trend has been just the opposite. Americans put in an equivalent of an extra 40-hour work week in 2000 compared to ten years previously. In a 2001 survey, nearly 40% of workers described their office environment as "most like real-life survivor program"
Communication with managers
When managers speak courteously and professionally at all times, especially in conflict situations, employees are more likely to model this behavior, treating customers and each other with respect at all times.
weighted checklist
a checklist that includes items that have values or weights assigned to them that are derived from the expert judgments of incumbents and supervisors of the position in question (simplest form: the checklist, requires a personnel expert to identify behaviors and characteristics of ratees that are associated with good job performance.)
job satisfaction
a positive feeling about one's job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics, usually accomplished through questionnaires -increases with age! unaffected by intelligence -also increased with length of job experience and occupational level -also the salary a person earns affects this as well
job rotation
a training strategy that is often used among management trainees, but it can be used with blue-collar workers as well. Employees spend designated periods of time in different kinds of positions. Allows trainees to develop an appreciation for the specific role of their jobs in the overall organizational structure. -cons: productivity is likely to be lost
paired comparison
all rankees are compared two at a time, one being selected as better than the other (more complex the more employees you have) *formula for calculating the # of paired comparisons is: n(n-I)/2* (n is the # of employees)
Games in training
allows participants to practice making decisions and to see the outcomes of those decisions. - 3 elements: roles, scenarios, and an accounting system
mentoring
an intense relationship in which a senior employee (the mentor) gives guidance to a junior employee (the protege). Employees who have mentors are more likely to receive promotions and higher pay than those who do not. -new way: co-mentoring process - a collaborative developmental model that encourages new workers to brainstorm together on relecant work issures. -mentoring can promote worker encouragement and support as well as invigorate involved senior workers
psychosomatic illness
an interaction between mind and body that can produce illness
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)
assessment that measures the amount of stress in a person's life over a one-year period resulting from major life events (Holmes and Rahe Scale in 1967) *positive correlation!*
Intrinsic motivation:
behavior performed for its own sake, motivation comes from performing the work.
Extrinsic motivation:
behavior performed to acquire rewards
physical attractiveness (beauty bias)
can be a factor on which to base the evaluation of performance. Research has shown that persons who are perceived to be physically attractive tend to receive higher ratings than those who are considered unattractive.
Type A individuals
can be described as impatient, time-conscious, concerned about their status, highly competitive, ambitious, business-like, aggressive, having difficulty relaxing, and are somethings disliked by individuals with type B personalities. Type A personalties are three times as likely to develop heart disease problems.
training raters
can be known to help reduce rater error and improve rater accuracy -training should focus on: --increasing the accuracy of observations --use a common frame of reference for rating --make raters aware of potential errors and biases --raters should practice with mock ratings
subjective measures
can either be direct (graphic rating scales, behavorally anchored rating scales), indirect (weighted checklist, forced choice), or comparative (ranking, paired-comparison, forced distribution)
Motivation
crucial in all kinds of organizations today and is responsible for the shoddy products we buy and the careless service we receive. Modern workers demand jobs that satisfy their inner needs for fulfillment, expression, and self-actualization.
rankings
early form of appraisal, requiring no consideration for specific aspects of job performance and being easy to apply to the trait evaluations. *the problem with rating is that it allows the rater to avoid rating actual job performance and even to avoid specifying what is being rated. It allows the rater to compare people (not necearrisly performance or effectiveness) or some unknown quality.* rankings have fallen into general disfavor
Training the trainers
effective trainers must be able to diagnose problem areas, develop a program to address those problems, administer a training program, and evaluate the training programs of other trainers.
selection of instructional materials
effective training requires selecting materials that: 1) will accomplish the goals of the program 2) are appropriate to the group that is to be trained Methods such as lectures, auto-visual materials, online tools, role playing and small group discussions are commonly used in training.
Spillover hypothesis
emotions, affect, and mood from the parental relationship "spill over" into the broader family, disrupting children's sense of emotional security
What is the BARS highly suited for?
employee development and training; it tells the ratee how he or she compares with others and it provides data that is relevant to goal setting.
participatory management
implies that others are allowed to participate in decision making over which someone has control
job enlargement
increasing the number of different tasks in a given job by changing the division of labor to maximize the motivator factors 1) removing controls over employees and increasing their personal responsibility for their work 2)providing employees with full and natural units of work 3) giving employees more authority and freedom in their jobs 4) providing feedback on production directly to workers 5) encouraging workers to assume new and more difficult tasks 6) allowing workers to become experts or specialists in a particular task
judgement ratings
indicates that the rater is making clear, consious decisions about ratees' performance, with no hidden tricks as part of the rating format. 1.essay 2.graphic rating scales 3.behaviorally rating anchored scales
Acquired-needs theory (achievement motivation by McClelland)
individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of their life experiences. 1. need for achievement (success, meeting deadlines, coming up with great ideas) 2. need for affiliation (making plans to be with friends/family, want to be liked and accepted by others) 3. need for power (getting work done by influencing other people, or desiring to make an impact in the organization) All individuals possess a combination of these needs, and the dominant needs are thought to drive employee behavior. Uses the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to assess the dominant need
lecture training method
large amounts of info can be transmitted in short period of time to large numbers of people -presenter has to have skill in order for it to be effective
Off-site training methods
lecture, audiovisual methods, behavior modification, computer-assisted instruction (CAI), simulations, games, and case studies
Work Ethic
manager's work ethic dramatically effects their employees
behavior modification training
method of training that draws on B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura's work in modeling and behavior. Individuals often learn best by observing and then practicing a behavior. The employee simply observes someone who is effective at performing the desired behavior, and then practices until the behavior is accomplished.
On-the-job Training (OJT)
new employees are placed with some experienced workers who give them directions about what to do. (positive transfer of training) -OJT can be successful with proper planning, a good instructor, and a supportive environment
leniency or strictness error
occur when a rater demonstrates a tendency to be excessively favorable or unfavorable in evaluating workers. *Ratings should reflect a profile of the worker, The role of the evaluator is to screen out those who do not possess the entry-level skills necessary to perform satisfactorily on the job.* -"central tendency": all ratings are average or in the middle
errors in contrast
occur when raters rate the performance or characteristics of the worker in comparison to other workers.
halo effect
occurs when a rater forms a general impression of an individual and allows this impression to influence the rating of other specific characteristics
Stereotyping
occurs when a rater makes assumptions about a specific worker based on his or her membership in a larger group.
Segmentation hypothesis
people compartmentalize their lives and that satisfaction in one area of life has no relation to satisfaction in another
audiovisual training
providing instruction on a topic to employees by having them watch or listen to a video or other visual or audio presentation -good for when material has to be presented a number of times, more interesting than a lecture -cons: cost of film preparation or rental, the one-way communication and the inability of trainees to determine if they understand the material, difficulty in adding or deleting material
straight ranking
rater ranks employees on overall job performance from best to worst
mirror image
refers to the temptation to empathize with people who remind us of ourselves in terms of background or interests
forced distribution method
requires the rater to place all subordinated on a normal distribution (bell-shaped curve). The intent of this method is to minimize any leniency or strictness error
60-80% of job accidents are...
stress related
ERG frustration-regression principle
suggests that individuals who are frustrated in their attempts to satisfy one need may regress to another. We need to recognize the multiple needs that may be driving individuals at a given point to understand their behavior and properly motivate them.
Compensation hypothesis
suggests that people who have an insecure relationship with their parents are more likely to seek a secure relationship with God
Evaluation
summative evaluation is designed to measure the success (or failure) of the overall training program - using a pretest and a post-test with a randomized control group. OR trainer will conduct an informal or formal evaluation ti determine specific aspects of success or failure as well as the reactions of the group to training
Contingency Theory (1960s)
this approach holds that with respect to organizing, managing, and motivating that there is no one best way to go about it. also assumes that all approaches to a situation are equally appropriate. Effectiveness depends on the leader's degree of control over the situation and the leader's authority. Leaders are either task-oriented or person-oriented. Leaders are more likely to express their leadership when they feel that their followers will be responsive.
vestibule training
trainnees are provided with an area outside the main production site where they can practice the skills necessary for successful job performance. (approach similar to simulation) -professional trainers, rather than supervisors of experienced workers, provide guidance about the proper procedures for task accomplishment -typically one of the most expensive training methods -make sure the training is a close approximation of the actual job itself!
What can performance appraisals focus on?
traits of the employee, behaviors exhibited in performing the work, and outcomes achieved
Simulations
typically used when training situation calls for a high degree of realism. Examples include LGD and in-basket techniques. -To make sure of positive transfer-of-training, simulation equipment should have physical fidelity and psychological fidelity. The simulation must utilize equipment that is as exact a replica of the actual work equipment as possible and require performance of the behaviors that are used on the job.
Blind ratings
used to prevent the rater from knowing how the ratee is actually being rated. 1.forced-choice 2.weighted checklist
Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scale (BARS)
uses specific descriptions of actual behaviors (critical incidents) to rate various levels of performance -process is consuming by worthwhile -compatible with EEOC guidelines -asses performance in terms of specific behaviors that are critical to the job, rather than in terns of general traits or abstract constructs -eliminate the use of potentially misleading numerical and volume measures that are not readily interpretable -reduce rater bias and error by anchoring the rating with specific behavioral examples based on job analysis info -eliminate evaluator's in-preciseness, subjectivity and failure to identify the essential functions of the job. -required participation of many staff members to complete
Transactional Leadership (1970s and 1980s)
(AKA Exchange Theories) characterized by a transaction made between the leader and the followers. The theory values a positive and mutually beneficial relationship. To be effective, the leader must find a means to align to adequetly reward (or punish) his follower, for performing leader-assigned task. *Transactional leaders focus on the social interactions between leaders and followers.*
ERG theory of motivation
(Alderfer) A system that sets out three categories of human needs relating to organizational behaviors: Existent needs, Relatedness needs, Growth needs. Doesn't rank needs in any particular order and recognixes that more then one need may operate at a given time.
Honesty with managers
If managers' and executives' actions are always in line with their words by following ethical guidelines, fulfilling promises made to employees, admitting their mistakes and coming to others for advice, employees are more likely to do the same in response.
HAM's (internal locus of control) vs. LAMS (external)
Internal vs. External Locus of Control. People who base their success on their own work and believe they control their life have an internal locus of control. In contrast, people who attribute their success or failure to outside influences have an external locus of control.
Trait Theory (1930's-1940's)
(Gordon Allport) Believe that people are either born or are made with certain qualities that will make them excel in leadership roles. Qualities include: -intelligence -sense of responsibility -creativity and other values Analyzes mental, physical, and social characteristics in order to gain more understanding of what combination is most common among leaders.
need hierarchy theory (Maslow)
- studied healthy, normal individuals who were historically successful - proposes that motivation is the result of five basic instinctual needs: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization - research doesn't support order of hierarchy, but does suggest that unfulfilled physiological needs take precedence over other needs
future trends of ratings
1) increasing formality and accountability in appraisals. As organizations attempt to succeed in an increasingly competitive world, it has become more important to measure the performance of employees so that their success can be rewarded and their deficiencies corrected. 2) Civil rights legislation such as the ADA will impose even heavier demands on organizations to document important employment decisions such as transfers, promotions, firings, etc.
the importance of training
1) the necessity of training the unskilled workers who entered the workforce relatively recently 2) rapid advances in technology that require new knowledge from employees 3) to promote health (manage stress) 4) improve productivity 5) to make certain that workers have equal opportunity with regard to promotions
Qualities that a trainer should have to be successful
1) trainers must have knowledge of the organizational environment in which they operate in order to be able to access the appropriateness of training methods. 2) trainers need professional knowledge of the area in which they teach. Should have knowledge of the relevant field, or at least knowledge of a related area and time to become sufficiently familiar with the area to be taught. 3) trainers should be selected because they enjoy the work and can provide high levels of performance, and not because they are unsuccessful doing other work. 4) trainers must have some understanding of the general principles of learning or pedagogy
Absenteeism due to job stress
It has escalated! The number of employees calling in sick because of srress tripled from 1996 to 2000. Over half of the 550 million working days lost annually in the U.S. from absenteeism are stress related. If this occurs in key employees it can have a domino effect that spreads down the line to disrupt scheduled operations. *Unanticipated absenteeism is estimated to cost American companies $602.00/worker/year.*
scientific management approach
Theory X, most employees are lazy, indifferent, and uncreative replaced in the 1920s, 1930s by participatory management
On-site Training methods
on-the-job training, vestibule, mentoring, and job rotation
forced choice
the rater must pick the one item (of three or four) that best describes the ratee's job performance. Only one refers to good job performance, the others are just "dummies"- they are worded to sound good but are worthless when it comes to actually doing the job. This technique minimizes raters from knowing how favorable or unfavorable a rating they are assigning a worker. (more $$$ to develop bc a lot of research is needed for ratings)