Textbook - Chapter 4

What are the origins of ethnographic research

beginning in comparative cultural anthropology conducted by early 20th-century anthropologists,

what are some of the popular approaches in narrative research?

biographical study Autoethnography life history oral history

Define phenomenological research

describes the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a phenomenon. Phenomenologists focus on describing what all participants have in common as they experience a phenomenon The basic purpose of phenomenology is to reduce individual experiences with a phenomenon to a description of the universal essence

Origins of case study research are?

popularity in psychology (Freud), medicine (case analysis of a problem), law (case law), and political science (case reports).

Define emic vs etic

views of the participants (emic) as well as the views of the researcher (etic).

Describe an oral history

consists of gathering personal reflections of events and their causes and effects from one individual or several individuals Narrative studies may have a specific contextual focus, such as stories told by teachers or children in classrooms (Ollerenshaw & Creswell, 2002) or the stories told about organizations (Czarniawska, 2004). Oral history may draw upon diverse research methods and be guided by interpretive framework such as social justice

four philosophical perspectives in phenomenology:

- A return to the traditional tasks of philosophy. - A philosophy without presuppositions. - The intentionality of consciousness. - The refusal of the subject-object dichotomy

Defining Features of Case Studies

- Case study research begins with the identification of a specific case that will be described and analyzed. Examples of a case for study are an individual, a community, a decision process, or an event. A single case can be selected or multiple cases identified so that they can be compared. Typically, case study researchers study current, real-life cases that are in progress so that they can gather accurate information not lost by time. -The key to the case identification is that it is bounded, meaning that it can be defined or described within certain parameters. Examples of parameters are located and timeframe ir. -The intent of conducting the case study is also important to focus the procedures for the particular type. A qualitative case study can be composed to illustrate a unique case, a case that has unusual interest in and of itself and needs to be described and detailed. This is called an intrinsic case (Stake, 1995). Alternatively, the intent of the case study may be to understand a specific issue, problem, or concern (e.g., teenage pregnancy) and a case or cases selected to best understand the problem. This is called an instrumental case (Stake, 1995). -A hallmark of a good qualitative case study is that it presents an in-depth understanding of the case. In order to accomplish this, the researcher collects and integrates many forms of qualitative data, ranging from interviews, to observations, to documents, to audiovisual materials. Relying on one source of data is typically not enough to develop this in-depth understanding. -The selection of how to approach the data analysis in a case study will differ. Some case studies involve the analysis of multiple units within the case (e.g., the school, the school district) while others report on the entire case (e.g., the school district). Also, in some studies, the researcher selects multiple cases to analyze and compare while, in other case studies, a single case is analyzed. -A key to generating the description of the case involves identifying case themes. These themes may also represent issues or specific situations to study in each case. A complete findings section of a case study would then involve both a description of the case and themes or issues that the researcher has uncovered in studying the case. Examples of how the case themes might be organized by the researcher include a chronology, analyzed across cases for similarities and differences among the cases, or presented as a theoretical model. -Case studies often end with conclusions formed by the researcher about the overall meaning delivering from the case(s). These are called assertions by Stake (1995) or building "patterns" or "explanations" by Yin (2009). I think about these as general lessons learned from studying the case(s).

Procedures for Conducting Grounded Theory Research

- Determine if the research problem is best examined by using a grounded theory approach. -Focus interview questions on understanding how individuals experience the process and identify the steps in the process. -Theory-building emerges through the simultaneous and iterative data collection, analysis, and memoing processes. -Structure the various analysis procedures as open, axial, and selective coding. -Articulate a substantive-level theory to explain the process (or action) that was the focus of the study. -Present the theory as a discussion or model.

What are the procedures for Phenomenological researchers

- Determine if the research problem is best examined by using a phenomenological approach. -Identify a phenomenon of interest to study and describe it. -Distinguish and specify the broad philosophical assumptions of phenomenology. -Collect data from the individuals who have experienced the phenomenon by using interviews. -Generate themes from the analysis of significant statements. -Develop textural and structural descriptions. -Report the "essence" of the phenomenon by using a composite description. -Present the understanding of the essence of the experience in written form.

What are the defining features of ethnographies

- Ethnographies focus on developing a complex, complete description of the culture of a group—the entire culture-sharing group or a subset of a group (The culture-sharing group must have been intact and interacting for long enough to develop social behaviors of an identifiable group that can be studied. Key to ethnographic research is the focus on these discernible working patterns, not the study of a culture (Wolcott, 2008a). - In an ethnography, the researcher looks for patterns (also described as rituals, customary social behaviors, or regularities) of the group's mental activities, such as their ideas and beliefs expressed through language, or material activities, such as how they behave within the group as expressed through their actions observed by the researcher (Fetterman, 2010). Said in another way, the researcher looks for patterns of social organization (e.g., social networks) and ideational systems (e.g., worldview, ideas; Wolcott, 2008a). - In addition, theory plays an important role in focusing the researcher's attention when conducting an ethnography. . - Using the theory and looking for patterns of a culture-sharing group involves engaging in extensive fieldwork, collecting data primarily through interviews, observations, symbols, artifacts, and many diverse sources of data (Atkinson, 2015; Fetterman, 2010). - In an analysis of this data, the researcher relies on the participants' views as an insider emic perspective and reports them in verbatim quotes and then synthesizes the data filtering it through the researchers' etic scientific perspective to develop an overall cultural interpretation. This cultural interpretation is a description of the group and themes related to the theoretical concepts being explored in the study. Typically, in good ethnographies, not much is known about how the group functions (e.g., how a gang operates), and the reader develops a new, and novel, understanding of the group. - This analysis results in an understanding of how the culture-sharing group works—how it functions, the group's way of life. Wolcott (2010) provides two helpful questions that, in the end, must be answered in an ethnography: "What do people in this setting have to know and do to make this system work?" and "If culture, sometimes defined simply as shared knowledge, is mostly caught rather than taught, how do those being inducted into the group find their 'way in' so that an adequate level of sharing is achieved?" (p. 74).

What are the defining features of grounded theory?

- Grounded theory research focuses on a process or an action that has distinct steps or phases that occur over time. Thus, a grounded theory study has "movement" or some action that the researcher is attempting to explain. - In a grounded theory study, the researcher seeks, in the end, to develop a theory of this process or action. - The process of memoing becomes part of developing the theory as the researcher writes down ideas as data are collected and analyzed. In these memos, the ideas attempt to formulate the process that is being seen by the researcher and to sketch out the flow of this process. -The data and analysis procedures are considered to undertaken simultaneously and iteratively. The primary form of data collection is often interviewing in which the grounded theory researcher is constantly comparing data gleaned from participants with ideas about the emerging theory. The process consists of going back and forth between the participants, gathering new interviews, and then returning to the evolving theory to fill in the gaps and to elaborate on how it works. -The inductive procedures involved in data analysis are described in relation to the type of grounded theory approach. The procedures can be structured and follow the pattern of developing open categories, selecting one category to be the focus of the theory, and then detailing additional categories (axial coding) to form a theoretical model. The intersection of the categories becomes the theory (called selective coding). This theory can be presented as a diagram, as propositions (or hypotheses), or as a discussion (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Data analysis can also be less structured and based on developing a theory by piecing together implicit meanings about a category (Charmaz, 2006)

What are some challenges of narrative research?

- It takes a keen eye to identify in the source material that gathers the particular stories to capture the individual's experiences - explaining the multilayered context of a life - Active collaboration with the participant is necessary, and researchers need to discuss the participant's stories as well as be reflective about their own personal and political background, which shapes how they "restory" the account. - power relations is of principal concern in narrative inquiry - Multiple issues arise in the collecting, analyzing, and telling of individual stories and building awareness of this responsibility is crucial - Reflecting the embedded nature of these stories within the larger social, cultural, familial, linguistic, and institutional dimensions allows a more complex understanding to be attended to but difficult to realize

Describe the realist ethnography

- Realist ethnography is an objective account of the situation, typically written in the third-person point of view and reporting objectively on the information learned from participants at a site - The ethnographer remains in the background as an omniscient reporter of the "facts. - also reports objective data in a measured style uncontaminated by personal bias, political goals, and judgment. - may provide mundane details of everyday life among the people studies - uses standard categories for cultural description (e.g., family life, communication networks, work life, social networks, status systems). - produces the participants' views through closely edited quotations and has the final word on how the culture is to be interpreted and presented.

What are challenges in Grounded theory?

- The investigator needs to set aside, as much as possible, theoretical ideas or notions so that the analytic, substantive theory can emerge. - The researcher faces the difficulty of determining when categories are saturated or when the theory is sufficiently ) If using Corbin and Strauss systematic procedures) -

Challenges for Case study research

- case study development is that the researcher must identify the case, lots of decisions to be made in picking cases - Some case studies may not have clean beginning and ending points, and the researcher will need to set boundaries that adequately surround the case. - Having enough information to present an in-depth picture of the case limits the value of some case studies.

Describe case study research

- defined as a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a real-life, contemporary bounded system (a case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information (e.g., observations, interviews, audiovisual material, and documents and reports), and reports a case description and case themes. involves the study of a case (or cases) within a real-life, contemporary context or setting - This case may be a concrete entity, such as an individual, a small group, an organization, or a partnership. - bounded system, bounded by time and place) whereas others present it as a strategy of inquiry, a methodology, or a comprehensive research

Challenges in Ethnographic Research?

- he researcher needs to have an understanding of cultural anthropology, the meaning of a social-cultural system, and the concepts typically explored by those studying cultures. Culture is an amorphous term, not something "lying about" - he time to collect data is extensive, involving prolonged time in the field. - , the narratives are written in a literary, almost storytelling approach, an approach that may limit the audience for the work and may be challenging for authors accustomed to traditional approaches to scientific writing. - There is a possibility that the researcher will "go native" and be unable to complete or be compromised in the study. - Sensitivity to the needs of individuals being studied is especially important, and the researcher must access and report his or her impact in conducting the study on the people and the places being explored. - Discussions abound about how funding often limits time for ethnographic fieldwork and how data shapes the generation of an ethnographic study.

Describe an intrinsic case study. Ex?

- in which the focus is on the case itself (e.g., evaluating a program, or studying a student having difficulty; see Stake, 1995) because the case presents an unusual or unique situation Example: An intrinsic case study of Silk Road as an online drug marketplace explored an individual user's "motives for online drug purchasing, experiences of accessing and using the website, drug information sourcing, decision making and purchasing, outcomes and settings for use and perspectives around security" (Van Hout & Bingham, 2013, p. 383). The findings point to differences in relationships, participatioparticipation, and feelings of safety compared with more traditional online and street sources of drug supply and shed light on the utility of Silk Road to maximize consumer decision making and harm reduction

Describe the critical ethnography.

- including in the research an advocacy perspective - which the authors advocate for the emancipation of groups marginalized -Critical researchers typically are politically minded individuals who seek, through their research, to speak out against inequality and domination - The major components of a critical ethnography include a value-laden orientation, empowering people by giving them more authority, challenging the status and addressing concerns about power and control - study issues of power, empowerment, inequality, inequity, dominance, repression, hegemony, and victimization.

Describe the systematic procedures of Anselm Strauss and Juliet Corbin in grounded theory

- involve the categories, codes, and codings and the systematic procedures guided by the constant comparison of data from the field with emerging categories - the investigator seeks to systematically develop a theory that explains process, action, or interaction on a topic - typically conducts 20 to 30 interviews based on several visits "to the field" to collect interview data to saturate the categories - While the researcher collects data, she or he begins analysis. Our image for data collection in a grounded theory study is a zigzag process: out to the field to gather information, into the office to analyze the data, back to the field to gather more information, into the office, and so forth. - Does theoretical sampling: participants are theoretically chosen. The researcher begins with open coding - From this coding, axial coding emerges in which the researcher identifies one open coding category to focus on (called the "core" phenomenon) and then goes back to the data and creates categories around this core phenomenon. -mhe final step, then, is selective coding, in which the researcher takes the model and develops propositions (or hypotheses) that interrelate the categories in the model or assembles a story that describes the interrelationship of categories in the model.

Describe ethnographic Research

- is interested in examining these shared patterns, and the unit of analysis is typically larger than the 20 or so individuals involved in a grounded theory study - focuses on an entire culture-sharing group ( Can be small ex. teacher group, but typical large) - design in which the researcher describes and interprets the shared and learned patterns of values, behaviors, beliefs, and language of a culture-sharing group (Harris, 1968). As both a process and an outcome of research (Agar, 1980), ethnography is a way of studying a culture-sharing group as well as the final, written product of that research. - ethnography involves extended observations of the group, most often through participant observation, in which the researcher is immersed in the day-to-day lives of the people and observes and interviews the group participants. Ethnographers study the meaning of the behavior, the language, and the interaction among members of the culture-sharing group.

Define grounded theory research

- is to move beyond description and to generate or discover a theory, a "unified theoretical explanation" - A key idea is that this theory development does not come "off the shelf" but rather is generated or "grounded" in data from participants who have experienced the process - grounded theory is a qualitative research design in which the inquirer generates a general explanation (a theory) of a process, an action, or an interaction shaped by the views of a large number of participants.

Defining Features of Narrative Studies

- researchers collect stories from individuals (and documents, and group conversations) about individuals' lived and told experiences. -Narrative stories tell of individual experiences, and they may shed light on the identities of individuals and how they see themselves. - stories occur within specific places or situations tories are gathered through many different forms of data, such as through interviews that may be the primary form of data collection but also through observations, documents, pictures, and other sources of qualitative data. -Narrative stories are analyzed using varied strategies. An analysis can be made about what was said (thematically), the nature of the telling of the story (structural), who the story is directed toward (dialogic/performance), or using visual analysis of images or interpreting images alongside words - often are heard and shaped by the researchers into a chronology, although they may not be told that way by the participant(s). - stories often contain turning points (Denzin, 1989) or specific tensions or transitions or interruptions that are highlighted by the researchers in the telling of the stories. Such incidents can serve as organizing structures for recounting the story including the lead-up and consequences. Daiute (2014) identifies four types of patterns (across narratives of one individual or two or more) for meaning-making related to similarities, differences, change, or coherence.

What are the types of grounded theory studies.

- systematic procedures of Anselm Strauss and Juliet Corbin - constructivist approach of Charmaz

Describe an collective case study (or multiple case study). Ex?

- the one issue or concern is again selected, but the inquirer selects multiple case studies to illustrate the issue. - Often the inquirer purposefully selects multiple cases to show different perspectives on the issue. Example: A multiple case study focused on the relationship patterns and management practices across four UK nursing homes involving 406 managers and staff over 6 months (Anderson, Toles, Corazzini, McDaniel, & Colón-Emeric, 2014). The findings suggested the capacity for delivering better resident care resulted from positive interactions strategies and pointed to the need for positive staff engagement with one another as a prerequisite for care quality.

Describe the constructivist approach of Charmaz in grounded theory?

- theory development resulting from a co-construction process dependent upon researcher interactions with participants and field. - ake the model one step further to develop a conditional or consequential matrix.

Procedures for Conducting an Ethnography

-Determine if ethnography is the most appropriate design for studying the research problem. -Identify and locate a culture-sharing group to study as well as access considerations. -Select cultural themes, issues, or theories to study about the group. -Determine which type of ethnography to use to study cultural concepts. -Gather information in the context where the group works or lives through extensive fieldwork. -Generate an overall cultural interpretation of the group from the analysis of many data sources. -Disseminate the patterns of the culture-sharing group by using a holistic cultural portrait. -Present the patterns of the culture-sharing group in written or performance formats.

Procedures for Conducting a Case Study

-Determine if the research problem is best examined using a case study approach. -Identify the intent and case (or cases) for the study as well as case sampling procedures. -Develop procedures for conducting the extensive data collection, drawing on multiple data sources. -Specify the analysis approach for developing case description(s) based on themes and contextual information. -Report the interpreted meaning of the case and lessons learned by using case assertions.

Describe Procedures for Conducting Narrative Research

-Determine if the research problem is best examined using a narrative approach. - Select one or more individuals, and gather their stories through multiple types of information. - Consider how the data collection and recording can take different shapes. - Embed information about the context of the stories into data collection, analysis, and writing. - Analyze the participant ' stories by using the process of restorying. - Embed a collaborative approach in the collection and telling of stories. - Present the narrative in written form by adapting the general reporting structure as appropriate.

What are the types od phenomenology

-hermeneutic phenomenology - empirical, transcendental, or psychological phenomenology

Define transcendental phenomenology

. The procedures, illustrated by Moustakas (1994), consist of identifying a phenomenon to study, bracketing out one's experiences, and collecting data from several persons who have experienced the phenomenon. The researcher then analyzes the data by reducing the information to significant statements or quotes and combines the statements into theme Following that, the researcher develops a textural description of the experiences of the persons (what participants experienced), a structural description of their experiences (how they experienced it in terms of the conditions, situations, or context), and a combination of the textural and structural descriptions to convey an overall essence of the experience.

There are several features that are typically included in all phenomenological studies

An emphasis on a phenomenon to be explored, phrased in terms of a single concept or idea, such as the educational idea of "professional growth," the psychological concept of "grief," or the health idea of a "caring relationship." -The exploration of this phenomenon with a group of individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon. Thus, a heterogeneous group is identified that may vary in size from 3 to 4 individuals to 10 to 15. -A philosophical discussion about the basic ideas involved in conducting a phenomenology. This turns on the lived experiences of individuals and how they have both subjective experiences of the phenomenon and objective experiences of something in common with other people. (Thus, there is a refusal of the subjective-objective perspective, and for these reasons, phenomenology lies somewhere on a continuum between qualitative and quantitative research. In some forms of phenomenology, the researcher brackets himself or herself out of the study by discussing personal experiences with the phenomenon. This does not take the researcher completely out of the study, but it does serve to identify personal experiences with the phenomenon and to partly set them aside so that the researcher can focus on the experiences of the participants in the study. This is an ideal, but readers learn about the researcher's experiences and can judge for themselves whether the researcher focused solely on the participants' experiences in the description without bringing himself or herself into the picture.) -A data collection procedures that typically involves interviewing individuals who have experienced the phenomenon. This is not a universal trait, however, as some phenomenological studies involve varied sources of data, such as poems, observations, and documents. -A data analysis that can follow systematic procedures that move from the narrow units of analysis (e.g., significant statements), and on to broader units (e.g., meaning units), and on to detailed descriptions that summarize two elements: "what" the individuals have experienced and "how" they have experienced it (Moustakas, 1994). -An ending for phenomenology with a descriptive passage that discusses the essence of the experience for individuals incorporating "what" they have experienced and "how" they experienced it. The "essence" is the culminating aspect of a phenomenological study.

Narrative studies can be differentiated along two different lines being?

One line is to consider the data analysis strategy used by the narrative researcher, whereas the other is to consider the types of narratives

What qualitative approach best fits your research needs when Develop an in-depth description and analysis of a case or multiple cases.

Case Study Research: Provide an in-depth understanding of a case or cases

What qualitative approach best fits your research needs when Describe and interpret a culture-sharing group.

Ethnographic Research: Describe and interpret the shared patterns of culture of a group.

What qualitative approach best fits your research needs when Develop a theory grounded in data from the field.

Grounded Theory Research: Ground a theory in the views of participants.

What qualitative approach best fits your research needs when Explore the life of an individual.

Narrative Research: Tell stories of individual experiences.

What qualitative approach best fits your research needs when Understand the essence of the experience

Phenomenological Research: Describe the essence of a lived phenomenon.

What are the origins of phenomneological research

Phenomenology has a strong philosophical component to it. It draws heavily on the writings of the German mathematician Edmund Husserl

Types of case studies

The types of qualitative case studies are distinguished by the focus of analysis for the bounded case, such as whether the case involves studying one individual, several individuals, a group, an entire program, or an activity. - They may also be distinguished in terms of the intent of the case analysis. Three variations exist in terms of intent: the single instrumental case study, the collective or multiple case study, and the intrinsic case study.

What are challenges in phenomenology research?

These philosophical ideas are abstract concepts and not easily seen in a written phenomenological study - the participants in the study need to be carefully chosen to be individuals who have all experienced the phenomenon in question, this can be difficult depending on the topic - Bracketing personal experiences may be difficult for the researcher to implement because interpretations of the data always incorporate the assumptions that the researcher brings to the topic - the researcher needs to decide how and in what way his or her personal understandings will be introduced into the study. - for phenomenological researchers is how (or for many if) a newer approach, interpretive phenomenology, fits within phenomenology.

define intentionality of consciousness.

This idea is that consciousness is always directed toward an object. Reality of an object, then, is inextricably related to one's consciousness of it. Thus, reality, according to Husserl, is divided not into subjects and objects but into the dual Cartesian nature of both subjects and objects as they appear in consciousness.

Define constructivist grounded theory

This is a form of grounded theory squarely in the interpretive tradition of qualitative research. As such, it is less structured than traditional approaches to grounded theory. The constructivist approach incorporates the researcher's views; uncovers experiences with embedded, hidden networks, situations, and relationships; and makes visible hierarchies of power, communication, and opportunity (Charmaz, 2006).

define the process of restoring

This is an approach in narrative data analysis in which the researchers retell the stories of individual experiences, and the new story typically has a beginning, a middle, and an ending

Where is the origins of Ground theory?

This qualitative design was developed in sociology in 1967 by two researchers, Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, who felt that theories used in research were often inappropriate and ill-suited for participants under study

Describe hermeneutic poenology

in which he describes research as oriented toward lived experience (phenomenology) and interpreting the "texts" of life

Define bracketing

in which investigators set aside their experiences, as much as possible, to take a fresh perspective toward the phenomenon under examination.

What are examples of phemonmens?

include emotional states such as anger and social constructs such as professionalism. A phenomenon can also involve gaining understandings of a clinical descriptor—for example, what it means to be underweight or a professional descriptor like what it means to be a wrestler.

Describe a biographical study.

is a form of narrative study in which the researcher writes and records the experiences of another person's

Describe a autoethnography

is written and recorded by the individuals who are the subject of the study (Ellis, 2004; Muncey, 2010). Muncey (2010) defines autoethnography as the idea of multiple layers of consciousness, the vulnerable self, the coherent self, critiquing the self in social contexts, the subversion of dominant discourses, and the evocative potential. They contain the personal story of the author as well as the larger cultural meaning for the individual's story.

Describe a life history

life history portrays an individual's entire life, while a personal experience story is a narrative study of an individual's personal experience found in single or multiple episodes, private situations, or communal folklore

Where did narrative theory originate from?

literature, history, anthropology, sociology, sociolinguistics, and education, yet different fields of study have adopted their own approaches (

Types of ethnographies?

the realist ethnography and the critical ethnography.

Describe an instrumental case study. Ex?

the researcher focuses on an issue or concern and then selects one bounded case to illustrate this issue. Example: Creswell (1995) used an instrumental case study to explore the issue of campus violence and using the single case of one institution to illustrate the reaction of the campus to a potentially violent incident. The findings from multiple sources of information advanced five themes (denial, fear, safety, retriggering, and campus planning) and assertions in terms of two overriding responses of the campus community to the gunman incident