The Decline and Fall of Napoleon — 1807-1815

Reasons for Napoleon's Downfall

There are multiple reasons why Napoleon eventually fell from power, each with their own limitations — 1) The Continental System 2) The role of Britain and their opposition to France 3) The Peninsular War 4) The Russia Campaign 5 ) Strength of the Sixth Coalition 3) Napoleon's own mistakes (Spain and Russia Campaigns) 5) Napoleon's failure to negotiate and make peace in 1813 6) Napoleon's personal exhaustion and France's war weariness

How did the Peninsular War lead to Napoleon's downfall?

— Giving the war the name *the Spanish Ulcer*, Napoleon was very aware that the conflict was draining his country of men, money and resources. *180,000* French troops were lost in the guerrilla warfare. — France's defeats in Spain crushed Napoleon's façade of *invincibility*, which damaged his reputation — Britain's opposition was encouraged in the Peninsular War, shown through their effective land and naval support, with the army led by Sir Arthur Wellesley. The British celebrated significant victories against the French, like at *Salamanca in 1812* and *Victoria in 1813*, which ultimately pushed the French out of Spain. This helped to make British resistance against the French more *credible and popular*, proving Britain to be a *reliable ally to counter the French*, which would particularly important in *future coalitions.* — However, the Spanish Ulcer did not stop Napoleon from his *conducting his Russia Campaign in 1812*, the greatest campaign of his career, proving that his morale and supplies had *not been damaged completely,* and he had enough men to take on an ambitious campaign with a *huge army.* — Furthermore, following the campaign, Spanish forces were *not interested* in defeating Napoleon via fighting. They were simply happy that their country had been liberated, and did not pose a serious threat to Napoleon, despite the campaign. Thus, the extent to the which the Peninsular War was significant in Napoleon's downfall *must be questioned.*

How did the Russia Campaign lead to Napoleon's downfall?

— In the campaign, Napoleon lost his *most experienced men*, as well as copious amounts of *equipment and horses*, almost completely *destroying his calvary arm*. This would mean that his new army would not be of the same standard, made up of *young and inexperienced conscripts*. This would seriously damage his performance in *later battles*. — The Tsar was encouraged to form *The Sixth Coalition* to defeat Napoleon following the campaign, encouraged by *his holy status* to *avenge* the invasion of his nation. — Napoleon's failure in Russia encouraged his enemies to *collaborate* to defeat Napoleon. Prussia and Austria joined with Russia to form the *Sixth Coalition* in 1813, determined by the French Emperor's *failure in the campaign*. The coalition was funded by *British money*, which provided the allies with equipment and arms. The coalition was also strengthened by *numbers and military strength.* Prussia had modernised its *armed forces and administration*, making it a formidable force. — However, the campaign did not discourage Napoleon from raising *250,000 conscripts* for a new army as soon as he returned to Paris. This proves that Russia did not discourage Napoleon from embarking on military campaigns. Despite the poor quality of the conscripts, Napoleon had a new set of troops to take to Germany, where he embarked on the battles of *Lützen* and *Bautzen*, where he *succeeded* against Austrian and Prussian forces — Furthermore, peace at this point was *still possible!* Austria organised negotiations with France in 1813, which *Napoleon turned down*. Arguably, Napoleon's own personality and ego led to his downfall.

The Peninsular War (1808-1814)

— Napoleon invaded *Portugal in 1807* with *Spain* with the aim to enforce the Continental Blockade, but then France turned on its ally in 1808, with Napoleon *replacing the Spanish king* with his brother, *Joseph.* — The Spanish did not welcome this change, and revolted in *Madrid* in *May 1808*, a clear symbol of resistance against the French. These uprisings were brutally put down by executions. — Spain's discontent with Napoleon's influence in their nation led to the outbreak of *guerrilla warfare* between the *French and the Spanish*, which was warfare including *sabotage, ambush and raids* instead of *traditional fighting*. — The French were tied down in Spain in a *drawn-out war*, constantly attacked by the *Spanish guerrillas* which prevented them from taking control. A *strong British base in Lisbon* prevented French domination in Spain, with *Sir Arthur Wellesley's army* pinning down the French, and nearing the end of the conflict, Wellesley won a series of victories against the French, pushing them back across the *Pyrenees*, finally liberating Spain. — Although Napoleon was not in Spain for much of the war, it was *incredibly damaging* for France, draining the country of men and supplies.

How did Napoleon's own personal mistakes lead to his downfall?

— Napoleon lost significant support due to his *persistant waging of war*. Popular support of Napoleon's regime *fell apart* due to the catastrophic effects of war on France. *Resistance* towards conscription grew as war-weariness increased, with over *900,000* young men lost in the wars. As well as human strain, war put strain on the country's *finances*, weakening the country's economy. People wanted peace, and were sick of Napoleon's endless warmongering. — Napoleon's army became *weaker* and *less organised* over the years, mainly due to heavy conscription following *heavy casualties.* Since his catastrophic losses in Russia, and his *constant drain* of men and resources in the Spanish Ulcer, forcing Napoleon to conscript young, inexperienced men who weren't used to campaign life. These *inferior troops* had to be sourced from all over the Empire, meaning Napoleon's new army lacked the cohesion and morale that it did before. — Napoleon's war-mongering evoked a sense of *European Nationalism*, encouraging countries who were tired of Napoleon influence to collaborate to regain their freedom — Napoleon's own *complacency and ego* to continue fighting led to his decline, as he lost more and more men and popularity simultaneously. He failed to maintain a bond with his troops as he had done before, and he seemed to lack his military flair that he had in previous campaigns. Waterloo was constructed *unimaginably* due to Napoleon's own illness and poor physical condition, and he could not uphold his *image as a military genius* any longer.

What was the Continental System?

*What was the system?* — The Continental system was an economic war between France and Britain. Britain was France's most powerful foe, with great naval superiority, proved in the *Battle of Trafalgar in 1805*. — In order to defeat his most formidable enemy, Napoleon designed *The Continental System*, whereby in his *Berlin Decrees*, he *forbade any trade* between Britain and France, and *all of France's satellite states*. Napoleon hoped that by restricting British exports, he would *damage* British trade and industry. — By still allowing Britain to *import goods*, he hoped that the country's economy would be *drained*, preventing Britain from continuing their opposition against France. Napoleon hoped this would also protect French industry from *British competition*.

How did the Battle of Waterloo led to Napoleon's downfall? (1815)

After his exile, Napoleon noticed that allies were disagreeing over peace terms, and that the restored King, Louis XVIII was becoming unpopular. So, he decided to return in March 1815. Napoleon ambitiously *progressed to Paris*, trying to rally support by claiming to save France from the *priests and nobles* like a *second revolution*. Napoleon had managed to *regain* his original position and the King had fled. After Napoleon's return, the allies renewed the *Treaty of Chaumont* in order to raise troops and decisively defeat Napoleon. The Battle of Waterloo in Belgium however was the battle that defeat Napoleon and his reign *decisively.* — Napoleon had managed to gather *140,000 troops* with a large reserve, with the *Prussians under Blücher* and *British under Wellington* as the opposition. Napoleon began advancing against them, hoping to inflict damaging defeats. — Despite Napoleon's restored army, he failed to inflict a crushing defeat against the Prussians under his subordinate, *Grouchy*. This *indecisive* defeat allowed the Prussians to unify with the British. *Wellington withdrew* to *Waterloo* in order to *defend Brussels*. — At the rainy battlefield at Waterloo, Napoleon *failed to break through Wellington's forces* until the Prussians arrived, due to the British's courageous resistance and Napoleon's unimaginative advances. Grouchy had failed to prevent the Prussians from joining the British, meaning Napoleon was *decisively defeated by the enemy*, once and for all. — Following Waterloo, Napoleon was exiled once more, to the remote island of *St Helena* in June 1815, as he failed to continue warfare due to his lack of political and popular support. — Following Napoleon's exile, a final settlement in Vienna in June 1815 ensured that a weakened France would be surrounded by strong neighbouring countries to prevent expansion. For example, Belgium was united with Holland to create a strong northern state, Switzerland's independence was guaranteed and the *German Confederation* was created. *Prussia* took control of some German states and *Russia took control of Poland.* — Napoleon's Empire was *officially over*

How did Britain's opposition lead to Napoleon's downfall?

Britain remained a constant opponent to Napoleon from 1803-1815, and was responsible along with the Prussians for Napoleon's defeat in *The Battle of Waterloo* in *1815.* There are many reasons for why Britain helped lead to Napoleon's defeat — Britain supplied *generous subsidies* to Napoleon's opponents. Britain overall provided around *£600 million* to the coalitions that faced Napoleon, which helped fund their weaponry, equipment and other resources, giving them a *material advantage.* — British *diplomatic efforts* also helped to consolidate and legitimise the cause of the coalitions, by urging the countries involved to maintain opposition to Napoleon. British Prime Minister *William Pitt* was a key figure, who helped to encourage *Napoleonic opposition* once the *Treaty of Amiens* broke down *in 1803* — Britain's *naval domination*, solidified in the Battle of Trafalgar kept up constant pressure, *restricting French imports* from *neutral countries* and *hitting their trade and war supplies dramatically*. Britain had the power to *stop and seize* any cargo headed for France, meaning France was essentially *blockaded from supplies.* This helped to *reduce France's wartime supplies*, weakening them. Britain's naval superiority also stopped France from *invading* them, which Napoleon tried to achieve in the Battle of Trafalgar. — During the *Peninsular War*, Britain established an army in the *Iberian Peninsular* under *Sir Arthur Wellesley* (Wellington), which not only kept *300,000 French troops* pinned in the area, but also *drained France of resources*. They gave *effective naval and land support*, boosting Britain's prestige in Europe. Near the end of the war between France and Spain, Wellesley won a *series of victories against the French*, pushing them back across the *Pyrenees*, finally liberating Spain. — During the Battle of Waterloo, *British forces strongly withstood French attacks* under Wellington's command, which kept the French troops fighting until the Prussian army arrived. However, there are reasons to suggest that Britain's involvement was *not the only reason* for Napoleon's downfall — It could be said that the *decisive allied success* in the battle of Waterloo depended on the *Prussians' arrival.* — British successes were often down to French failures, such as *Napoleon's inferior naval power* at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 — Britain's naval pressure did not bring about the *direct defeat* of Napoleon, rather *weakened him*. — Much of Britain's conflict with the French resulted in Britain taking a *defensive role*. For example, the British forces in the Peninsular War acted to *prevent Napoleon from seizing control*, rather than *defeating him in a decisive battle*. — While British money and diplomacy was important in *setting up coalitions*, it would not have been so effective if not for the *Napoleonic threat to royal families* throughout Europe

How did the strength of the Sixth Coalition lead to Napoleon's downfall?

Following the Russia campaign, the *Sixth Coalition was formed*, comprising of Britain, Russia, Prussia and later, Austria, who joined in August 1813. It was a significant reason for Napoleon's downfall because — — The Allies were funded by *British loans*, providing the coalition with *arms and equipment*. They had *unified military strategy*, with reformed armies and tactics. Their *common aim* to defeat Napoleon evoked a sense of *morale* in the alliance. All these factors made the coalition a formidable force, in comparison to the Grand Armée, which had been greatly damaged by the Russia campaign. — The Coalition's strength in numbers of *800,000 men* and unified tactics allowed them to envelop the French army at *Leipzig* in *October 1813*, inflicting significant damage on the French army and leading to one of Napoleon's *most important* defeats. — Following Leipzig, the allies proposed peace proposals in November 1813, suggesting that France return to its *natural frontiers*. In January 1814, the allies offered frontiers of *1792.* However, Napoleon *rejected* these offers, taking the decision to fight an allied force of *200,000* with only *60,000* men in an *offensive position* in the Champagne region of France, where he struggled to maintain and encourage his troops. Popular opinion at home for Napoleon's *warmongering to end* was becoming *evident.* — The Allies agreed upon the *Treaty of Chaumont* in *March 1814*, whereby they swore *not to separate* until Napoleon was defeated. — Once the allies had entered *Paris on 31st March 1814*, Napoleon's abdication was coming into view. Urged by the French government, and the *defection* of his own men and marshals, Napoleon *was forced to abdicate*, and *exiled to Elba*. — However, a significant reason for the Coalition's success was the poor standard of Napoleon's army, with *de-moralised, under-trained conscripts* with minimal *equipment and horses*. Napoleon *struggled to gather conscripts* in France and the Empire due to *war-wariness*. Finances and the economy were *strained* and people wanted peace, and hated conscription. — Therefore Sixth Coalition were able to *manipulate Napoleon's weakness*, especially at Leipzig where the allies completely outnumbered the French — Also, Napoleon did succeed in defeating the Prussian and Austrian armies at *Lützen and Bautzen* in the German campaigns of 1813, proving that he still had a grasp on his military skill and prowess. — It was Napoleon's decision to *reject peace terms*, suggesting that his own ego and compliance drove him to his downfall — Napoleon's unpopularity at home urged for his abdication, as they were becoming increasing tired of the *strain of war* on France's *economy and men*

Reasons for The Russia Campaign

The Russia Campaign was Napoleon's most *ambitious* campaign, where Napoleon took a *huge army of 600,000* to fight the Russians. There are multiple reasons why he decided to invade Russia, but they all fall under rival tensions between France and Russia. — The Tsar withdrew from the *continental system* in 1810, which increased friction between him and Napoleon, since Napoleon was angry that he wasn't being *compliant* with his economic warfare against Britain — The Tsar was angry about Napoleon's marriage with Austrian princess *Marie Louise* following his divorce with Joséphine, due to Russia and Austria being strong rivals — Both the Tsar and Napoleon had rival ambitions in *Turkey and the Baltic*, which further increased tensions — Both disagreed over the future of the *Grand Duchy of Poland*

Events of the Russia Campaign 1812

Wanting to re-assert his power, Napoleon decided to invade Russia in *June 1812*, with an army of *600,000*, of troops from all across his empire. The invading forces entered Russia, and after a costly victory at *Borodino* in September, where Napoleon lost *70,000* of his men and failed to defeat the Tsar's forces decisively, the Grand Armée entered Moscow, to find that it had been deserted. Unable to make peace with Tsar Alexander I, Napoleon was *forced to retreat*. When he finally crossed back into Germany, he had only around *120,000 troops left*. Napoleon had lost vast numbers of *men, equipment and horses* in this campaign, dubbing it a *disaster*. — The Russians had completely outmanoeuvred the French in the campaign, by several means. They *refused* to fight *formal battles*, apart from Borodino, that Napoleon hoped would give him a *decisive victory*, which *drew* the French troops *further into Russia*. — Instead, the French soldiers were constantly tormented by *Russian Cossacks*, which *attacked* them and their supplies. — The Russians also adopted a *scorched-earth policy*, burning and destroying any source of food and supplies on Napoleon's march, which caused thousands of Napoleon's troops to die of *starvation*. — Essentially, Napoleon lost more and more men as he was lured *further into Russia*, who died due to *disease, hunger* and *surprise attacks* rather than from battle. However it wasn't just Russia's strength that led to Napoleon's defeat during the campaign. Napoleon made *mistakes* himself that led to the French failure of the campaign. — By the time they reached Moscow, Napoleon made the *fatal error* of waiting there *too long*, meaning his troops would have to suffer through the harsh winter weather on the retreat, meaning masses died from the *cold and exhaustion.* — A *lack of supplies* and *medical arrangements* meant thousands of Napoleon's men died from illness — Napoleon *struggled to control* such a large army in such a vast territory, meaning his Grande Armée lacked *order and morale* — Napoleon *lacked a clear strategic objective*, which led to his army being lured *further into the country* while the number of casualties only increased

How did the Continental System lead to Napoleon's downfall?

— The system failed to bring about Britain's defeat. It is debatable how much Britain was affected, since it managed to open up trade with the Americas instead. Ultimately, the system *failed to achieve its aim.* — It increased internal opposition. The Continental System damaged France's *seaport economy*, and related industries such as *ship building and rope making*. Other industries that relied on the *export market suffered*. Although this discontent was *not enough to provoke uprisings*, it did make Napoleon *increasingly unpopular* at home. — Unfortunately for Napoleon, the Continental System had *unintended consequences*. The Continental System got Napoleon involved in both the *Peninsular War* from *1808-14*, and the *Russia Campaign* in *1812*, *both of which were major factors in his downfall.* — Napoleon's need to enforce the Continental System meant *invading Portugal*, involving Napoleon in the Peninsular War, which *drained* Napoleon of resources and forced him to fight on *two fronts.* — The Tsar's *unwillingness* to co-operate in the Continental System spurred on Napoleon to invade Russian in 1812, where he lost his most *experienced* men and *calvary*, *weakening* his army significantly. *However*, the Continental system was not the only reason why Napoleon went to war with Spain, Portugal and Russia, since there were other factors involved, such as his *desire for personal gain*. Plus, economic issues at home were *not extreme enough* to cause uprisings, meaning the Continental system *didn't massively damage* Napoleon's reputation.