The Vietnam War
Why, then, has Hollywood and popular American memory of the conflict focused on the minority (combat) experience?
- to depict how the war still pushed US men physically, emotionally, and psychologically - to show that the war was unwinnable and that every live lost didn't need to be lost in the first place - to those that were in combat, they endured treacherous conditions...fighting w/ little sleep, often in the middle of the night by surprise, and was unfamiliar with the Vietnam environment (muggy, hot, mosquitos, etc.) and so we focus on the minority group too bc combat was horrid for them---constantly walking in fear, really can't see where any new enemy is. This psychological build up removes there ability to be human. Constantly waiting long hours in the night.
General William Westmoreland
- was an American General who commanded American military operations in the Vietnam War at its peak from 1964 to 1968 and who served as US Army Chief of Staff from 1968 to 1972. - replaced ineffective General Harkins prompts increasing focus on North Vietnam
National Security Act of 1947
1) Creates the position of Secretary of Defense 2) Creates the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)- becomes institutionalized, broad mandate, and funding 3) Creates the National Security Council -a body and organization that is accountable only to the president, congress can't call a meeting w/ nor the supreme court, they are advisors**goes from this organizational functioning to actually coordinating policy and becomes infamous under Nixon and the Vietnam War**
Crises of 1949
1) Mao wins Chinese civil war 2) USSR successfully tests nuclear bomb
Ho Chi Minh
1950s and 60s; communist leader of North Vietnam; used geurilla warfare to fight anti-comunist. The type of leader ppl were willing to follow. In September 1945, he declared Vietnamese Independence in Hanoi (city that the French invested much into). Commanding that Vietnam will "determine to fight to the bitter end." Recognized as a communist, not a nationalist.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
1964 Congressional resolution authorizing President Johnson to take military action in Vietnam. "Take all necessary measures to prevent further aggression." This resolution was to expire when the president determined peace and security in the area was assured. -Passes easily -Known as the blank check. -Closest that the US gets to a declaration of war in Vietnam -raises stakes in Hanoi/ communist world - Johnson's approval ratings hikes after this incident
Operation Rolling Thunder
1965-1968 bombing campaign over North Vietnam, supposed to weaken enemy's ability and will to fight failure
And how did the United States respond to Ho Chi Minh's Declaration of Independence, why?
Truman much less inclined to oppose colonialism than FDR For all the reasons just outlined re: descent into Cold War, policymakers in Washington are: 1) prioritizing events in Europe and (Marshall Plan) 2) much less inclined to think with nuance -French politicians warn that failure to recapture colonial empire would play into hands of French Communist Party o U.S. involvement first includes looking the other way: not going to criticize France for trying to regain empire
Domino theory
A theory that if one nation comes under Communist control, then neighboring nations will also come under Communist control. Vietnam is more important than in and of itself, Laos and Cambodia would become communist (even India and Bangladesh)- if Vietnam feel these countries could become communist - This is about American national security
How does Caputo react to Levy's death? To increasing casualties? How does his attitude toward death transform through this Part?
Caputo is deeply angered by the death of Levy. Caputo slowly become desensitized to death and wants to cause as many VC deaths as possible.
How has the war changed since Part I?
Causalities have gone up 3-4 times as much. The men are exhausted and begin to become unstable.
Vietnamese Declaration of Independence
(1945) Ho Chi Minh's tone in declaration of independence is a bit bombastic, yet assertive on the wrongs that have occurred in his country and is commanding that Vietnam will "determine to fight to the bitter end"
Richard Nixon
(Eisenhower's vice president)- strong anti-communist, served as a supply officer during WWII. His liability was that he had no ability to bring affection like Eisenhower did. Many republicans were disappointed that he was the candidate.
Who was Albert Pham Ngoc and how did Tang know him?
(Page 42) Albert had been Tang's best friend at the lycee. Tang had seen him last 11 years before during the August Revolution. When the streets became to violent for Tang to handle, he had given his gun to Albert who had took his place at the head of the district's Vanguard Youth.
What is happening in Indochina as U.S. fights Korean War (1950-1953)?
- the French Indochina war is happening and the US is increasing its support for the French - U.S. creates Military Assistance and Advisory Group (MAAG) in Vietnam - France creates Vietnamese National Army (VNA)
How did Tang's arrest in June of 1967 by General Loan compare with his earlier experiences with arrest by the National Police? What sort of tactics did Loan use?
Tang was tortured until he "confessed" that he was a member of the communist party. tactics: waterboarded him (effected his stomach), used electrical bolt that hurt his eyes, went unconcscious
Why was it difficult for Tang's interrogator to believe he wasn't a communist?
Tang's interrogator believed that anybody that opposed the government had to be communist.
How did the NLF view the prospect of American ground troops in Vietnam?
The NLF wanted no American intervention. They wanted the withdrawal of the American advisers from South Vietnam.
What was Caputo's attitude toward the Vietnamese, both friend and enemy?
Toward the end of the book, Caputo begins to despise to VC and wanted to kill as many as he could. There was one part of the book where he realized that while fighting, him and his soldiers were more like the VC they were fighting against in terms of what they were eating and how they were surviving then his American counterparts.
John F. Kennedy (1961-1963)
Kennedy- father US ambassador to Great Britain in the 30's, served in WWII (received a purple heart), youngest man to be elected, while Eisenhower was the oldest. First Catholic president, concerned cause the pope is God's representative on earth, would the pope ask him to go forth with a certain policy and have to deny or go forth with God's representative? Much family wealth, but pitches himself as the everyday man.
What crime is Caputo charged with? What is the verdict?
Killing 2 men. He has always been trained to kill, so how is he in trouble for something he has always been told to do - not guilty, this is because
Great Society
LBJ's platform; increased the size and involvement of the government in society. "War on Poverty": ambitious legislative agenda
What lessons, if any, did American policymakers draw from the Korean War and how, if at all, did they apply them to Vietnam?
Legacies of Korean War 1)Major battles of the Cold War would be fought in Asia and the Global South, not Europe 2)Tendency of American presidents to wage war through executive authority and/or the UN 3)Gave clear evidence of the problems involved in fighting a limited war, including an ambivalent and divided American public 4)High costs for minimal gains Apply to Vietnam War: - Kennedy heavily used deception to the American public in regards to Vietnam - additionally, he wasn't being honest about how much $$ we were providing
NSAM 288
March 1964 -National Security Action Memorandum -states US objectives in sweeping terms, emphasizing essential goal of preservation of independent, non-communist South Vietnam. -called for national mobilization to put South Vietnam on War footing and for significantly increasing size of armed forces -Johnson appoints general William Westmoreland to replace ineffective General Harkins -prompts increasing focus on North Vietnam
How does Tang describe the relationship between the political and military dimensions of the conflict in the South? (see pg. 58-9)
Military: Viet Cong was improving Political: Viet Cong was strong as they had the support of citizens after the tragedies that occured with Diem's regime Saigon gov.- politicaly weakening, losing support of its ppl, no leader, no direction--US could not provide this
What contrasts does Caputo draw between the battalions moving in and out?
Moving in they are confident and gung ho in large numbers, but moving out they look tired and beat
Elizabeth Becker
One of the few New York Times journalist allowed in Cambodia
Bao Dai
emperor of Vietnam who headed the Republic of Vietnam, formed by the French to combat the communist Vietminh. In nominal control of the free state of Vietnam as emperor, recognized by the French as leader of Vietnam, there is no one that believes he is independently powerful, French put him there and is not fooling anyone
How did these strategies impact soldiers and the antiwar movement? ^^ in relation to top question
soldiers: - became dehumanized antiwar movement: - similar to the Korean War, we lost more than what we gained - soldiers were dying 3-4 x more than at the beginning of the war - wasn't out country, we don't hold a personal connection to Vietnam like its citizens do
"Dragon Lady"
stereotype of an Asian woman as cunning, deceitful, and sexually manipulative
Pleiku Attack
February 1965. 9 Americans killed, 126 wounded. - Reds attack US helicopter base - then instigated Operation Flaming Dart, then Operation Rolling Thunder
What was Tang's role in the formation of the National Liberation Front? How would you describe that organization and its aims?
(pg 71) Tang and his friends decided to form an extralegal political organization, complete with a program and a plan of action. Tang was one of seven members of the mobilization committee of the NLF general agreement had been reached on the following objectives: 1. bring a sense of unity to the different classes of people in the South 2. over throw the Diem regime 3. achieve withdrawal of American advisers and an end to American interference with the South Vietnamese people 4. Defend and protect the rights of Vietnamese citizens 5. carry out land to tiller policy 6. build an independent economy 7. establish an educational system that will protect traditions 8. establish a pluralistic national government, nonaligned and neutral 9. unify north and south Vietnam on basis of mutual interest through negotiations WITHOUT war
What were the NLF's strategies?
(pg 86) The overriding goals remained to effect a withdraw of the United States from South Vietnam and to bring about negotiations between the Front and it's adversaries, or order to form a new Southern government. To achieve these political objectives we were pursue the struggle on three fronts: political, military and diplomatic. We would simultaneously confront our enemy in the field, mobilize our domestic support while undermining Diem's, and gather allies internationally- not forgetting the American people themselves. This three-pronged strategy was to characterize our approach throughout the war.
"America's Stake in Vietnam"
- (1956) JFK- version of the domino theory, but he states "Vietnam represents the cornerstone of the Free World in Southeast Asia"; takes a paternalistic approach on how the US is responsible for Vietnam, ideas about race and fitness for self-government **need a revolution**, somewhat echoes the Truman doctrine. Can the US offer Vietnam a revolution of its own making? IT has to come from the Vietnamese ppl.. Democracy w/ a certain outcome (where these tensions come in). Treat Diem as an American stooge, but he also is a man who has his own vision for Vietnam. Can American policymakers get out of their own way enough to let Vietnam have their own revolution/democracy?
French Indochina War
- 1946-1954 - After full-scale war erupts France signs an agreement giving sweeping concessions to China in return for China's promise not to interfere (China is happy with this because they are currently fighting a civil war, they don't want to waste resource, and they could care less) - After early success in the South they capture most key cities in northern and central Vietnam within the first weeks of fighting - In the fall of 1947, French launch a major offensive that inflicted heavy casualties and nearly captured the DRV leaders' headquarters (the communist North) - ^^**These achievements, however, did not add up to victory - To the contrary, DRV forces withstood the initial onslaught and developed considerable strengths of their own: 1. Most importantly broad support in the countryside, where the majority of Vietnamese peoples lived 2. Because of that, had a steady stream of recruits 3. Refused to fight in conventional battles in open fields, guerilla tactics -By 1948, the war had settled into a stalemate characterized by a pattern that would prevail for years to come: French army controlled the cities and numerous fortified posts while the Viet Minh dominated the rural areas in-between, FR troops had little trouble asserting their authority in the countryside when they wished, but as soon as they withdrew to their bases the Viet Minh quickly reasserted its authority - Problem faced by both sides: how to break out of deadlock - French start to increasingly court American favor & select former emperor of Annam, Bao Dai to head "free" Vietnamese government, form new government March 1949
Resolution 15
- 1959 -formally commits the gov. in the north to 1) overthrow of president Diem and 2) embrace political and military methods to achieve the 1st objective - sanctioned armed force to "end the plight of the poor and miserable people in the South" and "defeat each wicked policy of the American imperialists and their puppets." - Le Duan's response to 10/59
Buddhist Crisis
- 1963, Buddhist community became frustrated with Diem's discrimination and wanted independence from Vietnam, Diem harassed Buddhists in South Vietnam and discriminated against them; it was made famous worldwide by monks lighting themselves on fire Origins: May 6, 1963: Diem imposes ban on public display of all religious flags and banners & May 8: clash at Hue radio station (Huge crowd shows up and says forget the ban. Pull down the south Vietnamese flag and put up the Buddhist flag. Diem says they saw a volatile celebration and they set off a bomb, but protesters say the gov. forces started it and set off an explosion to disperse the ppl. ARV troops fired into the crowd) - Buddhism was on the rise in south Vietnam with the French leaving (trying to reject western Christian religion) - Buddhist Immolation of June 11, 1963 -----A Buddhist lights himself on fire in Saigon in one of the busiest streets....this was planned and journalists were invited
Dien Bien Phu 1954
- A French fort in Vietnam that was massacred and destroyed by Vietnamese fighters. The fort was in the middle of a valley and the Vietnamese assembled artillery in the surrounding mountains. - an 11-mile open valley surrounded by high mountains. French want to lure Viet minh out into the open and thus have to abandon their guerilla tactics and have to fight on French terms, but the Viet minh have a different approach. They prepare for something long term; the war is infinite for them. They will fight until they get what they want, while the French are away from home and have less dedication to this cause...they will tire first. General Gap disassemble armory in order to undercut the assumptions that it's such good idea for the French...transition from guerilla warfare to mobile warfare - March 13, 1954 battle begins, Viet Minh attack first and stun the French with their heavy guns. The French are then vulnerable...starts with the 55 day siege...impacts the morale of the French stationed.
helicopter
- A commute war- always an image of a helicopter - Viet Cong used to retreat when they saw helicopters, but in the Battle of Ap Bac they didn't
What was Tang's childhood like?
-Tang grew up very wealthy -went to the best French school -was one of six boys -his dad worked for the French gov -he realized he was different when French kids started referring to him as Vietnamese
Why did the Korean war persist for so long after summer 1951?
- A lot has to do w/ prisoner of war (pow) issue - POWS and voluntary repatriation (return to one's country) - Turns public opinion harshly against N. Korea due to treatment of captured American ppl - You can't just keep prisoners of war when the conflict is over, but many communist soldiers that are captured by the US and UN forces express the desire that they don't want to come home (they encourage this expression and puts US in odd position) - Communists saying they do not want to go back to communism---huge win for Truman, but creates this uneasy issue because laws of war say you have to return all prisoners of war (Kim and Mao aren't willing to except their soldiers not wanting to return home)
How did the U.S. military conduct operations in Vietnam?
- Agent Orange - helicopters - commute war - M16 - bomblets - B52's ^^ technological strengths Measured success: # of Viet Cong killed Objective: kill as many VC as possible, win hearts and minds of locals, unite Vietnam under the southern regime and get rid of communism in Vietnam as a whole, contain communism ---try to do this by using Diem almost as a puppet (national police trying to find communists and discourage them from operating), additionally they use strategic hamlet program, funnel money in any areas in Indochina to try and strengthen the governments that are in danger of becoming communist to give them more of a defense against this possibility
Battle of Saigon 1955
- April 28th , 1955. Diem vs. Binh Xuyen. - was a month-long battle between the Vietnamese National Army of the State of Vietnam (later to become the Army of the Republic of Vietnam) and the private army of the Bình Xuyên organised crime syndicate. At the time, the Bình Xuyên was licensed with controlling the national police by Emperor Bảo Đại, and Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm issued an ultimatum for them to surrender and come under state control
ARVN
- Army of the Republic of Vietnam (the South) - Long history of conscription in Vietnam - 1955-1960, most ARVN troops volunteered - 1961 as turning point: volunteers drop dramatically -ARVN's 20 years (1955-75), 65% drafted - Overcrowded and underfunded facilities - Rampant fraud and corruption System: basic military training for 5-6 weeks, then more specialized instruction, those who were to remain with infantry continued to advanced individual training for another 4-6 weeks - high desertion rate - not enough time for leave - not enough food and ARVN soldiers had to pay for their own food - soldiers not getting paid
How did the Korean War influence the way the U.S. evaluated the situation in Indochina?
- By early 1950, US policymakers came to view Vietnam as key to keeping Southeast Asia out of communist hands - domino theory: firmly rooted conviction that the fall of Indochina would cause the collapse of the rest of Southeast Asia to communism
How would you describe the scene at Ha Na?
- Caputo and his men haven't slept/ are under constant fire= emotionally unstable. It started with intentions of burning down a supply cache but they continued on to burn down several houses. Panic/ instability. - bruning of about 200 homes, men haven't slept, always automic rifle fire, constantly walking in fear, really can't see where any new enemy is. This psychological build up removes there ability to be human. Constantly waiting long hours in the night. Operation constantly delayed. Found a detonator near village and then they blamed them for the killing of their men and it set them off. Fire begins with an objective (first intended to burn supplies ), but then there is this sense of losing control. There is no direct order to burn the village. Ethics were distant in this war, or completely nonexistent in the war. Caputo recognized this after everything was over. Felt dark destructive emotions and sick with himself as to what happened. He enjoyed killing the VC in the moment, but upset when it was over.
Republic of Vietnam 1955
- Diem proclaims the creation of the Republic of Vietnam - October 26, 1955, forces Bao Dai out and recognizes that he's falling out of favor and can't stop it from happening (SOUTH VIETNAM)
Geneva Accords 1954
- East-West conference scheduled to meet in Geneva to address Asia issues - the French agreed to withdraw their troops from northern Vietnam. - Vietnam would be temporarily divided at the 17th parallel, - pending elections within two years to choose a president and reunite the country. -US doesn't sign
How does Caputo feel about the chances for American success in Vietnam?
- Every death is a waste of life, end of ch. 18 - war is unwinnable **ch. 18 -causality rate for Americans was up 3-4 times as much -soldiers to kill with little attention to any rules of engagement---how can this be successful? - He recognizes the change in himself from a man who goes to war wanting to preserve democracy and fight Communism to one who is bloodthirsty for an enemy that he barely understands--- how can you win a war this attitude? - military isn't going back to change training tactics for these soldiers that are going to experience guerilla warfare in the jungle (they are not prepared and are continually going to remain unprepared to fight off the enemy)
General Offensive, General Uprising/Tet Offensive
- Hanoi's strategy 1964 - Idea is to step up the infiltration of men and supplies to south Vietnam to build up bigger forces (switching from guerilla to conventional warfare) -The Tet Offensive was a coordinated series of North Vietnamese attacks on more than 100 cities and outposts in South Vietnam. -Despite heavy casualties, North Vietnam achieved a strategic victory with the Tet Offensive, as the attacks marked a turning point in the Vietnam War and the beginning of the slow, painful American withdrawal from the region.
General MacArthur
- He was one of the most-known American military leaders of WW2(He liberated the Phillipines and made the Japanese surrender at Tokyo in 1945, also he drove back North Korean invaders during the Korean War) - in late 1950, he wanted to "be home by Christmas" and urged the use of a nuclear weapon during Korean War in order to bring it to an end quicker - Truman didn't want to do this^^ and Macarthur spoke out against the president - Truman fired him and was worried about it as Macarthur was one of the most popular men in the country
How does Caputo's mental/emotional state change as the war goes on?
- His hatred for the Vietcong deepens. He shifted to desiring to kill as many VC as possible. - He become exhausted and foggy
How did the U.S.-Diem alliance go from Eisenhower greeting Diem at the airport in 1957 to the Kennedy admin acquiescing in a coup by 1963?
- special to greet a foreign leader directly at the airport (thought he was amazing after Battle of Saigon 1955) - Kennedy wanted to overthrow Diem by 1963 because he no longer wanted US help (or to be out puppet)
What strategies would the NLF and N. Vietnam pursue in order to attempt major American intervention?
- Idea is to step up the infiltration of men and supplies to south Vietnam to build up bigger forces (switching from guerilla to conventional warfare) - The Vietcong has had the offensive in guerrilla warfare in the countryside ----gained majority support from those within the countryside - "general offensive, general uprising" ^^ - political cadres and guerrillas of the NLF were conducting a vicious but largely successful campaign to gain and maintain control over most of the rural peasantry
Nov 1963 Assassinations
- Kennedy is shocked and appalled when Nhu and Diem are assassinated - 2 weeks later Kennedy is assassinated, 1st state funeral broadcast into living rooms of Americans - As 1964 began, both the United States and South Vietnam were led by new leaders who faced every more pressing questions about how to achieve their objectives in Vietnam.
General Harkins
- LBJ considered him ineffective and replaced him w/ General William Westmoreland - part of the Military Assistance Command Vietnam (MACV) replaces MAAG
Johnson Treatment
- LBJ's tactic of "negotiation" with members of congress. He used his size and abrupt manner to manipulate them - using his size to force ppl to his wills and wants, very effective in a legislative sense, very insecure tho (especially when it comes to foreign policy), known for rigging things before they happen (Wants to beat you before you even get to the debate)
What institutions (or individuals) would arise from the fluid situation of the mid-1950's with the most power/legitimacy?
- Le Duan comes into the picture - National Liberation Front
Group 559 (1959)
- Military Operations Dorps Doan 559 (Group 559) - logistical supply military operation to create and secure safe transports of goods and men from the north to the Vietcong paramilitary units in the south (Ho Chi Minh trail)
Operation Beefup 1962
- Military assistance command Vietnam (MACV) replaces MAAG (gets an upgrade, change in bureaucratic placement) ---general Paul Harkins has an equal positioning w/ the Vietnam ambassador. Doubles economic assistance and # of people on ground increases 300% **US advisors in Vietnam, significant expansion of "advisory" duties
What was the relationship like between the NLF and the government in Hanoi?
- NLF was backed by Hanoi (both sahred the same goal of overthrowing Diem and getting rid of Americans involvement)
How would the rest of the world respond to the United States' unprecedented position in geopolitical affairs?
- Soviets are fearful of capitalist encirclement
What did Albert and Tang think about Diem as time passed?
- Tang- as time passed he thought Diem was helping society, but realized the brutality of his policies and the oppression he was bringing onto society. Wanted him gone - Albert- close to Diem, worked for him, but Tang suggested that Albert years later helped the Viet Cong stabilize the region? He is unsure if this is actually true tho and suggests that this was to help his credibility with Diem
Resolution 9, Dec. 1963
- The Central Committee of the Communist Party of North Vietnam adopted Resolution 9. The secret resolution declared all-out war on South Vietnam to defeat the South Vietnamese army (ARVN) before the United States could introduce a large number of American soldiers into the war. The Resolution estimated that American soldiers participating in the war would not exceed 100,000. The Americans "clearly understand that if they get bogged down in a large-scale protracted war, then they will fall into an extremely defensive position internationally." Diplomacy would be expanded to gain "the sympathy of antiwar groups in the United States" and other people around the world. Finally, the Resolution called for a purge of party members in North Vietnam who had emphasized socialistic development in North Vietnam rather than North Vietnamese help for the "liberation" of the South. - Resolution 9 was the most important Communist party decision on action in South Vietnam since the Geneva Accords of 1954, which had provisionally separated North and South Vietnam pending national elections (never held, due to opposition by the government of South Vietnam).[6]
Binh Xuyen
- The Vietnamese mafia, headquartered in a Chinese-dominated Saigon suburb of Cholon. The Binh Xuyen influenced politics in southern Vietnam under the corrupt French-backed government. -the most powerful, not a religious group, but a criminal sindicate that controlled much of Saigon (the capitol of Vietnam) and controlled the black market here (guns, munitions, gambling, etc.). Controlled the saigon municipal police force and the public security service. The US is not confident in this guy, so they suggest to Diem to bring these ppl into a coalition (make them into cabinet positions)
How did the Korean War influence the way the U.S. evaluated the situation in Indochina?
- The attack upon Korea makes it plain beyond all doubt that communism has passed beyond the use of subversion to conquer independent nations and will now use armed invasion and war.
Korean War 1950-53
- The conflict between Communist North Korea and Non-Communist South Korea. The United Nations (led by the United States) helped South Korea. - N. Korea invades S. Korea June 24, 1950 - Truman responds with: June 25th UN Resolution June 27th UN Resolution and called for members to help S. Korea "repel the armed attack and to restore international peace and security in the area", June 28th N Korean troops enter Seoul, June 30th Truman commits U.S. ground troops "only to restore peace there and...restore the border" of 38th parallel - Soviets don't veto it because they are not there, China doesn't vote against it because Mao wasn't present either* how these resolutions gets through - China Enters the War November, 1950 and defense budget increases in US - 4/5 of all casualties in the Korean war occur when china enters (this is where things became much more deadly) - US fighting N. Korea compared to China is a whole new ball game - Turning point: Crossing the 38th parallel (border between N. and S. Korea) --- US crosses it - "new war" in late 1950, US questions if they should take the fight to China Korea: "The Forgotten War" •2 million Americans serve in 3 years •33,686 Americans and 2-3 million Koreans died •103,000+ Americans wounded •American policymakers did not forget Korea, but drew some interesting lessons Legacies: 1)Major battles of the Cold War would be fought in Asia and the Global South, not Europe 2)Tendency of American presidents to wage war through executive authority and/or the UN 3)Gave clear evidence of the problems involved in fighting a limited war, including an ambivalent and divided American public 4)High costs for minimal gains - US begins to support French Indochina war during Korean war
How to sell the Cold War and permanent military readiness to the American people?
- Truman refuses to use the word, "war" when talking about stuff happening in Korea (he calls it UN police action, or conflict) - Truman's First priority was to prevent WWIII (we are not ready for that, Red army is still the largest one in the world), if it has to be fought, then Korea is the last place we'd want it to be fought
U.S.S. Maddox August 1964 aka Golf of Tonkin
- US battleship that was engaging in electronic espionage that was allegedly fired upon by the North Vietnamese in the Gulf of Tonkin - US believe they've been attack for the 2nd time by the N. Vietnamese (they conclude that the radio equipment was choppy and that there was no 2nd attack, but the cables were already sent to the U.S.)
People's War, People's Army 1961
- Vietnamese strategy - book written by General Giap - the Viet Cong insurrection manual for underdeveloped countries
WAC
- Women's Army Corps - Should be beautiful, extrovert, intelligent -Needed to know how to type -Feminine qualities need to be upheld while still being intelligent and upholding a certain amount of intellect - Women had to wear dresses knee length, panty hoes, and black pumps (service shoes) - Major Kathleen Wilkes and Sgt. 1st Cl. Betty Adams *First WAC Military Advisors in Vietnam, 9 March 1965**
Agent Orange
- a toxic leaf-killing chemical sprayed by U.S. planes in Vietnam to expose Vietcong hideouts - used to try & to kill the vegetation, 90 million gallons of these chemicals dropped.
Taylor-Rostow Mission Report, Nov. 1961
- advocate for a "limited partnership", which meant 1) more robust economic and military commitment to south Vietnam 2) expanding types of military aid (now thinking armored personnel characters, larger artillery weapons), also called for more US advisors - report called for improved training of ARVN troops, greater use of helicopters in counterinsurgency missions against North Vietnamese communists, increasing bombing of the North and the use of US combat troops.
1968 draft law
- all males 18-35 automatically inducted into armed services for indefinite service
What was the Vietnam War like for the majority of the Americans who served in it?
- boring as about only 10-24% actually served in combat - lived the good life - fed well w/ food that reminded them of home - had amazing amenities (basketball courts, libraries, swimming pools etc.)
How does Caputo characterize what it means it means to be/what traits identify one as "American?"
- civic duty and do something for the country that gives so much to you
M16
- common gun used in war - Rife Operation and Maintenance Manual (caught the attention of the young boys going into war, even though it was degrading towards women)
Inch'on Landing (late September 1950)
- daring move -the recapture of Seuol - UN forces weren't going to be prepared until 1951, but w/ how fast N Korea is moving into the S., then there might not be a S. Korea in 1951 - If it failed, then it would really push us back - Huge psychological life- big deal when an opposing force takes over one's capitol - Forces to cut off supplies going to N Korea (food, supplies, etc.); N. Koreans are very surprised by this assault - Makes Macarthur's legend grow
How to fight a "limited war?"
- deception to the public (lie about deaths, amount of advisors, amount of aid being sent over) - increase military and economic aid - increase in advisors
Battle of Ap Bac, Jan. 1963
- resisting a modern equipped army with a guerilla force, to put it into practice is very difficult. Viet Cong used to retreat when they saw helicopters, but in this battle they didn't. This was a big moment for them - In any war, both sides are gonna try and depict it as if there was some sense of a victory for them, but the US on the ground knew it was a loss. Difference between what's happening on the ground and what's being told. Diem said it was a win, the NLF says it's a win??? Confusing. There is not sensorship (why there is so much footage of the battle). -
What key precedents were set during the Kennedy years?
- deliberately decepted US public-- administration refuses to publish the # of American advisors in Vietnam, they know there is more, but don't know the figures. US servicemen die in situations where they are doing combat related activities, yet their deaths are reported of them dying in "training exercises" - JFK approves use of defoliants and herbicides- trying to take home field advantage away from the Viet Cong, these chemicals are engineered to kill vegetation (not healthy on flesh or drinking water - he took more of a middle course in Vietnam to keep policy options open for as long as possible - additionally, he took an approach of offering Vietnam a revolution, but one in which they need to make of their own; it has to come from the Vietnamese ppl - takes a paternalistic approach
How can we reconcile our image of the Vietnam War and soldiers' experience with the reality that most U.S. servicemen did not serve in combat roles?
- despite the fact, that most men didn't fight in combat, those that did...did ENOUGH SAID
1964 mobilization act
- expands draft 20-25 year olds, 36 month obligation
How would Diem Fare after his surprising victory in the Battle of Saigon?
- gain strong US relationship - aim to nation build
How successful was the NLF in securing supporters in Saigon?
- good at networking - gained supporter of locals (indirect help from Diem being oppresive) - could blend in well - had a lot of success gaining supporters in the rural areas
What was Tang's arrest experience like with the National Police? What was the result of Tang's arrest?
- good experience: could move freely in cell block, could send gifts to his wife, given long periods outdoors, access to books**gave them an oportunity to organize their life** - he was able to make plans for the future, given all the time he had on his hands
How does Tang describe the relationship between the Viet Cong and the leadership in Hanoi/North Vietnam?
- got along well - Ho Chi Minh wanted to unite Vietnam under Northern rule and aided the NLF trying to overthrow Diem in the south. - technically had the same agenda (overthrow Diem and get rid of Americans in their country) - Group 559
What was Tang's initial impression of U.S. involvement in Vietnam? Of Diem?
- indifferent w/ American involvement bc of past history helping the French in French Indochina war as well as their decision to not be on board with the Geneva Accords proved problematic to him - wasn't hostile towards them when it came to ideology - he knew the US was using Diem to implement their interests, while he wasn't sure what Diem's interests were ( was he using the US to gain power---eventually we found out yes!!!) - he was indifferent as well, thought Diem was a mystery
What role, if any, do women play in A Viet Cong Memoir?
- it doesn't seem like he talks about women much in the book, but from what we know they wanted any and all involvement in the NLF (political revolt included everyone)
Was the ceasefire in chapter 16 successful?
- it would have been successful if there was better communication - a soldier thought Caputo ordered was an order to burn a hamlet down (reveals the difficulties in communication between marines, even when a platoon is traveling together through the jungle) . - because of the burning of the hamlet, the VC retaliate w/ a mine (explosion)
Would the US-Diem Partnership hold?
- it would not - Intension increase intentions in 1963- US trying to control Diem (frustrates him) - the more Americans get involved the easier it is for the public to say Diem is an American puppet - Nhu, May 12, 1963---he also calls for a reduction in US material support (not an end tho) - Diem asks for less money from the US----not often that a country asks for less money - additionally, Diem would be assassinated in '63 anyways
How does Tang describe the relationship between the military and political struggles in South Vietnam?
- military- was an irregular force that was weak - politically strong (good networking between classes in S. vietnam and had local support, backed Hanoi) - however they were also an illegitimate gov. compared to Diem, which is problematic
What was the purpose of the Young People's Association? Was the organization successful?
- mobilize youth to heighten the political confrontation in order to enforce change and get more people involved/ on board - wanted young revolutionaries
How would you describe the government/leaders of South Vietnam in the early 1950s?
- not independently powerful leaders (Bao Dai and Diem) - "a land in which central authority had all but ceased to exist" - everyone competing for competing for power in the South: 1)Vietnamese national army (VNA) - Previously Bao Dai's -now Diem's—forces 2)Cao Dai - had an army of 15,000, not loyal to the gov in Saigon 3)Hoa Hoa -^^same thing, but bigger, power is further in the South, basically controlled 4 provinces in southern Vietnam 4)Binh Xuyen- the most powerful, not a religious group, but a criminal sindicate that controlled much of Saigon (the capitol, the state of Vietnam) and controlled the black market here (guns, munitions, gambling, etc.). Control the saigon municipal police force and the public security service. The US is not confident in this guy, so they suggest to Diem is to bring thiese ppl into a coalition (make them into cabinet positions) - COMPETING POWERS IN SAIGON
How does Caputo describe warfare in Vietnam? Who/what are they fighting? Who is the "enemy?"
- not prepared for the environment (muggy, monsoons, mosquitos ---ppl dying from environment as well, the heat) - Viet Cong fought w/ no structure (random in the middle of the night) - guerilla tactics not good for US - fighting against communism - enemy was Viet Cong (lol but we didn't know who the heck they were out and about)
Does he end his memoir on an optimistic or pessimistic note? Why?
- pessimistic - starts off optimistic, ends pessimistic - the war is unwinnable in Caputo's eyes
SRAO
- red cross supplemental recreational activities overseas - "We were to be non-sexual symbols of purity and goodness" - aka the donut dollies - interacted w/ soldiers, made them forget about the war through games/activities
How does Tang describe the United States' strategies and Americans in Vietnam? Does his view change at all throughout the war?
- smart/strategic- had an American puppet-Diem (indirect control) over the South w/ a legitimate gov. - NLF was fearful of them and wanted to avoid war with them
Ngo Dinh Diem 1954-1963
- will become the president of South Vietnam, grew up in an imperial French city, his father dominated the household (patriarchal household), his dad is 1) a devout Catholic and 2) official for French imperial government. His father turns down a huge offer w/ the French and he turned it down because he knew that the French were a load of crap to the Vietnamese. To the point of paranoia, he knows who is loyal to him and who is not. - takes an opposite path of Ho chi Minh. Diem goes to the US for a bit and attracts the attention of US officials (they are unimpressed w/ him). In 1954 he is not convincing enough to the US, he eventually goes to France and then Bao Dai invites him back to be a prime minister (in order to prove to the Vietnamese how anti-French he is). - Bao Dai's favor is fading out quickly
Caputo is an officer. Pay attention to the special blessings and curses he has as an officer; how would the memoir be different if it had been written by an enlisted man?
- wouldn't feel obligated to uphold his professional position at all times (even during liberty, he felt embarassed to sleep with women and enjoy himself)
Could the NLF successfully undermine the government in Saigon from within?
- yes - Dramatic Worsening Conditions by 1961 - disastrous on the ground for army of South Vietnam, NLF is drastically stepping up operations - they focused on youth (not just about conscription, but to organize ppl politically and get them on board early on), doing practical on the ground working of mobilizing ppl (outrage often dies quickly, thus these methods are much trying to organize this discontent) **having an anthem, a flag—to legitimize this discontent** - strong networking (rich, poor, rural, and urban all involved), the ability to blend in, strong cause thus they were highly motivated, have lots of experience, backed by Hanoi—helps w/ leadership & organization (strong political supporter, but this also is a weakness because it made it easy for Diem to label them as communists) Weaknesses: didn't have the governmental power that Diem's government had—don't have external recognition, irregular force thus they are militarily weak
In his prologue Caputo says, "This book does not pretend to be history...this book ought not to be regarded as a protest." Do you agree with him? Why or why not?
- yes, it is his real story from real accounts he went through and his background in Vietnam formulates this understanding of how impossible it was to win the war - i agree because I trust the opinion of a marine who underwent such tragedies in Vietnam
"Position of the US w/ Respect to Indochina"
-(1950) NSC Report The problem: -to undertake a determination of all practical US measures to protect its security in Indochina and to prevent the expansion of communist aggression in that area Conclusions: -important to US security interests to stop the spread of communism into South East Asia (Indochina is a key area of SE Asia and is under immediate threat ) -the neighboring countries of Thailand and Burma could be expected to fall under communist domination if Indochina were controlled by a communist dominated government -the department of defense should make it a priority to protect US interests within the region
bomblets
-2.3 in diameter -285 million - why exercise caution when bombing the north?? (during widespread bombing of N. and S. Vietnam)
Spring 1951 Offensive
-Costly Chinese offensive (lose up to 90,000 troops) -thereafter, the war (geographically speaking) turns into a stalemate -trench lines resembling ww1
Who/what does Tang see as his enemy?
-He wants the United States to withdraw - Diem bc he's oppressing the South (Diem had time to bring up socially and economically in the south, but he didn't and so he sees Diem as power monger) - Americans too
General Giap
-Military leader of communist forces in Vietnam -wrote the book, "People's War, People's Army"
Project 100,000 1966
-Military project with the goal of reducing the number of African Americans rejected by the military - the real problem with black poverty is the lack of a father figure, argues that the military will provide a segregate family, an effort to recruit poor financial and poor educated men into the military (target is ppl of color). Military will pull them up. Brings 200,000 ppl into the military in 1966. Only 6% of those brought in through this program actually receiving any training.
LBJ (1963-1969)
-Vice President to JFK became president after JFK assasinations based on Vietnam war, passed Gulf of Tonkin and said "to take any measures nessesary", decided to escalate American involvement in Vietnam, proved to be extremely unpopular - grew up dirt poor in rural Texas, he went to southwest Texas state teacher's college, big ego and ambition, makes his name in the senate before becoming vice president, becomes senate majority leader - had the audacity to produce a new deal during economic strength, he wants to go to war when he's president (just not with Vietnam). He wants to eradicate poverty from the U.S - He tries to avoid a major American war in Vietnam and wants to create new programs in congress - Situation in south Vietnam is dire when Johnson is president.
B-52
-massive B52s -30 ton payloads -"milk runs" - 1965, approves use of them in S. Vietnam
Law 10/59 May (1959)
-passed by Diem - creates special moving military tribunals...any offense to national security whatsoever, the punishment is death by execution immediately (often by guillotine-associated with france) - under the guise of cracking down on communist insurgents, decreed that the death sentence shall apply for a broad range of crimes
Beyond Vietnam
-speech made by Martin Luther King Jr. -Urged the war to end Talk about how there is still injustice within in our own government and country
Containment
American policy of resisting further expansion of communism around the world. By 1950, containment of communism dominated American policymaking and US officials had come to view Vietnam as the key to keeping Southeast Asia out of communist hands. Like anti-communism, comes to take on a life of its own and mean many different things to different people, change over time. The 3 prong approach: 1) Political Containment (Truman Doctrine of 1947) - $400 million to assist Greece and Turkey, BR comes to the US, say that they had been supporting these areas and can no longer afford to do so Strategic areas,Implication: if US doesn't assume responsibility, likely that communist parties will win victory-in the past would have and did wish Greek independence fighters well, ideological support but that it is-now, things are increasingly understood to be a zero sum game: win for communism is a loss for capitalism 2) Economic Containment (Marshall Plan) - Europe devastated from war, 1947, clear European economy will not recover on its own-Marshall was Truman's Secretary of State, takes lend lease and extends to peace, Security of US depends on strong European economy—if it doesn't recover will turn to communism ($13-17 billion of US supplies, ship things for reconstruction in Europe to prevent this), Massive economic support to Europe: prevent communist insurgencies by bolstering stability. June 1947, Congress doesn't buy into until February 1948, Czech leaders interested in Marshall plan, Soviets say no, Czech president falls out of a window. 3) Military Containment (NATO) 1949 - attack on one, is an attack on all
What is Neal's "new policy" in chapter 18? How do Caputo and his men react?
Any man who kills a confirmed VC will be given an extra beer ration and time to drink it. Caputo recognizes how the war has dehumanized him and the other marines.
How does Caputo feel about the war and his part in it?
At first Caputo is excited to do his part in the war. "The heroic experience that he seeks." By the end of his time, Caputo recognizes how the war has dehumanized himself and his fellow soldiers. After he is discharged, he joins an anti-war movement.
NSC-68 (1950)
Blueprint for the Cold War in which the National Security Council (made up of President's top advisors on military and security matters) recommendation to quadruple defense spending for fighting communism and rapidly expand peacetime armed forces to address Cold War tensions; reflected a new militarization of American foreign policy ("Military Industrial Complex") and triggered the arms race - militaristic -calling for immediate action - fanatics- the communists will use pure force to achieve their objectives - radical -imposing beliefs - Europe: isn't ready, "rolled over", more of pawn in a chess game for the U.S., a buffer - U.S. is still superior, but USSR is a close second, closer to potential WWIII, manpower - suggests advancement in nuclear capabilities of USSR
U.S. soldiers in Vietnam
Broad Categories: -2.5 million Americans serve 1. Combat (10-24%) 2. Combat support 3. Combat service support Important variations: 1. time 2. location 3. branch of service - average age was 19 - only 8% had college degrees - Draftees but not reservists (men who are already serving in the military) - don't have to be drafted if you're going to college - medical defermance - 70% are of poor and working class- fighting in the Vietnam war - African Americans serve in disproportionate number- 31% of the fighting force in Vietnam, suffer higher casualty rates earlier on. War is desegregated in 1948. - a "men's war"
Election of 1960
Brought about the era of political television. Between Kennedy and Nixon. Issues centered around the Cold War and economy. Kennedy argued that the nation faces serious threats from the soviets. Nixon countered that the US was on the right track under the current administration. Kennedy won by a narrow margin.
Viet Minh
Communist-dominated Nationalist Movement. Ruled Vietnam when Japanese rule ended. Leader was Ho Chi Minh (and he formed the Viet Minh). Backed by the USSR and China. AKA "The Independence League of Vietnam"
In 1945, the United States stood at the pinnacle of world power, while Vietnam had just declared independence after centuries of colonization. How would the international community respond to the Vietnamese declaration?
French determined to regain empire they ruled for more than half a century -resources and strategic location matter -perhaps what was most important was to regain France's diminishing status as a world power, deeply deteriorated by WW2 Ho Chi Minh seeks aid from US, Soviet Union and even China -willing to forgo immediate independence and unity for future promises -in march 1946 French recognized his government as a "free state" and granted them the right to station 15,000 troops in the North (France determined to hold on the the South) -negotiations eventually break down and outbreak of fighting 1946 leaves 6,000 Vietnamese civilians dead American Reaction -Truman less inclined to oppose colonialism than FDR -Policy makers in Washington are prioritizing events in Europe -US first reaction is to look the other way: not trying to criticize France for trying to regain empire -Ho Chi Minh's initial optimism, stemming from relationship with OSS agents and clear overture of declaration, turned out to be misplaced
What was Caputo's liberty to Saigon like?
He marveled at simple things like having a menu. He never really felt like he was free though.
What did Tang do once he returned to Vietnam? How did he feel about the prospect of becoming a soldier?
His Paris degree qualified him as a senior teacher where he taught at a secondary school two miles west of Saigon. He wanted to do something more but understood that he could never make a soldier himself due to his severe hemorrhoid problem.
How does he describe the Vietnam War?
His opinions on it change throughout the book. His excitement for it faded as he saw it dehumanize himself and his fellow soldiers.
National Liberation Front Dec. 1960
Ho Chi Minh wanted to unite Vietnam under Northern rule and aided what group of communist rebels trying to overthrow Diem in the south. Official title of the Viet Cong. Created in 1960, they lead an uprising against Diem's repressive regime in the South. - key development in the road to Vietnam war, US calls these members of the NLF (Viet Cong)
Operation Flaming Dart
In 1965, the United States brought in B52 bombers to attack North Vietnam bases, beginning the escalation of the war and leading to Operation Rolling Thunder.
How did he experience his "first stirrings" of his "Vietnamese identity?" (pg 5)
In the school yard during recess, Tang and his Vietnamese friends learned that they, in contrast to their French schoolmates, were part of a racial entity sometimes called nhaques (peasants), sometimes mites (a derogatory abbreviation of Annamite, the French word for Vietnamese).
Fork in the Road Memorandum
January 27 , 1965 - Assistant National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara told newly elected President Johnson that their current course in Vietnam could not succeed. They presented two alternatives: bring in the full force of the U.S. military or negotiate with the enemy. They knew Johnson would never consider the second but recommended both options be debated. Within a year, 175,000 American troops were in Vietnam. Negotiation was never discussed.
Election of 1964
Johnson wins in a landslide
How did Tang's and his peers react to the news that they would be meeting Ho Chi Minh? What sort of impression did Bac Ho make on Tang?
Page 11. "Somebody sitting behind me whispered 'who's ho chi min?' another voice answered 'i don't know I've never heard of him.' Somebody else more politically aware said 'look he's the president. He's negotiating with the French for equality. We've got to see him.'" Tang was immediately struck by Ho's appearance. Ho wore a high a high collared Chinese jacket and rubber sandals. He gave off an air of fragility, almost sickness. But these contributed to the dignity that enveloped him as it were tangible. Ho exuded a combination of inner strength and personal generosity. He reminded Tang of his grandfather. Tang explained how before an hour had passed he had gained the hearts of each of them sitting around him.
In what ways did Tang transform while in Paris?
Pg 26 "The city had been a scene of my rebirth. I had arrived in France a superb product of the French colonial system. Life in Paris had imbued me with an understanding and love for my own country deeper than I had previously known. I was one with my Vietnamese identity and I felt it's misery as my own."
When did Caputo serve in Vietnam? Why did he enlist?
Prove something to his parents who don't think much of him. Independence, rebellion, war as an escape.
What was the purpose of the Self-Determination Movement and the Committee to Defend the Peace?
Self determination: to establish an open and legal movement to mobilize opinion and agitate for negotitations and an end to hostilities w/ no visible ties to the NLF...manifesto included south vietnam should have the power to decide its own future..wanted NLF and south vietnam gov. to negotiate..also wanted americans gone and to get out of their business Committee to Defend Peace: used to back the self-determination movement
What was liberty at DaNang like?
The American soldiers were able to go into town to drink and buy prostitutes. Caputo never really felt free though because his soldiers were always watching him/ he wanted to live to a certain standard.
What is the situation like on the ground in Vietnam in 1954?
The South: - not good... - "a land in which central authority had all but ceased to exist" - everyone competing for competing for power in the South: 1)Vietnamese national army (VNA) - Previously Bao Dai's -now Diem's—forces 2)Cao Dai - had an army of 15,000, not loyal to the gov in Saigon 3)Hoa Hoa -^^same thing, but bigger, power is further in the South, basically controlled 4 provinces in southern Vietnam 4)Binh Xuyen- the most powerful, not a religious group, but a criminal sindicate that controlled much of Saigon (the capitol, the state of Vietnam) and controlled the black market here (guns, munitions, gambling, etc.). Control the saigon municipal police force and the public security service. The US is not confident in this guy, so they suggest to Diem is to bring thiese ppl into a coalition (make them into cabinet positions) 5)+ nearly one million newcomers from the north into the volatile mix The North: - doesn't have the competing centers of power compared to the South - North is still devastated after fighting off Japanese and French (not enough capitol goods, high unemployment, lack of economic self-sufficiency)---fundamental problems of building a society. What do they focus on???? - North firsters- not happy about the partition of the 17th parallel, but need to focus on the north and have a sustaining economy and armed forces need to be prepared, need to reach out to the rest of the world for international standing - Le Duan allows Ho to remain the public face of the Vietnamese nation
What role do women (American and/or Vietnamese) and gender—ideas about masculinity and femininity—play in Caputo's experiences?
The Vietnamese woman were seen more as objects than real valuable people. Just a way of the soldiers to fulfill their sexual desires.
Le Duan
The primary leader of the North Vietnamese Communist Party after Ho Chi Minh's death in 1969. - head of Southern Territorial Committee 1945 - 1951 named head of Central office of South Vietnam - founding member of the Indochina Communist Party in 1930. Twice imprisoned by the French, he joined the Viet Minh
ao dai
The traditional dress of Vietnamese women, consisting of a long tunic that is slit on the sides and worn over loose trousers.
How did Caputo and his men change once they experienced combat for the first time?
They slowly lost their boy-like awkwardness that they brought with them and became leaner, tougher and more professional. (Chapter 6)
What does Tang mean by arguing that Diem had success "of a negative sort?" (63)
Though he had asserted his authority and gained time, he had done nothing about establishing positive programs to meet the nations economic and social needs. He had not used the time that he had gained. After three years it was apparent that the new president was a power monger not a builder. Diem's armed enemies had for the most part had only been mauled, not destroyed. The core of a guerrilla army was already in the making.
why did leaders in North Vietnam and the United States think escalating the war was their best option in 1963/1965?
U.S.: - Assistant National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara told newly elected President Johnson that their current course in Vietnam could not succeed. They presented two alternatives: bring in the full force of the U.S. military or negotiate with the enemy. - additionally, Bundy and McNamara suggest how dissapointed S. Vietnam is w/ the US as the Viet Cong is gaining strength on the countryside and the Vietnamese don't feel that the US is being active enough to help them succeed - in 1964 the US thinks that N. Vietnam has attacked the USS Maddox (even tho this was a mistake on our end of understanding) and thus, leads to Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which allows the president to take any necessary measures to repel against any armed attack - February 1965. 9 Americans killed, 126 wounded. - Reds attack US helicopter base - then instigated Operation Flaming Dart, then Operation Rolling Thunder N. Vietnam: - were determined to fight to the bitter end - it was their home, felt motivated to fight until the end
Kennedy-Nixon Debates 1960
first televised debate, poll results from this debate illustrated the visual power of television in American politics....people listening to the radio gave edge to Nixon and people watching television thought Kennedy won - ), first time ever on TV, ppl were weary about it and didn't have this again till '76. Kennedy is much better on the TV, arrives early to debate, wearing makeup, knows how to work being on the TV, while Nixon had knee surgery a week before this and accidentally banged it right before and is much pain the whole time. Nixon is turning and talking to Kennedy the whole time, while Kennedy is taking to the audience and is looking at the camera. Still a close election.
