The American City Midterm 1

FHA insured loans

Loans insured by the FHA after assessing the risk that someone will default on their mortgage. Loans were predominantly given to whites over African Americans. Loans were not given in Red Lined areas.

Dancing during the "break" "break dancing"

Loops of "breaks" from 1970's disco. Dancers would dance on these breaks.

Debate today over Barry Farm

Low income mostly black community in Washington that is having New Communities Initiative work to attract middle class millennials to area. By rebuilding PH with less and smaller spaces it is essentially removing Af-Am from their century old town. New entertainment attractions surround the town and the Af-Am are slowly having no option but to leave.

Operation bootstrap

Operation by the U.S. government to industrialize Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico shifted from agricultural economy to industrial economy. People were better educated and had better healthcare, but loss of agriculture led to high unemployment. In 1950s more options for migration are available, like jet service to NYC. Those who could chose to emigrate to U.S. cities

History of the term "ghetto"

Originally anti-semitic Europe (dating back to medieval Venice) where Jews were forced to live in special district. 1880s-1920s: used to describe European immigrant enclaves. 1929: Louis Wirth, argues that a Jewish Ghetto exists in Chicago.By late 1960s: impoverished central city areas with predominantly African American/Latino population. African American sociologists says that there exists a black "ghetto" (intentionally borrowing term.

Oscar Lewis, "culture of poverty", and the Moynihan Report (1965)

Oscar Lewis was a 1960s anthropologist argued that poverty in inner cities was caused by a "culture of poverty," or that people who grew up in poverty were more likely to remain in poverty, leading to a vicious and unending cycle of poverty. He emphasized individual choices, and bad personal decisions as causes of poverty. In these areas a lack of safety would cause kids to form gangs to protect themselves, further worsening the issue of safety.

Push/Pull factors, birth of mass suburbia

PUSH factors: housing shortage due to Depression/WW2. Returning GI's need housing. 1940s Baby Boom, lower age of marriage. Racial tension due to redlining, blockbusting, etc... PULL factors: help from the federal gov't in the form of FHA mortgages, the GI bill, and the 1956 highway act. The spread of the automobile allowed living further from the city. New building techniques led to mass produced houses. New "suburban dream" ideology, suburbia is the best place to live.

Push and Full factors for Great Migration

PUSH: Racism, Jim Crow, labor shortage, poverty, mechanization of cotton industry PULL: WWII, industrial jobs, new freedoms, political power, allure of city life, entertainment.

"Corporate Rap"

Rapper as a CEO. Videos display incredible wealth of rappers. Hip Hop as a brand. Corporate mass marketing of artists, clothes and style, a global force. Hip-hop critics mixed if this is success or just corporate takeover of a grassroots arts form?

Biz Markie "sampling" court case

Rappers now have to get legal permission to sample songs. Biz Markie sampling court case. Markie is sued by Gilbert o Sullivan for sampling his song. Court sides with O'sullivan. Artists must pay $$ to sample music, and this ends complex layers of sampling by artists. Music becomes flatter, single song is sampled.

William Levitt

Real estate developer known for making several "Levittowns" across the US. Levittowns were the stereotypical suburb, and their pros and cons were debated by critics. Levittown NY was critisized for being all white.

Bad intentions of high-rise public housing

Bad Intentions of "High-Rise" design. "Warehousing" of residents. Cities use PH to 'store' poor displaced by urban renewal (for highways, luxury developments, etc). Racial segregation and isolation, food deserts. In South before CRM - PH segregated by law. In North - PH segregated in practice. Homeowners in surrounding neighborhoods resist 'scattered site' PH. Building vertically avoids integration, political conflict. City machine politics. Black and white pols - "We like the way it is! Let's keep our constituents in our wards."

GI bill

Bill that provided benefits to returning WW2 veterans. Benefits included payment for completion of high school, attending college, and low interest mortgages and loans. The bill did not prevent discrimination against blacks, and black veterans frequently did not get any of the benefits of the GI bill.

"Old School" hip-hop

Born in Bronx, NYC in Disinvestment, abandoned buildings. African diaspora melting pot - Af-Am, Caribbean immigrants and Puerto Ricans. Roots of Jamaican dubbing and toasting. Loops of "breaks" from 1970s disco, Puerto Rican dance styles, influence of Hong Kong martial arts movies: Bruce lee - in some ways the first black action hero.

Massey & Denton's "American Apartheid" thesis

When discussing why the inner city was so impoverished, Massey and Denton argued that the inner city in its current state was the result of deliberately racist policies designed to segregate cities. This institutional racism makes segregation still a dominant feature of cities. Produced by deliberate policy.

Tipper Gore Parents Resource Music Center (PRMC)

Why we have parental advisory on albums. Debates about censorship. Founds Parents Music Resource Center to pressure music industry to put warning labels on records. Targets gangsta rap and heavy metal.

redevelopment today - "do no harm"?

Yes: Most cities, a required public process - Developers must present projects to public for approval - Public hearings, community board meetings, environmental impact statements, Community Benefit agreements to avoid length of political battle. Developer and local community negotiate privately. Developer provides amenities in project. Less intrusive and less ugly. No: Same old renewal. Developers complain - too many hurdles impossible to build anything. NIMBY groups always say no. Critics -- same old urban renewal: No transparency in process. Shady deals. Cities use complex and hidden financing (ex: over generous tax breaks). Public doesn't really know what's going on. "Incentives" are 'give-aways' to developers who would build anyway. Participation is a charade, no definition of citizens group (paid off). CBAs are hard to monitor and enforces, temporary jobs, affordable housing plans quietly abandoned. Eminent domain abuse still rampant.

Kevin Lynch, The Image of the City (1960) - mental maps

a map of the city influences how you view and interact with the city. imageability—and shows its potential value as a guide for the building and rebuilding of cities. The wide scope of this study leads to an original and vital method for the evaluation of city form. The architect, the planner, and certainly the city dweller will all want to read this book. Aerial approach versus grassroots approach.

racial covenants (pre 1948)

agreements in a contract that houses in a certain neighborhood could not be sold to a certain group of people, usually African Americans

how to define suburbia. "common sense" v. "messy" definitions

common sense definition: low density residential community outside of a large urban center, still economically dependent on the city, single family homes filled with middle and upper class homeowners who commute to work in the city. messy definition: not all suburbs fit the common sense definition. Industrial suburbs and immigrant enclaves were two examples. Suburbs also had working class and poor people.

NYC's "First Houses"

first public housing in the US 1935: was well designed, small-scale, low-rise, Range of incomes designed for working-class families.

blockbusting

real estate agents would often scare white residents of a neighborhood by showing that African Americans would be moving into their neighborhood. Whites would then panic and sell their house for less than it was worth. Agents would then sell the houses at a higher rate to African Americans who were desperate to escape overcrowded ghettos.

racial steering

realtors would lead families of a certain race towards buying a house in a neighborhood of their race. Whites were led towards white neighborhoods, while blacks were led towards black neighborhoods.

Principles of urban renewal

removing blight, public health, more efficient, better tech, cities of the future. Examples: Saint Louis gateway arch. Boston's West end, NYC lincoln center, UN building, Foggy Bottom's columbia plaza

Timeline of public housing 1880s-1920s 1930s 1950s-1960s

1880-1920's - Progressive reformers first regulate privately-owned tenements. Reformers horrified by conditions in industrial cities. "We need to set standards!" - pass first 'tenement laws' Result: First zoning regulations, fire safety standards, light and air requirements (minimum of windows and toilets). Not public housing yet, it was regulated private housing. Ex: D.C. reformers battle alley dwellings. 1930s - New Deal, great depressions, unemployment and homelessness - 1st public housing program. Housing reformers - state needs to get involved! Gov. should build housing Provide construction jobs. Opponents accused this of communism. U.S. = two tiered housing program: 1) subsidized mortgages for middle-class 2) public housing for poor Creation of Public Housing Authorities to build and manage PH. First housing was well designed, small-scale, low-rise, Range of incomes designed for working-class families. Ex: First houses in NYC. (Alley dwelling authority in DC demolishes them and moves residents to Public Housing) Langston Terrace Dwellings opens in 1935, Af-Am architect influenced by German Bauhaus 1950s-1960s Massive High Rise Public Housing. (low-rise also becomes more boxy) Part of "urban renewal" - Slum clearance. Many projects started as mixed income, but quickly became segregated, non-white, extreme poor. Ex: Chicago's Robert Taylor Homes. A Massive complex with rows of buildings bordered by expressways

Spark for urban renewal

1950s mayor worried that while cities were booming there was Blight, Suburbanization, traffic, pollution, our cities are ill! People wanted new housing, offices, hospitals, larger tax base. Planner knows best, top-down expertise, scientific planning. Renew and modernize obsolete cities, cars are the future, new highways. Thinking big, large scale planning.

Hope VI (New Communities Initiative)

1990s. Fed $$ - cities demolish high-rises. Build 'new and improved' PH. In place of the high rise PH. mixed use, mixed income. Architectural diversity. Mix of building types: townhouses, small apts. Traditional architecture blends into city context. More private space -- balconies, backyards. Mix of homeowners and renters. Creative approaches to funding - Ex: Market-rate units fund poorer units.

SoundScan

1992, source for sales tracking system. Finds that Gangsta rap is an extremely popular genre. Music industry begins to pour money into hip-hop.

Hip-hop timeline

70s-80s "old school." Late 80s-90s "Message rap." Early 90s "Gangsta rap." Late 90s "corporate rap."

"the feminine mystique"

A book critiquing suburbia written by Betty Friedan, where she discusses the restrictive role of women in suburbia and the negative effects of this role. Women were isolated, bored, and felt empty in the dream home that was actually a prison."The Problem that has no name"

"The organization man"

A critique of suburbia written by William Whyte where he discusses how the "organization man", a white collar worker who works for some organization, has turned the suburbs into a machine of conformity.

Good intentions of high-rise public housing

A faith in sci. and tech. solutions to social inequality. ("we are the experts. We'll fix it with technology!") A faith in Modernist architecture (a kind of architectural determinism): LeCorbusier - open space, superblocks, universal design. Bigger is cheaper, more efficient - "Economies of scale". Open space is cleaner, more air

Leave it to beaver

A television show portraying the "perfect" American family in a perfect American suburb

1956 federal highway act

Act that created a national interstate highway system.

Sidney Poitier

Af-Am actor featured in many of the 1960s message films as the hero who works between races, doesn't see color. Guess who's coming to dinner.

"the myth of suburbia"

An article defending suburbia written by Bennett Berger, where he sets up "the myth of suburbia" to be the stereotypical suburb, and then deconstructs the criticisms of the myth.

Bostons west end

An example of dramatic changes downtown in a city

Kitchen Debate

An exchange between Nixon and Khrushchev about American society versus Soviet society, especially in the household. Nixon showed off the technology of the typical American kitchen, while Khrushchev argued the Soviet Union also had this technology.

Influence of 1970s Hong Kong Kung-Fu films on breakdancing

B-boys watched the amazing physical abilities of their favorite kung-fu actors in films by Shaw Brothers, Seasonal Films and Golden Harvest studios. They imitated and expanded upon the ritualized combat they saw in these films, adding new moves to their dance. These films were seen in the U.S., but only in a limited number of theaters in major cities.

Pros of community benefit agreements

Community can get amenities (parks), and other things into project. Bargaining with the people. Can get good jobs, affordable housing, and neighborhood services.

Langston Terrace Dwellings

DC's Langston Terrace Dwellings - nicer public housing opens 1935. Af-Am architect - Hilyard Robinson. Influenced by German Bauhaus.

Requirements for developers today before building a new development

Developers complain too many requirements. Need to build enough homes for low-income housing.

romantic suburbs

Early to mid 19th century. Large country estates owned by wealthy people located outside the city. Viewed as a "return to nature" full of parks, curved roads, woods, and no fences. Examples: Llewellyn Park, NJ and Riverside, Illinois.

1949 Housing act - title 1

Fed. gov. gives $$ to cities to demolish slums and relocate residents. Cities can sell land to developers at marked-down prices. The Cities must have a comprehensive plan and show benefit to the entire city, but it is easy to abuse.

1960s "Message films" (Prof. Osman's term)

Films that have an color blindness, integration/pro civil rights message. Praised for showing a positive image but criticized for being "preachy" sanitized and safe. Black poor and identity erased. Sidney Poitier was featured in several of these films.

Criticisms of Hope VI

Gov. funded gentrification! Wealthy people want to move back to cities. Will replace low income with higher income. Changing neighborhood affordability. Disrupted social networks, displaced low income. PH now sits on valuable land -- developers want it "Negro Removal" -- once again......

4 practices of early hiphop

Graffiti: pervasiveness of name, popularity DJ-ing: controlling music, remixes Breaking; dancing MC-ing: Master of ceremonies, lyrics relatively innocuous, energize the dancing crowd, playful boasting

Criticisms of community benefit agreements (ie. still "same old urban renewal")

Hard to regulate, who is the community. There is no way to ensure they are representative of the community's needs and desires. There are legal issues and real community groups can be excluded while those paid by developer contribute.

1970s Blaxploitation films Debate about blaxploitation films

Hollywood in $$ crisis because of TV competition. Studios search for new mkt's. New low budget films target urban Af-Am audience. Films that had ridiculous stereotypes of blacks. "realistic" inner city settings with antiheros and gang violence that showed a harsh realism. Incorporated Funk music with early groundbreaking films, the first generation of black directors and all-black casts. condemned by NAACP.

Move to suburbia : what changes in home, politics and neighborhood life?

Home life: focus on children instead of adults. Woman as a housewife while man was breadwinner. Nuclear American family, no longer extended immigrant ethnic family. Homeowner identity, not based on work. Politics: fewer democrats, Neo Conservative emphasized property rights NIMBY. Cars and private spaces. neighborhood life: more vibrant social life, frequent visiting between neighbors

Growth Machine - who made up the coalition who supported urban renewal?

Housing reformers, business leaders, universities and hospitals, and mayors all wanted urban renewal. 1949 Housing Act. Cities create special development agencies that can cut through red tape. Examples: DC's Redevelopment Land Agency.

Chicago's Robert Taylor Homes

Large public housing development that failed for some of the same reasons as other high rise PH developments: segregation and low income, surrounded by two highways with large open spaces, food desert

DC's Alley Dwelling Authority

In 1934, Congress creates the "Alley Dwelling Authority." Alley dwellings demolished. Residents moved to public housing

Pruitt Igoe

In 1956, St Louis officials opened Pruitt-Igoe. 33 tall sleek buildings. Award-winning modernist design. Famous Japanese architect Minoru Yamasaki. In 1974, St Louis demolishes Pruitt-Igoe. Critics on left and right "vertical prison," "concrete slum". The high-rise experiment isolated by two highways. The open space for community was desolate, and the energy saving parts of the building caused its decay.

Hilyard Robinson

Langston Terrace Dwellings architect. Influenced by modernist german Bauhaus style: economic geometric design with respect for materials.

railroad suburbs

Mid to late 19th century. Suburbs that were clustered around railroad stations that radiated from the city. Businessmen and white-collar professionals were daily commuters. Called "pearls on a necklace" Example: main line suburbs of Philadelphia.

Le Corbusier

Modernist planner. Celebrates liberating possibility of new skyscraper "machines for living." wanted to radically centralize.

Pros of Hope VI

New and improved version of PH! One for one replacement of affordable housing. New public spaces and facilities, mixed income, Build first,

Reasons given by scholars for struggles of high-rise PH (bad design, poor management, etc)

Poor design: "Tower in park" kills community and street life. They do not work. "open space" high-rise super-blocks is a flawed concept. Oscar Newman's 1972 theory of "defensible space":Jane Jacobs (1961) - high-rises don't allow for "eyes on the street." can't let children outside. Underfunding: PH always unpopular in US. Real estate lobby - it can not be better than private housing. Limited $$: shoddy buildings, poor maintenance, Stigmatized ways to save $$, elevators skip floors, toilets with not seats, closets with no doors. Income ceilings: Strict - you make more $$, you have to leave. 1940s PHA terrified of criticism that PH was filled with well off people. Upwardly mobile leave. Real Estate Lobby: US shouldn't be communist, if you can private housing leave PH. Result: Abandoned units. Financing problem - not enough rent $$ for maintenance. Poor management: Debates over best management policies: strict eviction or tenant participation and self-governance? Chicago, St. Louis corruption -poorly run PHA. NYC - very successful PHA until 2000s. DC - in 1995, ranked 2nd worst PHA in US! Larger economic forces: Don't blame high-rise PH it didn't have a chance. Cities struggling - job losses, deindustrialization, etc.

The Wharf - Southwest DC

Potomac Waterfront in Southwest quardrant of DC recently cleared to make it a local attraction. Now has upscale dining and concert venue, will likely attract tourists. Developer is working with community to integrate their ideas. New form of Urban Renewal?

debate over the term "ghetto"

Pro use: accurately describes harsh segregation, racism and gov. role in historically creating and sustaining the 'ghetto'. The harsh truth is that the US has ghettos. Critics of use: Too loaded a term, has become too associated with absurd stereotypes. "so ghetto" Doesn't really describe the complex landscape of poverty in the US and diversity of the urban African-American experience.

Bracero program

Program created by executive order in 1942 to allow farms in U.S. to hire immigrants from Mexico to work on contract on the farms. Mexican workers often took jobs for lower wages than Americans. The program brought in 4.5 million temporary workers from Mexico. From there some moved to other cities.

1950s Urban Indian Relocation Program

Program created in 1952 that offered Native Americans incentives to leave reservations, get vocational training, and move to cities. The gov't would pay for the cost of the training and moving if they agreed.

DC's National Capital Housing Authority (today called DC Housing Authority)

Provide quality affordable housing to extremely low- through moderate-income households, foster sustainable communities, and cultivate opportunities for residents to improve their lives throughout the eight wards of Washington, D.C.

Minoru Yamasaki

Pruitt Igoe/World Trade Center Architect

other post-WWII immigrants

Puerto Ricans: "Operation bootstrap." transforms rural Puerto Rico. Jet plane service to NYC starts in 1950s. Mexicans: "Bracero" program, WWII guest workers, about 4.5 million temporary workers from 1942-1964 mostly to Southern California. Many migrate to cities in search of industrial Labor, causing transformation of East LA and other cities. Southern & Appalachian whites: leaving poverty & mechanization of coal mining. 1940-1970 about 3.2 million poor whites move to cities in California and Midwest, Uptown Chicago. Native Americans: 1952 Fed. Gov. "urban Indian relocation program." Migration from reservations to west cities like Oklahoma City, Los Angeles, San Fran. 1940 8% to 1980 53% of Native Americans live in cities.

"Gangsta Rap"

South Central LA. Rejection of "message rap" of East Coast. First-person narratives. Stories about inner-city life, hardships, violence. "Ghettocentric." Highly spatialized naming hometowns and cities. "Straight out of Compton." Rapper as an outlaw. Cynical about messages. Most controversial rap genre. Criticized by police, conservative groups, NAACP, golden age rappers and black feminists. Begins to reshape Compton.

Berman v. Parker 1954

Store owner in SW sues gov. He argues that it is unfair to seize his store because it is not blighted. and it is unfair to demolish his store just to give the land to a developer. Court rules Eminent domain in SW DC Urban Renewal is constitutional.

Kelo v New London 2005

Susette Kelo owns house in New London Connecticut. New London is struggling town and wants to attract major employer Pfizer. The City uses eminent domain to take Kelo's house and help a developer build facilities for Pfizer. Kelo sues. Is this public purpose? Negative public response, states tighten eminent domain rules to make it harder for Gov. to seize property.

Hays Code 1930

The Motion Picture Production Code was the set of industry moral guidelines that was applied to most United States motion pictures released by major studios from 1930 to 1968. 1. No picture shall be produced that will lower the moral standards of those who see it. Hence the sympathy of the audience should never be thrown to the side of crime, wrongdoing, evil or sin. 2. Correct standards of life, subject only to the requirements of drama and entertainment, shall be presented. 3. Law, natural or human, shall not be ridiculed, nor shall sympathy be created for its violation.

Moynihan Report (1965)

The Moynihan Report confirmed culture of poverty theory, as it argued that the breakdown of families due to noticeable absence of father figures was to blame for violence in the inner city. This horrified the CRM because it supported racist opponents blaming Af-Am for poverty..

Critical cartography

The idea that maps are cultural and political constructs, and that they actually shape a city in their own image. Maps represent more than just geography. maps are not (and cannot be) value-free or neutral. Maps reflect and perpetuate relations of power, more often than not in the interests of dominant groups. Groups and individuals at a grassroots level can also use mapping for a variety of purposes. Maps can be used to make counter-claims, to express competing interests, to make visible otherwise marginal experiences and hidden histories, to make practical plans for social change or to imagine utopian worlds.

Critics of Culture of Poverty

These theories are mean spirited, demonizes poor and blames victims. It is an excuse for privileged not to challenge inequality, racism. CP is largely disproven. Poor have the same work ethic, family values as middle-class. Defenders: have to deal with reality, family and fatherhood values matter, and we need to break the cycle of despair. Solution is programs that build family, responsibility, values, faith, etc.

Jane Jacobs, "Eyes on the Street"

cant see kids playing in the street all the way up in a vertical building

Message Rap (hip-hop's Golden Age)

This golden age emerges from diff. landscape. Middle class and working class Af-Am suburbs (Queens, Ny and Long Island) Black college radio. Graffiti and break dancing lose importance. Focus on rap spoken word. Political commentary, poetry, social critiques. Studio-produced richly layered samples. Rapper seen as a post civil rights leader that quotes MLK, Malcom X, etc. Civil right iconography.

Community Benefit Agreement

To avoid length political battle - Developer and local community negotiate privately. Community groups approve development if developer provides amenities in project (ex: parks, school, affordable units, local jobs, etc). "Less intrusive" developments. No massive clearance. (Ex: unused waterfront, landfill, empty railyards). Historic-themed architecture - fit with local context.

Jamaican Dubbing music and toasting

Toasting is also often used in soca and bouyon music. The African American oral tradition of toasting, a mix of talking and chanting, influenced the development of MCing in US hip hop music. The combination of singing and toasting is known as singjaying.

first great migration

WW1-1929: In 1910: 90% of African Americans lived in the south. A Large African American migration from south to northern cities. (~1.5 million people). Caused Harlem Renaissance, Jazz age, DC's U street. 1930s the Great Depression slowed migration

second great migration

WW2-1970s: Large African American migration from south to northern cities. (~5 million people) by 1970: 80% of African Americans lived in the city

Eminent domain

government giving people "just compensation" for their land in order to build something for public use. Ruled constitutional in SW DC.

streetcar suburbs

late 19th to early 20th century. Close knit homes and row houses located along streetcar lines. More affordable for the working class. Retail centers were often located at transfer points were people used to switch streetcars. Example: Mount Pleasant, Columbia Heights

Oscar Newman, "Defensible Space Theory"

less people - more responsibility for living space. A residential environment whose physical characteristics - building layout and site plan - function to allow inhabitants themselves to become key agents in ensuring their security.

redlining

mapping inner city neighborhoods by "security of real estate developments" in each neighborhood. Neighborhoods that were considered "high risk" were unable to get federally insured mortgages. The "high risk" neighborhoods were almost always black or minority neighborhoods.

DC's "alley dwellings"

small shacks in DC's alleys where poor people lived. 1930s Alley dwelling authority in DC demolishes them and moves residents to Public Housing

Low-Income Housing Tax Credit

tax incentives for private developers to include low income housing in projects

Housing Choice Vouchers

the federal government's major program for assisting very low-income families, the elderly, and the disabled to afford decent, safe, and sanitary housing in the private market.

(WJW) Wilson's "Truly Disadvantaged" thesis

when discussing why the inner city was so impoverished, Wilson argued the economic structure and deindustrialization and automation were to blame. The Inner City is the result of economic shirts after 1950. It was just bad timing for the Great Migration. Race is not the reason for inner city deterioration, class is. There are more jobs for higher class people, including the black middle class. Af-Am middle class leaves segregated areas leaving isolated poor behind The inner city is a result of decline in racial barriers, replaced by class barriers. Solutions: economic investment, job training, infrastructure, etc.

Defenses of urban renewal

• Boston and NYC saved by new highways and painful slum clearance. Renaissance of the 1980s and 1990s only possible because of earlier urban renewal. • "At least they built something! Look at pathetic infrastructure projects today...." • Memories of "Old Southwest" are nostalgic. Conditions were terrible. • A few projects were successful. Detroit's Lafayette Park. Many projects in NYC. • Critics only focus on mistakes of 1950s. By 1960s - gov adds citizen participation, historic preservation to renewal plans. • Architectural significance of new buildings. Spectacular examples of Modernist architecture.

Criticisms of urban renewal

• Red tape -- average 12 years to finish a project! • Many "slums" actually vibrant, historic neighborhoods. • Brutal displacement of thousands of poor. • "Urban renewal" = "Negro Removal"? - disproportionate toll on black and Latino poor * Small businesses, mom and pop shops destroyed • Destruction of historic architecture. • Gigantism. Misconceived gargantuan ugly projects. • Deep wounds. Alienation of city residents, loss of faith in government. Deep mistrust