Texas Government 2306 Hicks-Final Exam

How is the state of Texas limited by the US constitution?

-14th Amendment, it is clearly stated the federal law takes precedence over the state law. America as a whole comes before the state of Texas.

Know the general details regarding Evenwel v. Abbott

-Challenge in how we can draw our districts, usually done by total population. Ppl came in and said they should be drawn by voting population. Supreme court ruled this constitutional.Evenwel v. Abbott (2016) A United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that the principle of one person, one vote, under the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution allows states to use totally l population, not just total voting-eligible population, to draw legislative districts.

Know the metro areas of Texas and the impact of urbanization

-Dallas/Fort Worth, Houston, San Antonio -Increased Transportation/railroads, Free Enterprise System, Higher wages, Advanced Technologies, depletes rural economies while creating larger urban economies

Know the history and importance of federalism. Why do we have a federalist system?

-Division of power between levels of government -Approx 40% of world's population live in federalist system -America: states states are equal with each other -America seen to be more flexible because we have adapted to geographical, population, economic, and various background changes A system in which power is divided between the national and state governments.Significance: Federalism allows people living in different states with different needs and different interests to set policies suited to the people in their state. - -All power came from state governments and federal gov couldn't act (9/13 state approval to pass, fed's couldn't tax, no courts) so Congress became broke -Nullification Crisis of 1833: SC tried to nullify national legislation passed by Congress but Jackson sent military forces and they backed down -McCulloch v. Maryland: reiterates federal power with the 2nd Bank -Gibbons v. Ogden: interstate commerce

Know the election process from the primary to the general. What are the types of elections held? When are the elections held?

-Primary election: determines a party's nominee for the general election. Held on the second Tuesday in march of even numbered years.-Open primary: any registered voter can participate, regardless of party affiliation.Closed primary: only registered members of the particular party can vote.-Runoff primary: a second primary election held between the two candidates who received the most votes in the first primary election if no candidate in the first primary election had received a majority. -General election: Voters select public officials for national and state officeholders. Held on the following first Monday in November of even numbered years.-Special election: held during vacancies in due time when someone dies or retires

Know how Texas get its revenue

-Sales taxes - severance taxes on oil and natural gas produced in the state - licensing income -interest and dividends - federal aid

What impact did the Fourteenth Amendment have on federalism?

-Shifts the power to the federal govt -Shrinks states rights -Granted general citizenship to all persons born/naturalized in the US -"No state shall deny" states would not be allowed to deprive people of these rights or interfere with the amendment in any way -realigned the relationships between the states and the federal government and strengthened the federal government's power over the States

Know the reasons for the low turnout in amendment elections and the possible solutions

-elections during off years- not much advertisement-Solutions: even numbered years, more important stuff that people care about

What provisions in the state constitution affect the budget?

-limitation on how much money we can spend above our debt -pay as you go limit

Know the trends of economic development in Texas, from cotton/cattle to oil to our current, more diversified economy

1. Cotton and cattle (railroad)2. Oil3. High tech industries

The Texas Legislature meets in regular session

140 days each odd-numbered year.

Know how the county government is designed, including the offices, numbers of counties in Texas, and county commissioner's court

254 counties in TexasCounty commissioners' court:County Judge- administrative and some judicial dutiesCounty Commissioner (4 per county, roads and bridges)Offices: County Attorney, County Clerk, County Tax Collector, County Auditor, Sheriff

Know the various issues the prison system in Texas has faced

A 224 cell state penitentiary in Huntsville, Texas opened in 1849. It confined prisoners in single cells at night and congregated inmates during the day to work in silence. From 1870 to 1883 the entire prison was leased to private contractors who used the labor of inmates in exchange for providing maintenance and security of prisoners.After 1883, convicts in the Texas prison system were leased to railroads, planters and others who provided the prisoners with food and clothing and paid a stipend to the state. These leasing arrangements were abandoned in 1910 as a result of scandals and abuses of the system. In 1924, an investigation of the system found cruel and brutal treatment of prisoners, inefficient management, and inadequate care of inmates

One important requirement of the Sandra Bland Act is that A. jail deaths must be investigated by an independent agency. B. families of those who die in jail will have the right to sue for monetary damages. C. jailers will be legally liable if a person dies in a county jail. D. persons cannot be jailed if their offense is only punished by a fine. E. persons must give written consent for their vehicle to be searched by the police.

A. Jail deaths must be investigated by an independent agency

To become a naturalized citizen, an individual must A. have lived in the United States for 10 years. B. demonstrate a perfect command of English. C. have arrived to the United States illegally. D. demonstrate good moral character. E. pay an additional tax on their income.

A. have lived in the United States for 10 years.

Which of the following is NOT a constitutional constraint on the budgetary process in Texas

A. pay as you go B. Welfare spending limit C. A limitation on the debt payable from the General Revenue Fund D. all of the above are constitutional limits Answer: D

An example of policy legitimation is when A. the courts uphold the constitutionality of a law. B. the governor vetoes a particular bill. C. the governor appoints an official to run a bureaucracy. D. political scientists research the effectiveness of a law. E. the legislature does not repeal a law during the legislative session following its passage.

A. the courts uphold the constitutionality of a law

Know the purpose of a political party

An organization that seeks political power in order to elect people to office so that its positions and philosophy become public policy.

What are some of the problems regarding special districts?

Anyone can create one by getting a petition signed, getting majority vote, and have a law authorizing the district. The challenges are that most are governed by boards and there are several instances of abuses of power due to bad accountability. All they have to do is have one election where at least one short-term resident can vote and then the district will be funded by property taxes, user fees, and state/federal aid.

Know how the current Texas Constitution is organized

Article 1: Bill of Rights Article 2: Powers of Government Article 3: Legislative Powers Article 4: Executive Powers Article 5: Judicial Powers Article 6: Suffrage Article 7: Education Article 8: Taxation and Revenue Article 9: Local Government Article 10: Railroad Article 11: Local Government Article 12: Private Corporations Article 13: Spanish Land Titles Article 14: Public Lands Article 15: Impeachment Article 16: General Provisions Article 17: Amending the Constitution 17 Articles 491 Ammendments

According to the video watched in class, know the notable products Mexico began exporting in larger numbers due to NAFTA

Avocados and shoes

Texans pay this amount per gallon in gasoline taxes: A. 70 cents B. 20 cents C. 18.4 cents D. 6.25 percent of price per gallon E. 38.4 cents

B. 20 cents

Senate Bill 4 addressed the issue of sanctuary cities by A. mandating that every city in Texas cooperate with federal authorities. B. enacting penalties for local police and sheriffs who refused to cooperate with federal authorities. C. creating a commission to study the issue. D. requiring that all cities create sanctuaries for undocumented immigrants. E. providing additional state money for cities that did not cooperate with federal authorities.

B. enacting penalties for local police and sheriffs who refused to cooperate with federal authorities

Know the issues of many of the individuals serving as justices of the peace

Between 2002 and 2015, 50 judges were suspended from duties21 were justices of the peace19 of those 21 did not have law degreesOnly 10% of justices of the peace are lawyersBy lacking law degrees, they lack a background and strong knowledge of the laws they will be making life changing decision on.

All of which of the following groups constitute the Democratic Party base in Texas EXCEPT

Business leaders

The agency responsible for licensing peace officers is the A. Texas Peace Officers Association. B. Police Licensing Board. C. Texas Commission on Law Enforcement. D.FBI. E.Texas Department of Public Safety.

C. Texas Commission on Law Enforcement

The Affordable Care Act A. was part of the War on Poverty. B. merged Medicare and Medicaid into a single program. C. will increase health insurance coverage to millions of Texans. D. was declared unconstitutional by the Texas Supreme Court. E. originated in the Texas legislature.

C. will increase health insurance coverage to millions of texans

State courts tried to address the issue of equity in the funding of public schools A. in the case of Edgewood ISD v. Kirby. B. in the case of Brown v. Board of Education. C. in the case of San Antonio v. Rodríguez. D. by appointing Ross Perot to recommend changes to the property tax in Texas. E. by abolishing the office of the State Board of Education.

C.in the case of San Antonio V. Rodriguez

Know and analyze the budget crisis in Texas

Came from great recession and property tax reform-Came to a budget short fall, a lot less money came in than was expected-Gov considered using rainy day funds but did not

Interest Groups provide public officials with all the following EXCEPT

Committee assignments

Know the types of local government

County: provides many basic government functionsCity / Municipal: role is to adopt / create policies as well as provide more in depth services to the residentsSpecial: usually perform a single function

The solution to transportation congestion in Texas is A.more toll roads. B. the bullet train. C. public transportation. D. uncertain. E. raising motor fuels taxes.

D. uncertain

The major trial courts in Texas are the

District courts

Know the difference between dual and cooperative federalism. What other names do they go by?

Dual Federalism:federal and state governments run separate and independent -Layer cake Cooperative Federalism:Government in the US from Reconstruction to the 1930's national and state governments share many powers -Marble cake Government in the US from the 1930's to present-day -Helped enforce FDR's New Deal, LBJ's Great Society, and Nixon's New Federalism, Utilize grants

Who initially signed the DACA executive order? A. President George W. Bush B. President Ronald Reagan C. President Barack Obama D. President Donald Trump E. President Bill Clinton

E. Bill Clinton

The most likely response to the need for transportation funding is to A. increase the gasoline tax. B. increase motor vehicle fees. C. impose a state income tax. D. delay dealing with the problem. E. raise the sale tax.

E. Raise the sale Tax

The welfare reforms of the 1990s A. resulted from a belief that the welfare policies of the 1960s had failed. B. led to a 36-month limitation on welfare benefits in Texas. C. led to a five-year ban on reapplying for benefits once benefits ran out. D.expanded education and job-training programs. E. all of the above

E. all of the above

Know the offices involved in the plural executive and how they are chosen

Elected positions: governor, lieutenant governor, attorney general, agriculture commissioner, land commissioner, comptrollerUnelected position: secretary of state (APPOINTED BY GOVERNOR)

Know the duties of each office

Executive powers: appointment power, patronage power, budgetary power, police and military powerLegislative powers: message power, veto power, can make special sessionsJudicial Powers: fills vacancies in the district attorney's office, also fills vacancies in the appellate and district court judges

Know what Medicaid is

Federally and state funded but federally ran medical program-For poorer people who can not afford medical insurance

What are the crime classifications in Texas?

Felony: more serious crime; fines up to $10,000 and prison punishment from 6 months to death (capital punishment); right to vote, own a gun, and certain occupational hazards can be taken away, voting rights are restored after sentence had been fully discharged; there are degrees of felonies (ex. 1st or 2nd degree murder)Misdemeanor: Smaller crime; fine up to $4,000, sentence up to 1 year in county jail; class A, B, and C classifications

Describe how the money in the budget is organized into specific funds

General revenues fund:the state's primary operating fund; Includes - the Available School Fund, - the State Instructional Materials Fund -and the Foundation School Fund General Revenue-Dedicated Funds:is a subset of the General Revenue Fund -State Parks Account and the college operating accounts (which hold tuition funds). - legislature can appropriate money from these accounts ONLY for their dedicated purposes. -the balances in this budget are used to certify that the constitutional pay-as-you-go limits (discussed below) are being met. Federal Funds :includes all grants, payments, and reimbursements received from the federal government by state agencies and institutions, including those from the Medicaid program, Title 1 Grants to Local Educational Agencies, transportation grants, and the Children's Health Insurance Program. Other funds budget:consists of all other funds flowing into the state treasury that are not included in the other methods of financing. -State Highway Fund -the Texas Mobility Fund - the Property Tax Relief Fund - the Economic Stabilization Fund. All funds budget: is the aggregate of all these ways of financing government and refers to all revenue that goes through agencies, including federal and state programs.

What areas in the state budget are impacted the most by federal expenditures?

Healthcare and human services, education

What is a special session?

If the legislature does not complete its agenda before the end of the legislative session or if problems arise between regular sessions, the governor may call this. It is a legislative session called by the governor that addresses an agenda set by him or her that lasts no longer than 30 days. In 2013 two special sessions were called to deal with abortion laws.

What are the advantages of an interest group vs. individual actions?

Interest groups have time, money, expertise, and continuityPeople's agendas get noticed when advocated for in large groupsAn individual may find it hard to sustain their interest over many legislative sessions They do not have enough money to contribute to a campaign

What kind of benefits do interest groups provide policy makers? What kind of benefits do policy makers provide interest groups?

Interest groups help policy makers achieve their agendas (if they aren't against them), they have the ability to raise money for campaigns, they can get a policy maker media coverage, they allow for the development of a policy maker's staff, they provide important information, they can supply votesPolicy makers can create policies that are beneficial to interest groups

Know what managed care programs are

Intermediaries which negotiate w health carriers to get best deals for people

Know the potential problems with judicial elections. Be sure to recount the trends of partisanship and ways our state has attempted to counteract these issues

Judges must make decisions that are impartial and are seen to be impartial. The election of judges in Texas requires them to be politicians, seeking votes and in most cases money to campaign for votes.Texas used to be dominated by democratic judges however when much of the state became red in 1990s so did the judges. Many voters will just vote straight ticket republican without any knowledge of the judges they are voting for.Texas lawmakers decided last year to get rid of the straight-ticket option starting in 2020.

Know the difference between home-rule charter cities and those governed by general statute

Know the difference between home-rule charter cities and those governed by general statute are rules under which a city operates and is constitutionally authorized to borrow money. If a city/town has fewer than 5000 people, then they are charted by general statute, which is more limited in resources and makes it harder to grow

Know the different levels of the party organization, both permanent and temporary

Know the different levels of the party organization, both permanent and temporary -Precinct- political organization at the local level-Precinct Chair- local party official elected in party's primary election. Heads the precinct convention and serves on the party's county executive committee-County Chair- the county party official who heads the county executive committee-County Executive Committee- made of a party's county chair and precinct chair that is responsible for running a county's primary elections and planning county conventions-State Executive Committee- committee responsible for governing a party's activities throughout the state-State and Vice Chair- top 2 state-level leaders -Precinct Convention- meeting to select delegates for county convention and submit platforms -County Convention- meeting held after precinct convention to elect delegates for state convention-State Convention- meeting held every 2 years to nominate candidates for statewide office, adopting a platform, and electing party leader. During presidential election years, delegates are chosen for national convention and presidential electors are also chosen-Conventions are permanent

Know the history of the barriers to voting in Texas elections. What, historically, has been the process of changing districts? How has it changed?

Know the history of the barriers to voting in Texas elections. What, historically, has been the process of changing districts? How has it changed? 1918- women allowed to vote in primaries and party conventions.19th Amendment gives women right to vote.White primaries designed to minimize political strength of african american voters. 1923-1944. Jaybird party prohibited african americans from participating. Ruled unconstitutional by supreme court. Poll taxes prerequisite for voting. Became unconstitutional in 1964 by the 24th amendment, legal in state until 1966.Voting rights act of 1965 guarantees african american right to vote.Early registration: have register 9 or more month before general election.Residency requirements: one year in state, six months in county.Reapportionment occurs every 10 years in order to determine how many congressional seats each state will receive, depending on population shifts.Redistricting is the redrawing of election districts and redistributing legislative representatives in the Texas House, Texas Senate, and U.S. house and occurs every 10 years.

Know the powers of the legislature

Know the powers of the legislature has the power to write and pass bills and resolutions, as well as writing amendments to the constitution. has the ability to investigate issues and problems facing the state. also has a mandated role in counting returns in the elections for governor and lieutenant governor.

Know when gubernatorial elections are held

Know when gubernatorial elections are held The first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, every four years, does not coincide with a presidential elections. Happens with midterm elections.

Know the structure of our court system in Texas

Low - HighJustice courts, municipal courtscounty level courtsdistrict courtscourt of appealssupreme court, court of criminal appeals

Know the reputation Texas has in terms of spending

Low service, low tax state -seeks to maintain a favorable environment for business.

Know the affect the Affordable Care act had on Texas

Makes health care cheaper and more available to people The long-term effect of the ACA for Texas would be a budgetary one. Increased expenditures on Medicaid and health care in Texas are all but inevitable.

Know the qualifications for the office of governor

Must be at least 30 years oldBe a US citizenBe a Texas resident for at least 5 years before election

Know the proposed reforms to the prison system

Number of drug treatment programs have increased and emphasis onprobationGenerous wrongful conviction compensationSome departments modifying procedures for obtaining eyewitness evidenceNew law makes easier for inmate to challenge conviction based on badscienceMichael Morton ActThis act is designed to ensure a more open discovery process. The bill's open file policy removes barriers for accessing evidence. Morton was present for the signing of the bill, which became law on September 1, 2013.

Know the significance of the incorporation of the Bill of Rights.

People argued that ratifying the constitution would lead to the federal government having too much power and this was a threat to the rights of the people and the states. The first 9 amendments gives individuals specific rights; the 10th amendment (AKA: "the State's Rights Amendment") states that the powers not specifically stated as federal government powers, and not specifically prohibited, are powers reserved for the states

Know the major issues that have shaped education policy in Texas, including the Gilmer-Aiken Laws and possible reforms to the quality of education in the state

Plans to fix our education system in the 1940s-present-Longer school terms, "no pass, no play", high stakes testing, funding, increasing charter schools

The procedure by which certain states, such as Texas, are required to obtain approval every time they make changes to the districts is called

Preclearance

Know the bases of both political parties, including demographics and geographic locations

Refers to a group of voters who almost always support a single party's candidates for elected office. It is very rare that they will vote for the opposing party.

Dual Federalism

Refers to a system of government where states do most of the governing

In 2017 Governor Abbott made headlines for his signing of a bill regarding sanctuary cities. What did this bill NOT do?

Requires every law enforcement officer to call ICE when they suspect someone is an undocumented immigrant

What are the two categories of special districts? What are some examples?

School Districts: policy, budget, only for preK-112, textbooksNon-School Districts: municipal utility district, hospital districts, fire-prevention districts

Know the key principle that connects both the US and the Texas constitutions

Separation of powers and checks and balances. Both divide powers between three branches. Continually, federalism and selective incorporation are links to the US constitution.

Know how tort reform has impacted our courts

Ten years after the Texas Legislature capped damages in the state's medical malpractice lawsuits, the number of suits and the amounts paid out have fallen sharply.Medical malpractice claims, including lawsuits, resolved in a year fell by nearly two-thirds between 2003 and 2011 to 450. The average payout declined 22 percent to about $199,000.Supporters of the "tort reform" law say doctors worry less about being sued and have seen their malpractice insurance premiums fall.

Know what forms of ID are acceptable at the polls.

Texas Driver License issued by the Texas Department of Public Safety (DPS)Texas Election Identification Certificate issued by DPSTexas Personal Identification Card issued by DPSTexas Handgun License issued by DPSUnited States Military Identification Card containing the person's photographUnited States Citizenship Certificate containing the person's photographUnited States Passport (book or card)

Explain the developments that affect exoneration of prisoners

The Sandra Bland case-Sandra Bland was a Prairie View A&M alumni . She was one her way to work when a DPS trooper arrested Bland for assaulting a public servant which she did not do and took her to the Waller County, Texas jail where she stayed for 3 days until she was able to pay her 500 dollar fine . She was found dead in her cell and the cause of death was suicide. DPS claimed The trooper violated it's courtesy protocol. -Many wrongfully prosecuted people were prosecuted during the administration of Dallas county district attorney Henry Wade. -In 2007, Dallas county district attorney Craig Watkins created the Conviction Integrity Unit to investigate post conviction claims of actual innocence, to identify valid claims and to take appropriate action. -The Houston PD crime lab was closed after problems with handling evidence sent to state and local crime labs. *The Willingham Case- Cameron Willingham was wrongfully convicted for causing a fire that killed his 3 children and his conviction was largely based on expert testimony that the fire was arson. After he was executed, it was discovered that it was not arson and he was innocent so in 2005, the Texas Forensic Science Commission was made to investigate claims of error or misconduct by forensic scientists.

Know the differences between the state Bill of Rights and the US Bill of Rights

The first is more specific and contains rights that the second doesn't have.

Know the bill making process here in Texas

The first steps are done in the house: Legislature introduces a bill to clerk of the house. Secondly, the bill is assigned to a committee. The committee debates the bill. Next the Calendars committee debates the bill. These steps are repeated in the Senate. Nearing the end of the process, both the house and senate work to compromise on the bill. Lastly, the governor can veto the bill (however the legislature may override by ⅔ vote), sign the bill (bill comes into effect 90 days after), or choose to do nothing, in which case the bill becomes law after 90 days unless otherwise stipulated.

What is the goal of an interest group? What is a lobbyist?

The goal is to influence government's programs and policies, influence public opinion, and elect members who are friendly to their agendas; they are motivated by self-interest.An individual employed by an interest group who tries to influence governmental decisions on behalf of that group.

What is the legal reasoning behind the challenges to voter ID?

The law puts an undue burden on populations less likely to possess a photo identification (and who often vote for democrats) such as elderly, minority, disabled, and poor voters. Republicans support the measure and claim it is meant to preserve integrity of the electoral system, Democrats have attempted to stop the measure and claim that the law is not about preserving integrity but rather meant to minimize democratic turnout

Know the history of reforms to the welfare system

The origins of modern welfare policy lie in President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal. -Programs given to the state from the national government -Created limit caps to make sure it is not a burden on the state -Created to save money, limit fraud -to run the state's various public assistance programs. -changed to the Department of Health and Human Services in 2003

Why must the budget in Texas be balanced?

The state constitution demands it to be, it is unconstitutional for it not to be Article 3, Section 49a (pay-as-you-go limit),

What does one do if they can't obtain an ID? Why does this process exist?

They may sign an affidavit indicating a reasonable impediment to obtaining one, along with a more accessible form of identification such as a utility bill, bank statement, or birth certificate. Proponents of the process claim it will reduce voter fraud, while opponents believe the process is meant to minimize Democratic turnout.

Know the major steps and players in making the budget

Two parts: 1. Governor- chief planning officer, budget bills can be line item vetoed. LBB Legislative budget board State agencies requesting money 2. Submit to legislature. Ran like a bill being passedLegislature gives out funds

Know about the history of water rights in Texas

Water vs. Property rights-Ground water and surface water are different, taking water fro ground can effect water reserves. Can regulate this but have to compensate

What does the term "revolving door" refer to?

When legislatures or other governmental officials leave their job to become lobbyist, a job that revolves around making appeals to the legislature.

What is probation?

a punishment where an offender is not imprisoned but remains in the community under specified rules and under the supervision of a probation officer.

Probation refers to

a suspension of the jail or prison sentence

Know the role creative destruction plays in our economy

a theory developed by Joseph Schumpeter that describes how economic markets naturally evolve. They create new governments and destroy the old-Keeps pur economy modern and diverse

Know what special districts are

are also known as "ghost government." They tax and take money with limited supervision. There are several for school districts, but also many districts, such as hospital, fire-prevention, and municipal utility districts

Why are district attorneys considered to have the most important role in the criminal justice process?

are public officials who prosecute the more serious cases like felony cases in the district court. The District Attorney has the responsibility for criminal prosecutions within the District Attorney's jurisdiction. The district Attorney has prosecutorial discretion which includes the power to charge or not charge a person with a crime

Know the organization of the Texas Legislature- How many members are there, what are their terms, etc.

bicameral with two chambers: the Texas House of Representatives and The Texas Senate. There are 150 House members and 31 senators. Senators serve four year terms, and House members serve serve for two.

Know the controversy regarding sanctuary cities. How has Governor Abbott responded?

cities that refuse to deport undocumented immigrants. They have been a hot topic in Texas politics in recent years. have benefits such as giving hard working people a chance to start a better life, but they can also harbor criminals and the police can't deport those criminals. In response, Governor Abbot has called for a ban on those cities.

Article 1 of the Texas Constitution

contains the Texas Bill of Rights.

What are the different types of interest groups? Which type is the most influential?

corporation/companies- insurance companies most influentialProfessional groups- Texas Medical AssociationPublic employee- public school teachersSingle issue- abortionCivil rights- NAACPConsumer, environmental, and other general public common causes

Creative Destruction

creates new economies and destroys old ones

Know why the most recent districts are being challenged in the Supreme Court

district lines need to be redrawn; one TX house was gerrymandered based on race and needs to be redrawn.

Know the length of the regular session for Texas Legislature

for 140 days every odd-numbered year.

The governor's veto is absolute when it is a

post-adjournment veto

Know the redistricting process. Be sure to know the 2003 redistricting controversy.

the process by which the state legislatures redraw electoral district lines within the boundaries of that state. In 2003 the Texas legislature redrew district lines which were controversial because some of the districts seemed to section off different races from one another. In 2006 the supreme court in the League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry ruled that the redrawing was, in fact, constitutional apart from district 23 which the supreme court redrew along with districts 15, 21, 25, and 28.

The Gilmer-Alkin Laws

were major educational reforms passed in 1949