Topic 11: New Global Connections (1415-1796)

Capitalism

An economic system based on private ownership of capital

Tenochtitlán

Capital of the Aztec Empire

Malinche

Female Indian slave who served as interpreter for Cortes

Plantations

Huge farms that required a large labor force to grow crops

Sepoys

Indian troops

Jamestown

The English built their first permanent colony at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607. Its early years were filled with disaster. Many settlers died of starvation and disease. The rest survived with the help of friendly Native Americans.

French and Indian War

(1754-1763) War fought in the colonies between the English and the French for possession of the Ohio Valley area. The English won.

Which statement describes the third and final leg of the triangular trade? A. American goods were sold in Europe. B. Enslaved Africans were sold in the Americas. C. European goods were sold in Africa. D. European profits were used to buy plantations in the Americas.

American goods were sold in Europe.

Forced Labor: The Encomienda System

At first, Spanish monarchs granted the conquistadors encomiendas (en koh mee en dahs), the right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in a particular area. The conquistadors used this system to force Native Americans to work under the most brutal conditions. Those who resisted were hunted down and killed. Disease, starvation, and cruel treatment caused drastic declines in the Native American population. The encomienda system was used in the mines as well as on plantations. By the 1540s, tons of silver from the Potosí region of Peru and Bolivia filled Spanish treasure ships. Year after year, thousands of Native Americans were forced to extract the rich ore from dangerous shafts deep inside the Andes Mountains. As thousands of Native Americans died from the terrible conditions, they were replaced by thousands more.

The 13 Colonies

At the time of Columbus and throughout the centuries ahead, the English sailed westward, hoping to find a sea passage to India. In 1497, John Cabot, a Venetian explorer, commanded an English expedition that reached the rich fishing grounds off Newfoundland. He claimed the region for England. Dozens of other English explorers continued to search for a northwest passage to Asia, without success. In the 1600s, England turned its attention instead to building colonies along the Atlantic seaboard of North America.

A Power Struggle Begins

By the 1600s, Spain, France, England, and the Netherlands all had colonies in North America. They began to fight—both in the colonies and around the world—to protect and expand their interests.

Britain and France in a Global Struggle

By the 1700s, Britain and France emerged as bitter rivals for power around the globe. Their clashes in Europe often ignited conflicts in the Caribbean, North America, India, and Africa. In 1754, fighting broke out between the French and British in North America. In the British colonies, it marked the beginning of the French and Indian War. By 1756, that regional conflict was linked to the Seven Years' War in Europe. The war soon spread to India and other parts of the globe. Although France held more territory in North America, the British colonies had more people. Trappers, traders, and farmers from the British colonies were pushing west into the Ohio Valley, a region claimed by France. The French, who had forged alliances with Native Americans, fought to oust the intruders.

Impact on European Society

By the 1700s, European societies were still divided into distinct social classes. Merchants who invested in overseas ventures acquired wealth, while the price revolution hurt nobles, whose wealth was in land. Economic changes took generations, even centuries, to be felt by the majority of Europeans, who were still peasants. The merchants and skilled workers of Europe's growing cities thrived. Middle-class families enjoyed a comfortable life. In contrast, hired laborers and those who served the middle and upper classes often lived in crowded quarters on the edge of poverty.

French Exploration Begins

By the early 1500s, French fishing ships were crossing the Atlantic each year to harvest rich catches of cod off Newfoundland, Canada. Within 200 years, the French had occupied or claimed nearly half of North America. French claims in Canada—which the French called New France—quietly grew while French rulers were distracted by wars at home in Europe. In 1534, Jacques Cartier (zhahk kahr tee ay) began exploring the coastline of eastern Canada, eventually discovering the St. Lawrence River. Traveling inland on the river, he claimed much of present-day eastern Canada for France. French explorers and fur traders gradually traveled inland with the help of Native American allies, who sought support against rival Native American groups. Jesuits and other missionaries soon followed the explorers. They advanced into the wilderness, trying with little success to convert the Native Americans they met to Christianity.

A Race for Colonies

By the late 1600s, French claims included present-day Canada as well as much of the present-day central United States. The Spanish had moved north, making claims to present-day Texas and Florida. Meanwhile, the English and Dutch maintained colonies along the East Coast. Native Americans throughout the colonies entered the conflict, hoping to play the Europeans against one another. Competition was also fierce in the Caribbean, as European nations fought to acquire the profitable sugar-producing colonies. By the 1700s, the French and English Caribbean islands, worked by enslaved Africans, had surpassed the whole of North America in exports to Europe.

Which of the following was a difference between capitalist entrepreneurs and guild masters? A. Capitalists let supply and demand set prices; guild masters regulated prices. B. Capitalists were reluctant to compete and take risks; guild masters were eager to expand into risky overseas markets. C. Guild masters hired many more workers than capitalists. D. Guild masters invested their profits in global businesses; capitalists gave their profits to cottagers.

Capitalists let supply and demand set prices; Guild masters regulated prices

According to the economic policy of mercantilism, how did colonies benefit the parent European country? A. Colonies sent manufactured goods to the parent country and bought the parent country's raw materials. B. Parent countries sent industry and profits to the colonies. C. Colonies sent immigrants and cultural items to the parent country. D. Colonies sent raw materials to the parent country and bought the parent country's manufactured goods.

Colonies sent raw materials to the parent country and bought the parent country's manufactured goods.

How were the Aztec and Inca empires impacted by Spanish conquistadors and European colonization? A. Conquistadors made peace with the empires, and then Europeans set up colonies. B. The Aztec and Inca empires shrank and survived only into the 1700s. C. Conquistadors destroyed the empires, and then Europeans built new settlements. D. The Aztec and Inca resisted and expelled both conquistadors and European settlers.

Conquistadors destroyed the empires, and then Europeans built new settlements.

New France

During the 1600s, France, the Netherlands, England, and Sweden joined Spain in settling North America. At first, Europeans were disappointed that North America did not yield gold treasure or offer a water passage to Asia, as they had hoped. Before long, though, the English and French were turning profits by growing tobacco in Virginia, fishing off the North Atlantic coast, and trading furs from New England and Canada with Europe. By 1700, France and England controlled large parts of North America. As their colonies grew, they developed their own governments that differed from each other and from that of Spanish America.

New Business Methods

Early European capitalists discovered new ways to create wealth. From the Arabs, they adapted methods of bookkeeping to show profits and losses from their ventures. During the late Middle Ages, as you have read, banks increased in importance, allowing wealthy merchants to lend money at interest. Businesses could more easily obtain short-term loans because of expanded credit. The joint stock company, which had also emerged in the late Middle Ages, grew in importance. It allowed people to pool large amounts of capital needed for overseas trading voyages. Individuals who invested in a joint stock company shared in the profits a company made. If a venture failed, investors lost only the amount they had put into the voyage, not the entire cost of the voyage.

How did the Atlantic slave trade benefit the economy of Britain's New England colonies? A. New Englanders employed many slaves on their small farms. B. New Englanders became wealthy by leading the anti-slavery movement. C. Plantation owners were able to grow more crops. D. England's shipbuilders earned profits by providing ships for the triangular trade.

England's shipbuilders earned profits by providing ships for the triangular trade.

How did England's political traditions affect the types of government established in England's American colonies? A. English colonies were direct democracies with rights and freedoms. B. English colonial governments prohibited discrimination based on race or religion. C. English colonists had some limited representative self-government. D. English colonists elected members of Parliament.

English colonial governments prohibited discrimination based on race or religion.

Mercantilism

European monarchs enjoyed the benefits of the Commercial Revolution. In the fierce competition for trade and empire, they adopted a new economic policy, known as mercantilism, which was aimed at strengthening their national economies. Mercantilists believed that a nation's real wealth was measured in its gold and silver treasure. To build its supply of gold and silver, they said, a nation must export more goods than it imported.

How did European exploration and expansion cause the African slave trade to expand? A. European traders shipped enslaved Africans to work on plantations in European colonies in the Americas. B. Arab armies captured European explorers and forced them into slavery. C. European explorers discovered the slave trade and expanded it across the Indian Ocean into South Asia. D. European explorers captured African people and forced them to work on their ships.

European traders shipped enslaved Africans to work on plantations in European colonies in the Americas.

What was one main reason why slave trading greatly expanded beginning around the 1500s? A. Africans gave up trying to resist capture by European slave traders. B. Europeans started depending on slaves for free labor in new colonies. C. Europeans needed more slaves in their countries to manage the arrival of new colonial goods. D. Arab merchants expanded the slave trade into South and East Asia.

Europeans started depending on slaves for free labor in new colonies.

Free Enterprise

Expanded trade and the push for overseas empires spurred the growth of European capitalism, or the investment of money to make a profit. In a capitalist economy, also called a free enterprise system, most businesses are privately owned and economic decisions are made between buyers and sellers based on supply and demand. Other key elements of capitalism include the accumulation and investment of capital (money) and competition within a free market. During the Commercial Revolution, entrepreneurs, or enterprising business people, organized, managed, and took on the risks of doing business. Entrepreneurs provided jobs for workers and paid for raw materials, transport, and other costs of production. They pushed for predictable laws and secure contracts to protect their property and investments from unfair seizure or taxes. As trade increased, entrepreneurs sought to expand into overseas ventures. Distant markets could be risky since governments were often small or weak in those places, but capitalists, because of their resources, were more willing to take risks. As a result, the price revolution of the early modern age gave a boost to capitalism. Supply and demand began to control markets and prices rather than the more traditional medieval concept of a just, or fair, price. Entrepreneurs and capitalists made up a new business class devoted to the goal of making profits. Together, they helped change local European economies into an international trading system.

Trading Outposts Around the Indian Ocean

In 1510, the Portuguese seized the island of Goa off the coast of India, making it their major military and commercial base. Albuquerque burned coastal towns and crushed Arab fleets at sea. The Portuguese took the East Indies port of Malacca in 1511, killing the city's Muslim inhabitants. In less than 50 years, the Portuguese had built a trading empire with military and merchant outposts, or distant areas under their control, around the Indian Ocean. They used the cities they had seized on the east coast of Africa to resupply and repair their ships. For most of the 1500s, Portugal controlled the spice trade between Europe and Asia.

Plymouth

In 1620, another group of English settlers landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts. They were Pilgrims, or English Protestants who rejected the Church of England. They sought religious freedom rather than commercial profit. Before coming ashore, they signed the Mayflower Compact, in which they set out guidelines for governing their North American colony. A compact is an agreement among people. Today, we see this document as an important early step toward self-government. Many Pilgrims died in the early years of the Plymouth colony. Local Native Americans, however, taught them to grow corn and helped them survive in the new land. Soon, a new wave of English Protestant immigrants arrived to establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Society and Culture in Spanish America

In Spanish America, a diverse mix of peoples gave rise to a new society. The blending of Native American, African, and European peoples and traditions resulted in a culture distinct to the Americas.

The African Slave Trade Expands

In the 1400s and 1500s, as you have read, Europeans set up small forts on the coast of West Africa in order to resupply their ships and profit from local trade, especially in gold. As Europeans built colonies in the Americas, they needed large numbers of laborers to make their colonies profitable. By the 1600s, they increasingly turned to Africa to provide that labor.

Saint Wins Wealth and Power

In the 1500s, Spain acquired enormous wealth from its American colonies. Every year treasure fleets sailed to Europe loaded with gold and silver. These riches helped make Spain the most powerful country in Europe. At the same time, the French, English, and Dutch jealously eyed the Spanish treasure fleets and defied Spain's claims to the Americas.

Expansion and Prosperity

In the 1600s and 1700s, other groups and individuals founded colonies for England. Some colonies, like Virginia and New York, were commercial ventures, organized for profit. Others, like Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, were set up as havens for persecuted religious groups. Still others, like Georgia and South Carolina, were gifts from the king of England to loyal supporters. Geographic conditions helped shape different ways of life in the New England, Middle, and Southern colonies. At first, settlers in each colony just struggled to survive. Early on, they abandoned dreams of finding riches like the Spanish had in Mexico and Peru. Instead, they learned to create wealth by using the resources native to their surroundings. In New England, many settlers were farmers who recreated in North America their village life from England. They took advantage of fishing and timber resources, and some colonists set up shipbuilding industries. In the Middle Colonies, farmers grew large quantities of grain on the abundant land. In the Southern Colonies, a plantation economy emerged. Cash crops, such as rice and tobacco, grew well in the warm climate. They therefore developed a plantation economy to grow these crops. As in New Spain, the English colonists needed workers to clear land and raise crops. The English tried using Native American labor, but the Native Americans fled or died of diseases. Before long, the colonists began to rely on the work of Africans who were brought to the colonies and sold as slaves. In several colonies in the South, enslaved Africans and their descendants would eventually outnumber people of European descent.

Exchanging Foods and Animals

In the Americas, Europeans found a variety of foods that were new to them, including tomatoes, pumpkins, and peppers. They eagerly transported these to Europe. Two of these new foods, corn and potatoes, became important foods in the Old World. Easy to grow and store, potatoes helped feed Europe's rapidly growing population. Corn spread all across Europe and to Africa and Asia, becoming one of the world's most important cereal crops. Europeans also carried a wide variety of plants and animals to the Americas, including wheat and grapes from Europe and bananas and sugar cane from Africa and Asia. Cattle, pigs, goats, and chickens, unknown before the European encounter, joined the Native American diet. Horses and donkeys transported people and goods quickly. Horses also provided the nomadic peoples of western North America with a new, more effective way to hunt buffalo.

Increasing National Wealth

Mercantilists urged rulers to adopt policies that they believed would increase national wealth and government revenues. To boost production, governments exploited mineral and timber resources, built roads, and backed new industries. They imposed national currencies and established standard weights and measures. Governments also sold monopolies to large producers in certain industries as well as to big overseas trading companies. Finally, they imposed tariffs, or taxes on imported goods. Tariffs were designed to protect local industries from foreign competition by increasing the price of imported goods. All of these measures led to the rise of national economies, in which national governments had a lot of control over their economies. However, modern economists debate whether mercantilist measures actually made nations wealthier.

Packed Aboard the "Floating Coffins"

Once purchased, Africans were packed below the decks of slave ships, usually in chains. Hundreds of men, women, and children were crammed into a single vessel for voyages that lasted from three weeks to three months. The ships faced many perils, including storms at sea, raids by pirate ships, and mutinies, or revolts, by the captives. Disease was the biggest threat to the lives of the captives and the profit of the merchants. Of the slaves who died, most died of dysentery. Many died of smallpox. Many others died from apparently no disease at all. Whatever the cause, slave ships became "floating coffins" on which up to half the Africans on board died from disease or brutal mistreatment.

Which statement correctly summarizes an economic development that was part of the Commercial Revolution in the 1500s? A. Entrepreneurs made sure that no new laws imposed taxes or tariffs on businesses. B. Entrepreneurs were more interested in investing in agriculture than in global trade. C. Prices rose as more money, silver, and gold became available. D. Colonies were forced to import raw materials and export manufactured goods.

Prices rose as more money, silver, and gold became available.

Slavery Throughout HIstory

Slavery has existed all over the world since ancient times: ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome, as well as China, Persia, the Aztecs, and other societies had enslaved people. The English word slave comes from Slav, the people of Eastern Europe who were often sold into slavery in the Middle Ages. The Arabs also used slave labor. Some were captives taken from Africa.

Why was there such a high death rate during the Middle Passage? A. Slaves were branded and separated from their families. B. Slaves died of diseases and mistreatment. C. Many ships were sunk by pirates and privateers. D. The captains of slave ships committed genocide.

Slaves died of diseases and mistreatment.

Which statement best describes Spanish colonial society? A. Social rank was based on wealth and education. B. Poor Spanish immigrants were the lowest class. C. Social rank was based on a person's ethnic background. D. Except for Native Americans, all people were equal.

Social rank was based on a person's ethnic background.

How did the Atlantic slave trade contribute to the rise of some African states? A. Europeans brought some African leaders to Europe to teach them how to be kings. B. Europeans encouraged African empires to fight against each other. C. Some African groups moved inland to avoid the slave trade. D. Some African states participated in slave trading to gain wealth and power.

Some African states participated in slave trading to gain wealth and power

How did Spain benefit from the Treaty of Tordesillas and Line of Demarcation? A. Spain gained territory in Europe. B. Spain no longer had close ties to the Catholic Church. C. Spain won exploration and trading rights over half of the non-European world. D. Portugal had to surrender its African forts.

Spain won exploration and trading rights over half of the non-European world.

A Society of Unequal Classes

Spanish colonial society was made of distinct social classes. At the top were peninsulares (peh neen soo lay rayz), people born in Spain. (The term peninsular referred to the Iberian Peninsula, on which Spain is located.) Peninsulares filled the highest positions in both colonial governments and the Catholic Church. Next came creoles, American-born descendants of Spanish settlers. Creoles owned most of the plantations, ranches, and mines. Other classes stood lower in the social order and reflected the mixing of populations. They included mestizos, people of Native American and European descent, and mulattoes, people of African and European descent. Native Americans and people of African descent formed the lowest social classes.

Thriving Towns and Cities

Spanish settlers generally lived in towns and cities. The population of Mexico City grew so quickly that by 1550 it was the largest Spanish-speaking city in the world. Colonial cities were centers of government, commerce, and European culture. Around the central plaza, or square, stood government buildings and a Spanish-style church. Broad avenues and public monuments symbolized European power and wealth. Cities were also centers of intellectual and cultural life. Architecture and painting, as well as poetry and the exchange of ideas, flourished in Spanish cities in the Americas.

Triangular Trade

The Atlantic slave trade formed one part of a three-legged international trade network known as triangular trade. This was a triangle-shaped series of Atlantic trade routes linking Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Triangular trade worked in the following way. On the first leg, merchant ships brought European goods—including guns, cloth, and cash—to Africa. In Africa, the merchants traded these goods for slaves. On the second leg, known as the Middle Passage, the slaves were transported to the Americas. There, the enslaved Africans were exchanged for sugar, molasses, and other products manufactured at plantations owned by Europeans.

Movement of People and Ideas

The Columbian Exchange resulted in the migration of millions of people. Shiploads of Europeans sailed to the Americas in search of new opportunities. Others settled on the fringes of Africa and Asia. As you have read, the Atlantic slave trade forcibly brought millions of Africans to the Americas. Native American populations, however, declined drastically in the years after European arrival, largely as a result of diseases. Some American diseases traveled to Europe. The vast movement of people led to the diffusion, or transfer, of ideas and technologies. Europeans and Africans brought their beliefs and customs to the Americas. In Europe and elsewhere, people adapted ideas and inventions from distant lands. Language also traveled. Words such as pajama (from India) and hammock or canoe (from the Americas) entered European languages as evidence of the global exchange.

Afonso I

The King of Kongo whose rule began in 1506 and who was influenced by the Portuguese.

entrepreneurs Bypass the Guilds

The growing demand for goods led merchants to find ways to increase production. Traditionally, guilds controlled the manufacture of goods. But guild masters often ran small-scale businesses without the capital to produce for large markets. They also had strict rules regulating quality, prices, and working conditions. Enterprising capitalists devised a way to bypass the guilds called the "putting-out" system. It was first used to produce textiles but later spread to other industries. Under this system, for example, a merchant capitalist distributed raw wool to peasant cottages. Cottagers spun the wool into thread and then wove it into cloth. Merchants bought the wool cloth from the peasants and sent it to the city for finishing and dyeing. Finally, the merchants sold the finished product for a profit. The "putting-out" system, also known by the term "cottage industry," separated capital and labor for the first time. In the 1700s, this system would lead to the capitalist-owned factories of the Industrial Revolution.

Slavery and the Americas

The slave trade brought millions of Africans to the Americas. The descendants of the early captives knew life only as slaves and had limited or no information about their African ancestors. By the late 1700s and throughout the 1800s, reformers in Britain, the United States, and elsewhere called for abolition, or ending slavery and the slave trade. In 1807, Britain abolished the slave trade throughout its empire and abolished slavery itself in 1833. In the United States, the issue of the spread of slavery into new territories helped fuel tensions that ultimately led to the Civil War. In 1865, when the Thirteenth Amendment was ratified, slavery was officially ended in all parts of the United States. Slavery continued longer elsewhere in the Americas, notably in Brazil. Over the centuries, about 80 percent of all enslaved Africans were brought to Brazil or the Caribbean. In Brazil, the profitable sugar industry along with other businesses relied on slave labor. Only in 1888 was slavery officially ended in Brazil. The Atlantic slave trade brought people from different societies in Africa to the Americas. Although most came from West Africa, that region was home to diverse communities from small chiefdoms to larger states and kingdoms. A rich variety of African traditions, languages, beliefs, stories, music, and other cultural elements were added to the emerging new cultures of the Americas.

Bringing Workers from Africa

To fill the labor shortage, Las Casas urged colonists to import workers from Africa. He believed that Africans were immune to tropical diseases and had skills in farming, mining, and metalworking. Las Casas later regretted that advice because it furthered the brutal African slave trade. The Spanish began bringing Africans to the Americas as slave laborers by the 1530s. As demand for sugar products skyrocketed, the settlers imported millions of Africans as slaves. They were forced to work as field hands, miners, or servants in the houses of wealthy landowners. Others became skilled artists and artisans. Within a few generations, Africans and their American-born descendants greatly outnumbered European settlers throughout the Americas. In the cities, some enslaved Africans earned enough money to buy their freedom. Others resisted slavery by rebelling or running away. You will learn more about slavery in the Americas in a later lesson.

Regulation of Trade

To make the empire profitable, Spain closely controlled its economic activities, especially trade. The most valuable resources shipped from Spanish America to Spain were silver and gold. Colonists could export raw materials only to Spain and could buy only Spanish manufactured goods. Laws forbade colonists from trading with other European nations or even with other Spanish colonies. When sugar cane was introduced into the West Indies and elsewhere, it quickly became a profitable resource. The cane was refined into sugar, molasses, and rum. Sugar cane, however, had to be grown on plantations, large estates run by an owner or the owner's overseer. And plantations needed large numbers of workers to be profitable.

Educational Opportunities

To meet the Church's need for educated priests, the colonies built universities. The University of Mexico was established as early as 1551. A dozen Spanish American universities were already educating young men long before Harvard was founded in 1636 as the first college in the 13 English colonies. Women desiring an education might enter a convent. One such woman was Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (sawr hwan uh ee nes deh lah krooz). Refused admission to the University of Mexico because she was female, Juana entered a convent at around the age of 18. There, she devoted herself to study and the writing of poetry. She earned a reputation as one of the greatest poets ever to write in the Spanish language.

The Value of Colonies

To mercantilists, overseas colonies existed for the benefit of the parent country. They provided resources and raw materials not available in Europe. In turn, they enriched a parent country by serving as a market for its manufactured goods. To achieve these goals, European powers passed strict laws regulating trade with their colonies. Colonists could not set up their own industries to manufacture goods. They were also forbidden from buying goods from a foreign country. In addition, only ships from the parent country or the colonies themselves could be used to send goods into or out of the colonies.

Merchants, Industries, and Cities Thrive

Triangular trade was immensely profitable for many people. Merchants grew wealthy. Even though there were risks such as losing ships at sea, the money to be made from valuable cargoes usually outweighed the risks. Certain industries that supported trade thrived. For example, a shipbuilding industry in New England grew to support the shipping industry. Other colonial industries, such as fishing, raising tobacco, and processing sugar, became hugely successful. Thriving trade led to successful port cities. European cities such as Nantes, France, and Bristol, England, grew prosperous because of triangular trade. In North America, even newly settled towns such as Salem, Massachusetts, and Newport, Rhode Island, quickly grew into thriving cities. Even though few slaves were imported directly to northern cities in North America, the success of the port cities there was made possible by the Atlantic slave trade.

Lesson 4: European Colonies in North America

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Peons

a worker forced to labor for a landlord to pay off a debt that is impossible to pay off in his or her lifetime, which is incurred by food, tool, or seeds the landlord has advanced to him or her

As Europeans struggled for power in North America, Native Americans dealt with them by A. trading Native American gold for colonists' weapons. B. selling land claims and receiving permanent rights to live on the land. C. joining the conflict and playing the Europeans against one another. D. moving north to avoid the conflict.

joining the conflict and playing the Europeans against one another.

Asante kingdom

kingdom that emerged in the 1700s in present-day Ghana and was active in the slave trade

Mutinies

revolts Suicide was more common

Which two events were most directly responsible for major population migrations in the 1700s? A. the African slave trade and potato famine B. the Commercial Revolution and Atlantic slave trade C. the Commercial Revolution and price revolution D. the Columbian Exchange and Atlantic slave trade

the Columbian Exchange and Atlantic slave trade

Commercial Revolution

the expansion of the trade and buisness that transformed European economies during the 16th and 17th centuries.

According to mercantilists, what was the purpose of colonies? A. to export manufactured goods to parent countries B. to import luxuries from parent countries at discounted prices C. to provide inexpensive resources and raw materials to parent countries D. to reduce competition and tariffs

to provide inexpensive resources and raw materials to parent countries

Ósei Tutu

won control of the trading city of Kumasi. From there, he conquered neighboring peoples and unified the Asante kingdom. The Asante faced a great challenge in the Denkyera, a powerful neighboring enemy kingdom. Osei Tutu realized that in order to withstand the Denkyera, the people of his kingdom needed to be firmly united. To do this, he claimed that his right to rule came from heaven, and that people in the kingdom were linked by spiritual bonds. This strategy paid off when the Asante defeated the Denkyera in the late 1600s. Under Osei Tutu, government officials, chosen by merit rather than by birth, supervised an efficient bureaucracy. They managed the royal monopolies on gold mining and the slave trade. A monopoly is the exclusive control of a business or industry. The Asante traded with Europeans on the coast, exchanging gold and slaves for firearms. They also played rival Europeans against one another to protect themselves. In this way, they built a wealthy, powerful state.

Which was an effect of Spain's regulation of trade in its American colonies? A. Colonists could only trade with other Spanish colonies. B. Colonists could export raw materials only to Spain. C. Colonists could trade silver with other European nations. D. Colonists could not buy Spanish manufactured goods.

Colonists could export raw materials only to Spain.

Royal Power and Economic Growth

In the late 1600s, the French king Louis XIV set out to strengthen royal power and boost revenues, or income, from taxes from his overseas empire. He appointed officials to oversee economic activities in New France.

Which of the following was an effect of the Columbian Exchange on population? A. Millions of people moved to the Americas. B. Exchanges of food plants decreased populations in various regions. C. Some populations thrived as they developed resistance to new diseases. D. Millions of people moved to Europe.

Millions of people moved to the Americas

Causes of European Exploration

Starting in the 1400s, Europeans undertook a flurry of exploration, mapping new sea routes around the world. This great age of exploration was fueled by many causes, but at first, the most important cause was the search for spices.

What did the British East India Company do to dominate most of India? A. used alliances, armies, and its wealth to weaken the Mughal empire B. encouraged Mughal emperors to make destructive political decisions C. partnered with the French to exclude Mughal goods from Europe D. used diplomacy to unite Hindus and Muslims

Used alliances, armies, and its wealth to weaken the Mughal empire

Free enterprise system

an economic system characterized by private or corporate ownership of capital goods

How did England become the dominant power in North America? A. by paying mercenaries and privateers to fight the Indians B. by winning a global war against France C. by staying neutral in the French and Indian War D. by buying Canada and Florida from Spain

by winning a global war against France

Price revolution

period in European history when inflation rose rapidly

Privateers

private ships hired by a country to attack its enemies

What was the encomienda system? A. a system in which the Spanish monarchs granted the conquistadors the right to demand labor from Native Americans B. a system in which the Spanish settlers granted the conquistadors the right to demand labor from Native Americans C. a system in which Spanish monarchs shared with Native Americans the right to demand labor from peons and Africans D. a system in which the Spanish conquistadors granted Native Americans the right to demand labor from peons

system in which the Spanish monarchs granted the conquistadors the right to demand labor from Native Americans

The Pilgrims created the Mayflower Compact because A. they needed to establish their religious beliefs before landing. B. they wanted to set some guidelines for governing their colony. C. they wanted to make sure all men and women had the right to vote. D. there were royal officials onboard who required a constitution.

they wanted to set some guidelines for governing their colony.

Treaty of Tordesillas

treaty signed between Spain and Portugal in 1494, which divided the non-European world between them

When the Spanish first encountered Native Americans, they A. unknowingly exposed them to new diseases. B. initiated a civil war among Native American groups. C. established a treaty to maintain peace. D. set up trade colonies.

unknowingly exposed them to new diseases.

Inflation

A general and progressive increase in prices

Missionary

A person who spreads his or her religious beliefs to others

Triangular Trade

A three way system of trade during 1600-1800s Africa sent slaves to America, America sent Raw Materials to Europe, and Europe sent Guns and Rum to Africa

African Resistance

As the slave trade grew, some African leaders tried to slow it down or even stop it altogether. They used different forms of resistance, but in the end, the system that supported the trade was too strong for them to resist. An early critic of the slave trade was Afonso I, ruler of Kongo in west-central Africa. As a young man, Afonso had been tutored by Portuguese missionaries, who baptized him to Christianity. Impressed by his early contacts with the Portuguese, Afonso hoped to build a Christian state in Kongo. After becoming king in 1505, he called on Portuguese missionaries, teachers, and technical experts to help him develop Kongo and increase his own power. He sent his sons to Portugal to be educated in Christian ways.

Which was a major impact of Spanish colonization of the Americas? A. It gave Spain absolute control over all of South America. B. The cost of maintaining overseas colonies quickly drained the Spanish treasury. C. All traces of Native American culture were wiped out in the Americas. D. For the first time, sea routes connected much of the world.

For the first time, sea routes connected much of the world.

Samuel de Champlain

French explorer in Nova Scotia who established a settlement on the site of modern Quebec (1567-1635)

Impact of the Slave Trade

Historians continue to debate how many Africans were carried to the Americas during the Atlantic slave trade. Some historians estimate that about 2,000 Africans were sent to the Americas each year during the 1500s. In the 1780s, when the slave trade reached its peak, that number approached 80,000 a year. By the mid-1800s, when the overseas slave trade was finally ended, an estimated 11 million enslaved Africans had been forcibly carried to the Americas. Another 2 million probably died under the brutal conditions of the Middle Passage. The slave trade brought great profits to many and provided the labor needed by colonial economies. Yet the slave trade had a devastating impact on African societies. Millions of people in Africa were brutalized by the slave trade and slavery itself. Many others died during the horrific Middle Passage.

Creoles

In colonial Spanish America, term used to describe someone of European descent born in the New World. Elsewhere in the Americas, the term is used to describe all nonnative peoples.

European Traders Enter the Slave Trade

In the 1400s and early 1500s, the Portuguese and other Europeans brought a few Africans back to Europe as slaves. There, Africans were seen as exotic servants of the rich. As European colonies in the Americas grew, however, Europeans turned to slave laborers to clear plantations, or the large estates run by an owner or an owner's overseer. Europeans lacked the resources to travel inland to seize slaves. Instead, they relied on local African rulers and traders to bring captives—usually from other African nations—to coastal trading posts. There, the traders exchanged captured Africans for weapons, gunpowder, textiles, iron, and other goods. In the 1500s, the slave trade was relatively small. Over the next 300 years, however, it grew into a huge, profitable business.

Which of the following was a problem that limited the growth of New France? A. Louis XIV did not support the growth of New France. B. Long, harsh Canadian winters made farming difficult. C. French explorers were unable to find inland water routes in North America. D. Native Americans taught the French how to harvest cod for export.

Long, harsh Canadian winters made farming difficult

Which statement describes a characteristic of the free enterprise system of capitalism that expanded in Europe in the 1500s? A. Most businesses were owned and regulated by governments. B. Most businesses were privately operated by risk-taking entrepreneurs. C. Most businesses had to follow the rules established by churches and town guilds. D. Most businesses were freed from burdensome bank loans with interest.

Most businesses were privately operated by risk-taking entrepreneurs.

Olaudah Equaino

Olaudah Equiano was captured in West Africa when he was a boy of 11, sold into slavery, and transported to the Americas. Later, he found paying work and earned enough money to buy his freedom. In 1789, he wrote his autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano. He died in London in 1797.

Turmoil and Decline

Over time, the Mughal empire weakened Later rulers ended an earlier policy of religious toleration, rekindling conflicts between Hindu and Muslim princes Civil war drained Mughal resources Rulers then increased taxes, sparking present rebellions Several weak rulers held the throne in the early 1700s Corruption became widespread and the central government slowly faded

The Impact of Colonization

Spanish exploration, colonization, and expansion had a long-lasting impact on Native Americans, Europeans, and others beyond these two groups. By establishing an empire in the Americas, Spain dramatically changed the pattern of global encounter first set in motion by European exploration of Africa's coasts. For the first time, much of the world was now connected by sea routes, on which traveled ships carrying goods, people, and ideas.

Tariffs

Taxes on imported goods

The Colombian Exchange

The European voyages of exploration in the 1500s and 1600s set off a chain of events that brought major changes to the world. Over the next centuries, European exploration and expansion overseas affected people from Asia, Africa, and the Americas to Europe itself.

A Commercial Revolution

The opening of direct links with Asia, Africa, and the Americas had far-reaching economic consequences for Europeans and their colonies. Europe underwent a period of economic growth and change known as the Commercial Revolution, which spurred the growth of modern capitalism, banking, and investing. A rise in prices that is linked to a sharp increase in the amount of money available is called inflation. The period in European history when inflation rose rapidly is known as the price revolution. Inflation was fueled by the enormous amount of silver and gold flowing into Europe from the Americas by the mid-1500s. When prices began to rise, output also increased.

Horrors of the Middle Passage

To merchants, the Middle Passage was just one leg of triangular trade For enslaved Africans, the Middle Passage was a horror

A Global Exchange

When Columbus returned to Spain in March 1493, he brought with him plants and animals that he had found in the Americas. Later that year, Columbus returned to the Americas with some 1,200 settlers and a collection of European animals and plants. In this way, Columbus began a vast global exchange that would profoundly affect the world. Because this exchange began with Columbus, we call it the Columbian Exchange.

New France

French colony in North America, with a capital in Quebec, founded 1608. New France fell to the British in 1763.

Jacques Cartier

French explorer who explored the St. Lawrence river and laid claim to the region for France (1491-1557)

Which describes the main reason why European powers expanded their presence in Africa? A. to expand their trade in Africa, the Indian Ocean, and India B. to make agreements with African leaders to work and trade together with Arab traders C. to explore African rivers and learn about African plants and animals D. to cooperate with other European powers to spread Christianity throughout Africa

To expand trade in Africa

Lesson 6: Effects of Global Contract

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Lesson 5: The Slave Trade

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Line of Demarcation

line set by the Treaty of Tordesillas dividing the non-European world into two zones, one controlled by Spain and the other by Portugal

What strategy did the Portuguese use most successfully in building a trading empire in South and Southeast Asia? A. alliances with other European countries B. military force against some Asian peoples; diplomatic relations with others C. invasions deep into Asian lands; then divide and conquer D. an alliance with China to drive out rival Europeans

military force against some Asian peoples; diplomatic relations with others

The colonies of New France expanded into a vast territory, but grew slowly due to A. France's focus on receiving revenues from imported goods and taxes. B. the difficulty in maneuvering through the dense wilderness along the east coast. C. the difficulty in farming in the Canadian climate. D. England's obstruction of French trade routes along the Mississippi River.

the difficulty in maneuvering through the dense wilderness along the east coast.

Cape Town

the first permanent European settlement in Africa, established by the Dutch in 1652

Limited Self-Government

Like the rulers of Spain and France, English monarchs asserted control over their American colonies. They appointed royal governors to oversee colonial affairs and had Parliament pass laws to regulate colonial trade. Yet, compared with settlers in the Spanish and French colonies, English colonists enjoyed a large degree of self-government. Each colony had its own representative assembly, elected by men who owned property, that advised the governor and made decisions on local issues.

How did Portugal and other European nations challenge Spanish power? A. Portugal colonized Brazil, and other nations backed privateers and explorers. B. France colonized Brazil, and Portugal and others invaded Peru and New Spain. C. Netherlands captured the Philippines, and Portugal and others backed privateers. D. Portugal attacked Spain's colonies, and other nations aided the Spanish.

Portugal colonized Brazil, and other nations backed privateers and explorers.

Portugal Builds an Empire in Asia

Portugal was the first European power to gain a foothold in Asia. The Portuguese ships were small in size and number, but the firepower of their shipboard cannons was unmatched. In time, this superior firepower helped them win control of the rich Indian Ocean spice trade and build a trading empire in Asia.

Which of the following statements is TRUE? A. The slave trade devastated all the African states on Africa's Atlantic coast. B. The slave trade harmed some African states, but benefited other African states. C. European traders introduced the slave trade to Africa. D. The Asante kingdom used its growing power to end the slave trade in West Africa.

The slave trade harmed some African states, but benefited other African states

Which of the following is TRUE about England's American colonies? A. They had some power to govern themselves. B. They were free from English royal authority. C. They had a poor economy with few resources. D. They abolished slavery and guaranteed rights.

They had some power to govern themselves.

Bartolome de Las Casas

Dominican priest who spoke out against mistreatment of Native Americans

Outpost

A distant military station or a remote settlement

A Blending of Cultures

Although Spanish culture was dominant in the cities, the blending of diverse traditions changed people's lives throughout the Americas. Settlers learned Native American styles of building, ate foods native to the Americas, and traveled in Indian-style canoes. Indian artistic styles influenced the newcomers. At the same time, Europeans taught their religion to Native Americans. They also introduced animals, especially the horse, thereby transforming the lives of many Native Americans. Africans contributed to this cultural mix with their farming methods, cooking styles, and crops. African drama, dance, and song heightened Christian services. In Cuba, Haiti, and elsewhere, Africans forged new religions that blended African and Christian beliefs.

Cortes Arrives in Mexico

Among the earliest conquistadors was Hernán Cortés. Cortés, a landowner in Cuba, heard of Spanish expeditions that had been repelled by Indians. He believed that he could succeed where none had before. In 1519, he landed on the coast of Mexico with about 600 men, 16 horses, and a few cannons. He began an inland trek toward Tenochtitlán (teh nawch tee tlahn), the capital of the Aztec empire. A young Indian woman named Malinche (mah leen chay), called Doña Marina by the Spanish, served as his translator and advisor. Malinche knew both the Maya and Aztec languages, and she learned Spanish quickly. Malinche told Cortés that the Aztecs had gained power by conquering other groups of people. The Aztecs sacrificed thousands of their captives to the Aztec gods each year. Many conquered peoples hated their Aztec overlords, so Malinche helped Cortés arrange alliances with them. They agreed to help Cortés fight the Aztecs.

Conquistadors

Early-sixteenth-century Spanish adventurers who conquered Mexico, Central America, and Peru. (Examples Cortez, Pizarro, Francisco.)

Malacca

Flourishing trading city in Malaya; established a trading empire after the fall of Shrivijaya.

What was an effect of the movement of foods like corn and potatoes from the Western Hemisphere to the Eastern Hemisphere? A. Foods from the Americas contributed to population growth around the world. B. Foods from the Americas contributed to a rise in food prices around the world. C. Foods from Europe did not grow well in the Old World and famine resulted. D. Foods from the Americas became widely grown in Africa.

Foods from the Americas contributed to population growth around the world.

Europeans Trade in Mughal India

For two centuries, the Mughal empire had enjoyed a period of peace, strength, and prosperity European merchants were dazzled by India's splendid Mughal court and its many luxury goods

The Asante Kingdom

In some parts of Africa, the slave trade had little or no impact. In other areas, it disrupted whole societies. The slave trade triggered wars, increased tensions among neighboring peoples, and led to the rise of strong new states. The rulers of these states battled rivals for control of the slave trade. The Asante kingdom (uh sahn teh) emerged in the area occupied by present-day Ghana. In the late 1600s, an able military leader, Osei Tutu, won control of the trading city of Kumasi. From there, he conquered neighboring peoples and unified the Asante kingdom. The Asante faced a great challenge in the Denkyera, a powerful neighboring enemy kingdom. Osei Tutu realized that in order to withstand the Denkyera, the people of his kingdom needed to be firmly united. To do this, he claimed that his right to rule came from heaven, and that people in the kingdom were linked by spiritual bonds. This strategy paid off when the Asante defeated the Denkyera in the late 1600s.

The Atlantic Slave Trade

In the 1750s, a young 11-year-old boy named Olaudah Equiano was seized from his Nigerian village by slave traders. He was then transported as human cargo from West Africa to the Americas. Enslaved Africans like Olaudah Equiano formed part of an international trade network that arose during the 1500s. The Spanish were the first major European partners in the slave trade, buying slaves to labor in Spain's South American empire.

Which of the following conclusions about the slave trade is most valid based on the historical record? A. It affected millions of Africans. B. It prevented Brazil from becoming a prosperous country. C. It caused Europeans to establish colonies in the Americas. D. It caused Africans to unite and support the abolition of slavery.

It affected millions of Africans

How did Balboa's discovery affect European exploration? A. It encouraged explorers to seek a direct sea route to the Pacific and the East Indies. B. It challenged explorers to find a shorter route past the Cape of Good Hope to India. C. It allowed explorers to form alliances with Native American groups in the Caribbean. D. It discouraged explorers from searching for a northwest passage to the East Indies.

It encouraged explorers to seek a direct sea route to the Pacific and the East Indies

Why were the results of Columbus's first meeting with Native Americans in the West Indies important? A. It had a sudden, short-term effect on European expansion. B. It had a serious, far-reaching impact on Native Americans. C. It had a major but gradual effect on Portuguese colonization. D. It had an unexpected, long-lasting impact on trade with Africa.

It had a serious, far-reaching impact on Native Americans.

Which of the following was the leading cause of the high death rate of enslaved Africans during the Middle Passage? A. The crews of the slave ships murdered large numbers of the enslaved people. B. Many of the enslaved people died from dysentery, smallpox, and other diseases. C. Some enslaved Africans rebelled and were killed; many others committed suicide. D. The slave traders' ships often sank in the stormy waters of the Atlantic Ocean.

Many of the enslaved people died from dysentery, smallpox, and other diseases.

What was one of the impacts of Spanish colonization on Native Americans? A. Tens of thousands of Native Americans died from disease, war, and forced labor. B. Native Americans lost most parts of their culture. C. The Maya and the Incas, realizing victory was impossible, surrendered and never again fought against the Spanish. D. Native American culture became the dominant aspect of Latin American culture.

Tens of thousands of Native Americans died from disease, war, and forced labor.

Why did the Mughal emperor recognize the right of the British East India Company to collect taxes in northeastern India? A. The emperor decided that only the British could effectively collect these taxes. B. The French and Dutch East Companies made the weak emperor grant this right. C. The British East India Company forced the weak emperor to accept this right. D. The emperor was secretly plotting with the Dutch to attack the British.

The British East India Company forced the weak emperor to accept this right.

The Oyó Empire

The Oyo empire arose from successive waves of settlement by the Yoruba people of present-day Nigeria. It began as a relatively small forest kingdom. Beginning in the late 1600s, however, its leaders used wealth from the slave trade to build up an impressive army. The Oyo empire used the army to conquer the neighboring kingdom of Dahomey. At the same time, it continued to gain wealth by trading with European merchants at the port city of Porto-Novo.

Native American Suffering and Resistance

The conquest of the Americas brought suffering and death to many Native American peoples. Although many converted to Christianity and adopted some Spanish ways, others resisted Spanish rule for centuries. For centuries, the Maya fought Spanish rule in Mexico and Central America. Long after the death of Atahualpa, revolts erupted among the Incas. Resistance did not always take the form of military action. Throughout the Americas, Native Americans resisted Europeans by preserving their own cultures, languages, religious traditions, and skills, such as weaving and pottery. As you will read later, European exploration and colonization had tremendous global impact even beyond the Americas by connecting people, goods, and ideas around the world.

revenues

The financial resources of the government. The individual income tax and Social Security tax are two major sources of the federal government's revenue.

New France Grows Slowly

The population of New France grew slowly. The first permanent French settlement was not established until 1608, when Samuel de Champlain established a colony in Quebec. Wealthy landlords bought huge tracts, or areas of land, along the St. Lawrence River. They sought settlers to farm the land, but the harsh Canadian climate, with its long winters, attracted few French peasants. Many who went to New France soon abandoned farming in favor of the more profitable fur trapping and trading. They faced a hard life in the wilderness, but the soaring European demand for fur ensured good prices. Fishing was another industry that supported settlers, who exported cod and other fish to Europe.

Forced March to the Ships

The terrible journey began before the slave ships set sail. Most Africans were taken from inland villages. After they were enslaved, they were forced to march to coastal ports. Men, women, and children were bound with ropes and chains, often to one another, and forced to walk distances as long as a thousand miles. They might be forced to carry heavy loads, and often the men's necks were encircled with thick iron bands. Many captives died along the way. Others tried to escape, and were often quickly recaptured and brutally punished.

Population Growth

The transfer of food crops from continent to continent took time. By the 1700s, however, corn, potatoes, manioc, beans, and tomatoes were contributing to population growth around the world. While other factors help account for the population explosion that began at this time, the dispersal of new food crops from the Americas was certainly a key cause.

Pizarro Triumphs

Despite continuing resistance, Pizarro and his followers overran the Incan heartland. He had superior weapons, and the Incan people were weakened by European diseases. From Peru, Spanish forces surged across what are today Ecuador and Chile. Before long, Spain had added much of South America to its growing empire. Pizarro himself was killed by a rival Spanish faction a few years after he established the city of Lima.

Which factors aided the Spanish conquest of the Incas? A. Peruvian geography and continuing famine B. Inca poverty and disunity C. European weapons and Indian allies D. Larger number of soldiers and guns in Spain's army and Atahualpa's ransom and conversion to Christianity

European weapons and Indian allies

European Expansion in Africa

Following the Portuguese and Spanish examples, several other European powers sought to expand their trade networks. By the 1600s, the French, English, and Dutch all had footholds along the coast of West Africa. These outposts often changed hands as European countries battled for control of the new trade routes. Like the Portuguese, they used these footholds to protect and expand their trade routes in Africa, the Indian Ocean, and India.

Dutch East India Company

a trading company established with full sovereign powers by the Netherlands in 1602 to protect and expand its trade in Asia

First Encounters

In 1492, Columbus landed in the islands that are now called the West Indies. In later voyages, he claimed all the lands he visited for Spain. Columbus's voyages set Spain on a course of exploration and colonization in the Americas. Before long, Spain conquered and ruled a vast empire that included the West Indies, much of South America, Central America, Mexico, and other parts of North America. The Spanish conquests transformed the Americas and would have a huge impact on Europe, and even on distant lands in Asia.

Beyond Africa:Reaching India

In 1497, Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama followed in Dias's footsteps, leading four ships around the Cape of Good Hope. Da Gama, however, had plans to go farther. After a ten-month voyage, da Gama reached the great spice port of Calicut on the west coast of India. On the long voyage home, the Portuguese lost half their ships, and many sailors died of hunger, thirst, and scurvy, a disease caused by a lack of vitamin C in the diet. Despite the suffering, the venture proved highly profitable to survivors. In India, da Gama had acquired a cargo of spices that he sold at an enormous profit. He quickly outfitted a new fleet, seeking greater profits. In 1502, he forced a treaty on the ruler of Calicut. Da Gama then left Portuguese merchants there whose job was to buy spices when prices were low and store them until the next fleet could return. Before long, the Portuguese began seizing other outposts around the Indian Ocean, building a vast trading empire and making Portugal a world power.

Dutch Sea Power

In 1599, a Dutch fleet returned to Amsterdam from Asia carrying a rich cargo of pepper, cloves, and other spices. This successful voyage led to a frenzy of overseas activity. Dutch warships and trading vessels soon made the Dutch leaders in European commerce. They used their sea power to set up colonies and trading posts around the world, including a strategic settlement at Cape Town.

A Spanish Priest Condemns the Abuses

A few bold priests, like Bartolomé de Las Casas (bahr toh loh may deh lahs kahs ahs), condemned the evils of the encomienda system. In vivid reports to Spain, Las Casas detailed the horrors that Spanish rule had brought to Native Americans and pleaded with the king to end the abuse. Prodded by Las Casas, Spain passed the New Laws of the Indies in 1542. The laws forbade enslavement and abuse of Native Americans, but Spain was too far away to enforce them. Many Native Americans were forced to become peons, workers forced to labor for a landlord in order to pay off a debt. Landlords advanced them food, tools, or seeds, creating debts that workers could never pay off in their lifetime.

Afronto de Albuquerque

Afonso de Albuquerque (1453-1515) was a Portuguese admiral who helped found Portugal's trade empire in the East. He captured and built strategic forts at Goa, Calicut, Malacca, and Hormoz; reconstructed other forts; set up shipbuilding and other Portuguese industries in India; and built churches.

Albuquerque in India

After Vasco da Gama's voyage, the Portuguese, under Afonso de Albuquerque's command, burst into the Indian Ocean. By that time, Muslim rulers, originally from central Asia, had established the Mughal empire throughout much of India. The southern regions of India, however, were still controlled by a patchwork of local princes. The Portuguese won these princes to their side with promises of aid against other Europeans. With these southern footholds, Albuquerque and the Portuguese hoped to end Muslim power and turn the Indian Ocean into a "Portuguese lake."

Naming the Western Hemisphere

An Italian sea captain named Amerigo Vespucci wrote a journal describing his voyage to Brazil. In 1507, a German cartographer named Martin Waldseemüller used Vespucci's descriptions of his voyage to publish a map of the region, which he labeled "America." Over time, the term "Americas" came to be used for both continents of the Western Hemisphere. The islands Columbus had explored in the Caribbean became known as the West Indies.

The British and French Explore

By the mid-1600s, the British and French had both reached present-day Senegal. The French established a fort in the region around 1700. In the late 1700s, stories about British explorers' search for the source of the Nile River sparked an interest in Africa among Europeans, especially the French and British. In 1788, the British established the African Association, an organization that sponsored explorers to Africa. Over the next century, European exploration of Africa would explode.

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish explorer who conquered the Incas in what is now Peru and founded the city of Lima (1475-1541).

Christoper Columbus

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was an Italian explorer and navigator who went on Mediterranean and Africa expeditions, thought up a plan to sail west to reach India and China, and found support from the Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella. In 1492, he sailed west from Spain and reached the Caribbean Islands, which he mistakenly thought were the Indies of Asia. He made other voyages, but strained relations with the Spanish royal officials led to his arrest and dismissal as governor of the settlements on the island of Hispaniola.

Limits Impact

Despite their sea power, the Portuguese remained on the fringe of Asian trade. They had neither the strength nor the resources to conquer much territory on land. In India and China, where they faced far stronger empires, they merely sought permission to trade. The intolerance of Portuguese missionaries caused resentment. In Goa, they attacked Muslims, destroyed Hindu temples, and introduced the Inquisition. Portuguese ships even sank Muslim pilgrim ships on their way to Mecca. While the Portuguese disrupted some older trade patterns, exchanges continued among the peoples of Asia. Some bypassed Portuguese-controlled towns. Others traded with the newcomers. In the late 1500s, Portuguese power declined overseas. By the early 1600s, other Europeans were vying to replace the Portuguese in the rich spice trade.

Portuguese explorers created a trading empire by A. negotiating agreements with local leaders. B. discovering new inland trading opportunities. C. discovering a sea route around Africa to India. D. marrying local women and building settlements.

Discovering a sea route around Africa to India

Boers

Dutch farmers who settled in Cape Town, Africa, and eventually migrated inland

Trade with Ming China

European interest in China and other parts of East Asia continued to grow. The Ming, however, had no interest in Europe—since, as a Ming document proclaimed, "Our empire owns the world." The Portuguese wanted Chinese silks and porcelains, but had little to offer in exchange. European textiles and metalwork were inferior to Chinese products. The Chinese therefore demanded payment in gold or silver. The Ming eventually allowed the Portuguese a trading post at Macao near Canton, present-day Guangzhou (gwahng joh). Later, they let the Dutch, English, and other Europeans trade with Chinese merchants. Foreigners could trade only at Canton under the supervision of imperial officials. When each year's trading season ended, they had to sail away.

The control of most trade between Asia and Europe in the 1400s by Arab and Italian merchants caused A. disruption in trade of luxury goods brought overland to Europe. B. Europeans outside Italy to search for direct access to Asia. C. Renaissance curiosity to spark a major religious revival in Europe. D. Europeans outside Italy to seek direct access to North Africa.

Europeans outside Italy to search for direct access to Asia.

Mughal empire

Muslim empire that ruled most of northern India from the mid-1500s to the mid-1700s; also known as the Mogul empire

Reaching Faraway Lands

Portugal refused to sponsor him, but Columbus persuaded Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain to finance his voyage. To increase their authority, the Spanish rulers had taken radical measures, including expelling Jews from Spain. They hoped their actions would strengthen Catholicism. However, the loss of some of Spain's most affluent and cultured people weakened the nation. The rulers hoped Columbus's voyage would bring wealth and prestige. On August 3, 1492, Columbus sailed west with three small ships, the Niña, the Pinta, and the Santa María. Although the expedition encountered good weather and a favorable wind, no land came into sight for many weeks. Provisions ran low, and the crew became anxious. Finally, on October 12, land was spotted. Columbus spent several months cruising the islands of the Caribbean. Because he thought he had reached the Indies, he called the people of the region "Indians." In 1493, he returned to Spain to a hero's welcome. In three later voyages, Columbus remained convinced that he had reached the coast of east Asia. Before long, though, other Europeans realized that Columbus had found a route to previously unknown continents.

Spain and Portugal Divide Up the World

Spain and Portugal each pressed rival claims to the islands Columbus explored. With the support of the pope, the two countries agreed to settle their claims and signed the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. It set a Line of Demarcation, dividing the non-European world into two zones. Spain had trading and exploration rights in any lands west of the line, including most of the Americas. Portugal had the same rights east of the line. The actual Line of Demarcation was unclear because geography at the time was not precise. However, the treaty allowed Spain and Portugal to claim vast areas in their zones. It also spurred other European nations to challenge Spanish and Portuguese claims and build their own trade empires.

Royal Officials Rule the Provinces

Spain was determined to maintain strict control over its empire. To achieve this goal, the king set up the Council of the Indies to pass laws for the colonies. He also appointed viceroys, or representatives who ruled in his name, in each province. Lesser officials and audiencias (ow dee en see ahs), or advisory councils of Spanish settlers, helped the viceroy rule. The Council of the Indies in Spain closely monitored these colonial officials to make sure they did not assume too much authority.

Hernán Cortés

Spanish explorer and conquistador who led the conquest of Aztec Mexico in 1519-1521 for Spain.

Governing the Spanish Empire

Spanish settlers and missionaries followed the conquistadors to the Americas. In time, the huge Spanish empire stretched from California in the north to Argentina in the south. Spain divided these lands into four provinces, including New Spain (Mexico) and Peru. Spain imposed its culture, language, religion, and way of life on millions of new subjects in its empire. The Spanish built new Spanish-style cities on top of the ruins of Native American cities. "Christianizing" Native Americans, however, turned out to be more complex. In the end, though, Spain imposed its will by force.

Missionaries Spread Christianity

To Spain, winning souls for Christianity was as important as gaining land. The Catholic Church worked with the government to convert Native Americans to Christianity. Church leaders often served as royal officials and helped to regulate the activities of Spanish settlers. As Spain's American empire expanded, Church authority expanded along with it. Franciscans, Jesuits, and other missionaries baptized thousands of Native Americans. They built mission churches and worked to turn new converts into loyal subjects of the Catholic king of Spain. They also introduced European clothing, the Spanish language, and new crafts such as carpentry and locksmithing. Where they could, the Spanish missionaries forcibly imposed European culture over Native American culture.

Spain Captures the Philippines

While the Portuguese and Dutch set up bases on the fringes of Asia, Spain took over the Philippines. Magellan had claimed the archipelago for Spain in 1521. Within about 50 years, Spain had conquered and colonized the islands, renaming them for the Spanish king Philip II. Unlike most other peoples of Southeast Asia, the Filipinos were not united. As a result, they could be conquered more easily. In the spirit of the Catholic Reformation, Spanish priests set out to convert the Filipino people to Christianity. Later, missionaries from the Philippines tried to spread Catholic teachings in China and Japan.

British-French Rivalry in India

As Mughal power faltered, French and English traders fought for power. Like the Dutch, entrepreneurs in England and France had set up the English and French East India companies. These companies made alliances with local officials and independent rajahs, or princely rulers. Each company organized its own army of sepoys, or Indian troops. By the mid-1700s, the British and the French had become locked in a bitter struggle for global power. The fighting involved both nations' lands in Asia and the Americas. In India, the British East India Company used an army of British troops and sepoys to drive out the French. The company then forced the Mughal emperor to recognize its right to collect taxes in the northeast. By the late 1700s, it had used its great wealth to dominate most of India.

How did Balboa's search for a direct route to Asia differ from Magellan's voyage? A. Balboa reached the Caribbean; Magellan first saw the Pacific. B. Balboa found Cuba; Magellan sought a "northwest passage." C. Balboa crossed Panama; Magellan sailed around the world. D. Balboa found the Spice Islands; Magellan was shipwrecked.

Balboa crossed Panama; Magellan sailed around the world.

The Inca Empire and Beyond

Cortés's success inspired other adventurers. Among them was Spaniard Francisco Pizarro (pee sahr oh). Pizarro had heard rumors about a fabulously rich empire in Peru, with even more gold than the Aztecs. Pizarro arrived in Peru in 1532, just after the Incan ruler Atahualpa (ah tah wahl puh) had won the throne from his brother in a bloody civil war. A civil war is fought between groups of people in the same nation. The war had weakened the Incas, and they had also begun to be affected by European diseases. In the end, however, it was trickery that helped Pizarro defeat the Incas.

Improved Technology

Improvements in technology helped Europeans cross vast oceans. Cartographers, or mapmakers, created more accurate maps and sea charts. European sailors also learned how to use the astrolabe, an instrument used to determine latitude at sea. The astrolabe was first developed by the ancient Greeks and later perfected by the Arabs. Along with more reliable navigational tools, Europeans designed larger and better ships. The Portuguese developed the caravel, which combined the square sails of European ships with Arab lateen, or triangular, sails. Caravels also adapted the sternpost rudder and numerous masts of Chinese ships. The new rigging made it easier to sail across, or even into, the wind. Finally, European ships added more armaments, including sturdier cannons.

Goa

Indian city developed by the Portuguese as a major Indian Ocean base ; developed an important Indo-European population. Coastal city seized in 1510 that became the commercial and military base of Portugal's India trade

Lesson 3: European Conquests in the Americas

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

The African Coast Mapped

Prince Henry saw great promise in Africa. The Portuguese could convert Africans—most of whom practiced either Islam or native religions—to Christianity. He also believed that in Africa he would find the sources of the gold Muslim traders controlled. Finally, Prince Henry hoped to find an easier way to reach Asia that bypassed the Mediterranean, which meant going around Africa. The Portuguese felt that with their expert knowledge and technology, they could accomplish this feat. At Sagres, in southern Portugal, Henry gathered scientists, cartographers, or mapmakers, and other experts. They redesigned ships, prepared maps, and trained captains and crews for long voyages. Henry then sent ships that slowly worked their way south to explore the coast of West Africa. Henry died in 1460, but the Portuguese continued their quest. Despite the turbulent seas around it, the tip became known as the Cape of Good Hope because it opened the way for a trade route through the Indian Ocean to Asia. The Portuguese continued to establish forts and trading posts, but they also attacked East African coastal cities such as Mombasa and Malindi, which were hubs of international trade. With cannons blazing, they expelled the Arabs who controlled the East African trade network and took over this thriving commerce for themselves. Each conquest added to their growing trade empire. Over the next two centuries, some Portuguese explorers managed to reach parts of present-day Congo, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, establishing limited trade. In general, however, the Portuguese did not venture far from Africa's coasts. They knew little about the interior of Africa, and they lacked accurate maps or other resources to help them explore there. Furthermore, Africans in the interior, who wanted to control the gold trade, resisted such exploration.

Rise of the Dutch and the Spanish

The Dutch were the first Europeans to challenge Portuguese domination of Asian trade. Their homeland (in the present-day Netherlands) was a group of provinces and prosperous trading cities which fell under Spanish rule in the early 1500s. Later, the Protestant northern provinces won independence and soon competed against Portugal to control the rich spice trade of the Indies.

Why did the Portuguese think that they could find an easier way to reach Asia? A. They had alliances with European nations to send out expeditions. B. They had a large country and a long tradition of Asian exploration. C. They had a large fleet and had defeated Spain in recent sea battles. D. They had expert knowledge and advanced navigational technology.

They had expert knowledge and advanced navigational technology.

Which was a major cause of European exploration? A. the need to reduce Europe's population B. a desire for direct access to spices C. a desire for better fishing grounds D. the need to limit the growth of Arab empires

desire for direct access to spices

Mombasa

established East African coastal city and hub of international trade, attacked in the 1400s by Portuguese explorers to expel the Arabs who controlled East African trade routes, so they could take over those routes for themselves

Malindi

existing East African coastal city and hub of international trade, attacked in the 1400s by Portuguese explorers to expel the Arabs who control East African trade routes, and then take over those routes for themselves

Sovereign

having full, independent power

Spain's seizing control of the Philippines in the 1600s caused the Tokugawa shoguns to A. persecute Japanese Christians and ban European traders. B. encourage diplomatic and trade activities with the Dutch. C. limit Buddhist practices and celebration of seasonal festivals. D. dispatch an ambassador to Rome to learn about Christianity.

persecute Japanese Christians and ban European traders.

Matteo Ricci

was an Italian scholar and Jesuit priest who traveled to China. In 1589, Ricci began to teach Chinese scholars European mathematical ideas. Later he lived in Nanjing, where he worked on mathematics, astronomy, and geography. He became famous in China for his knowledge of astronomy, writing books in Chinese, and his talents as a painter. Ricci won friends among the scholarly class in China by sharing his knowledge of the arts and sciences of Renaissance Europe. The Chinese were fascinated by new European technologies, including maps. They were also open to European discoveries in astronomy and mathematics. While Chinese rulers welcomed Ricci and other Jesuits from Europe for their learning, the priests had little success in spreading their religious beliefs.

Guns, Horses, and Disease

Although Spanish conquistadors only numbered in the hundreds as compared to millions of Native Americans, they had many advantages. Their guns and cannons were superior to the Native Americans' arrows and spears, and European metal armor provided them with better protection. They also had horses, which not only were useful in battle and in carrying supplies, but also frightened the Native Americans, who had never seen a horse. Most important, an invisible invader—disease—helped the conquistadors take control of the Taínos and other Native Americans. Europeans unknowingly carried diseases, such as smallpox, measles, and influenza, to which Native Americans had no immunity, or resistance. These diseases spread rapidly and wiped out village after village. As a result, the Native American population of the Caribbean islands declined by as much as 90 percent in the 1500s. Millions of Native Americans died from disease as Europeans made their way inland.

Beyond Spain's Empire

As in the Spanish empire, the Native Americans who lived in Brazil—the Tupian Indians—had been largely wiped out by disease. In the 1530s, Portugal began to issue grants of land to Portuguese nobles, who agreed to develop the land and share profits with the crown. Landowners sent settlers to build towns, plantations, and churches. Unlike Spain's American colonies, Brazil offered no instant wealth from silver or gold. However, early settlers cut and exported brazilwood. The Portuguese named the colony after this wood, which was used to produce a valuable dye. Soon they turned to plantation agriculture and raising cattle. Like the Spanish, the Portuguese forced Indians and Africans to clear land for plantations. As many as four million Africans were sent to Brazil. As in Spanish America, a new culture emerged in Brazil that blended European, Native American, and African elements.

European Trade with Asia

Europeans had traded with Asia long before the Renaissance. During the Middle Ages, the Crusades introduced Europeans to many luxury goods from Asia. When the Mongol empire united much of Asia in the 1200s and 1300s, Asian goods flowed to Europe along complex overland trade routes. The Black Death and the breakup of the Mongol empire disrupted Asian trade routes, but by the 1400s, Europe's population was growing—as was the demand for goods from Asia. The most valued trade items were spices, such as cloves, cinnamon, and pepper. People used spices to preserve and add flavor to food, and to make medicines and perfumes.

Cortes Conquers the Aztecs

From the Caribbean, Spanish explorers probed the coasts of the Americas. From local peoples, they heard stories of empires rich in gold, but the first explorers also told about fierce fighters they had encountered. Attracted by the promise of riches as well as by religious zeal, a flood of adventurers soon followed.

Why did Columbus reach the Caribbean islands rather than the East Indies? A. He did not know that he had sailed far off course. B. He greatly underestimated the size of Earth. C. He was unaware that Earth was a sphere. D. He ran out of food and water and landed too soon.

He greatly underestimated the size of Earth

Why did Matteo Ricci make such a strong impression on the Chinese? A. He did not attempt to convert them to Christianity. B. He was a Renaissance scholar with very limited interest in China. C. He did not share information about China with curious Europeans. D. He offered them knowledge about Renaissance Europe.

He offered them knowledge about Renaissance Europe.

The Dutch Dominate Indian Ocean Trade

In 1602, a group of wealthy Dutch merchants formed the Dutch East India Company. Unlike Portuguese and Spanish traders, whose expeditions were tightly controlled by government, the Dutch East India Company had full sovereign powers. With its power to build armies, wage war, negotiate peace treaties, and govern overseas territory, it came to dominate the region. In 1641, the Dutch captured Malacca from the Portuguese, opened trade with China, and soon enforced a monopoly in the Spice Islands. They controlled shipments to Europe as well as much of the trade within Southeast Asia. Like the Portuguese, the Dutch used military force to further their trading goals. Yet they forged closer ties with local rulers than the Portuguese had. Many Dutch merchants married Asian women. In the 1700s, however, the growing power of England and France contributed to a decline in the Dutch overseas trading empire.

The Drive to Explore

In the 1400s, Arab and Italian merchants controlled most trade between Asia and Europe. Muslim traders brought spices and other goods to Mediterranean ports in Egypt, Syria, and Turkey. From there, Italian traders carried them to European markets. Each time goods passed from one trader to another, prices increased. Europeans wanted to cut out the Muslim and Italian middlemen and gain direct access to the riches of Asia. To do so, the Atlantic powers sought a new route to Asia, one that bypassed the Mediterranean. Many explorers hoped to get rich by entering the spice trade or conquering other lands. Yet the desire for wealth was not the only motive that lured them to sea. Some missionaries and soldiers ventured overseas to win new converts to Christianity. The Renaissance spirit of curiosity also fed a desire to learn more about lands beyond Europe.

Challenges to Portugal and Spain

In the 1500s, the wealth of the Americas helped make Spain the most powerful country in Europe, with Portugal not far behind. The jealous English and Dutch shared the resentment that French king Francis I felt when he declared, "I should like to see Adam's will, wherein he divided the Earth between Spain and Portugal." To get around those countries' strict control over colonial trade, smugglers traded illegally with Portuguese and Spanish colonists. In the Caribbean and elsewhere, Dutch, English, and French pirates preyed on treasure ships from the Americas. Some pirates, called privateers, even operated with the approval of European governments. Other European explorers continued to sail the coasts of the Americas, hunting for gold and other treasure, as well as a northwest passage to Asia.

Moctezuma's Dilemma

Meanwhile, messengers brought word about the Spanish to the Aztec emperor Moctezuma (mahk tih zoo muh). The Aztec ruler hesitated. Was it possible, he wondered, that the leader of the pale-skinned, bearded strangers might be Quetzalcoatl (ket sahl koh aht el), an Aztec god-king who had long ago vowed to return from the East? To be safe, Moctezuma sent gifts of turquoise, feathers, and other goods with religious importance, but urged the strangers not to continue to Tenochtitlán. Cortés, however, had no intention of turning back. He was not interested in the Aztec religious objects, but was extremely interested in the gold and silver ornaments that Moctezuma began sending him. Cortés became more determined than ever to reach Tenochtitlán. Fighting and negotiating by turns, Cortés led his forces inland toward the capital. At last, the Spanish arrived in Tenochtitlán, where they were dazzled by the grandeur of the city.

Cortes Takes Tenochtitlán

Moctezuma welcomed Cortés to his capital. However, relations between the Aztecs and Spaniards soon grew strained. The Spanish scorned the Aztecs' religion and sought to convert them to Christianity. At the same time, as they remained in the city, they saw more of the Aztec treasure. They decided to imprison Moctezuma so they could gain control of the Aztecs and their riches. Cortés compelled Moctezuma to sign over his land and treasure to the Spanish. In the meantime, a new force of Spanish conquistadors had arrived on the coast to challenge Cortés. In the confusion that followed—with various groups of Spanish, Aztecs, and Native Americans all fighting for control—the Aztecs drove the Spanish from the city. More than half of the Spanish were killed in the fighting, as was Moctezuma. Cortés retreated to plan an assault. In 1521, in a brutal struggle, Cortés and his Native American allies captured and demolished Tenochtitlán. The Spanish later built Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlán. As in the Caribbean, disease had aided their cause. Smallpox had spread among the Aztecs from the 1519 encounter, decimating the population.

A Thriving Trade Center

Mughal India was the center of the valuable spice trade It was also the world leader in textile manufacturing, exporting large quantities of silk and cotton cloth The Mughal empire was larger, richer, and more powerful than an kingdom in Europe When Europeans sought trading rights, Mughal emperors saw no threat in granting them The Portuguese and later the Dutch, English, and French—thus were permitted to build forts and warehouses in Indian coastal towns

Magellan Sets Sail

On September 20, 1519, a minor Portuguese nobleman named Ferdinand Magellan set out from Spain with five ships to find a way to reach the Pacific. Magellan's ships sailed south and west, through storms and calms and tropical heat. At last, his fleet reached the coast of South America. Carefully, they explored each bay, hoping to find one that would lead to the Pacific. In November 1520, Magellan's ships entered a bay at the southern tip of South America. Amid brutal storms, rushing tides, and unpredictable winds, Magellan found a passage that later became known as the Strait of Magellan. The ships emerged into Balboa's South Sea. Magellan renamed the sea the Pacific, from the Latin word meaning peaceful.

The Search for a Route to the Pacific

Once Europeans realized that the Americas blocked a sea passage to India, they hunted for a route around or through the Americas in order to reach Asia. The English, Dutch, and French explored the coast of North America unsuccessfully for a "northwest passage," or a route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific through the Arctic islands. Meanwhile, in 1513, the Spanish adventurer Vasco Núñez de Balboa, helped by local Indians, hacked a passage westward through the tropical forests of Panama. From a ridge on the west coast, he gazed at a huge body of water. The body of water that he named the South Sea was in fact the Pacific Ocean.

Portugal Explores the Seas

Portugal, a small nation on the western edge of Spain, led the way in exploration. As in Spain, Christian knights in Portugal had fought to end Muslim rule. By the 1400s, Portugal was strong enough to expand into Muslim North Africa. In 1415, the Portuguese seized Ceuta (say oo tah) on the North African coast. The victory sparked the imagination of Prince Henry, known to history as Henry the Navigator.

Christian Missionaries

Portuguese missionaries arrived in China along with the traders. In later years, the Jesuits—from Spain, Italy, and Portugal—arrived. Most Jesuits had a broad knowledge of many subjects, and the Chinese welcomed the chance to learn about Renaissance Europe from these scholars. A few European scholars, like the brilliant Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci (mah tay oh ree chee) did make an impression on Ming China. In the 1580s, Ricci learned to speak Chinese and adopted Chinese clothing. His goal was to convert upper-class Chinese to Christianity. He hoped that they, in turn, would spread Christian teachings to the rest of China.

Ming China and Europe

Portuguese ships first reached China from their base in Malacca in 1514. To the Chinese, the Portuguese and all other foreigners were barbarians because they lacked the civilized ways of the Chinese. Europeans, by contrast, wrote enthusiastically about China. In 1590, a visitor described Chinese artisans "cleverly making devices out of gold, silver and other metals," and wrote with approval: "They daily publish huge multitudes of books."

Prince harry

Prince Henry (1394-1460) was a Portuguese prince and patron of explorers who helped his father capture the Moroccan city of Ceuta, became its governor, and sponsored voyages to the Madeira Islands and the West African coast. He raised money for expeditions and established a base for explorers in Sagres, later adding an arsenal, an observatory, and a school for studying geography. His support of cartography, advances in navigation, and exploration provided a foundation for Portugal's rise to international dominance and acquisition of its colonial empire in the sixteenth century.

The Spanish Trade Network

The Philippines became a key link in Spain's overseas trading empire. The Spanish shipped silver mined in Mexico and Peru across the Pacific to the Philippines. From there, they used the silver to buy goods in China. In this way, large quantities of American silver flowed into the economies of East Asian nations.

Which statement summarizes advantages that Dutch East India Company traders had over Portuguese and Spanish traders? A. The company had helpful agreements with English merchants. B. The company was not permitted to raise armies or sign treaties. C. The company was closely supervised by the Dutch government. D. The company could wage war and govern overseas territories.

The company could wage war and govern overseas territories.

Columbus Searches for a Route to Asia

The profitable Portuguese voyages spurred other European nations to seek a sea route to Asia. An Italian navigator from the port of Genoa, Christopher Columbus, wanted to reach the East Indies—a group of islands in Southeast Asia, today part of Indonesia—by sailing west across the Atlantic. Like most educated Europeans, Columbus knew that Earth was a sphere. A few weeks sailing west, he reasoned, would bring a ship to eastern Asia. His plan made sense, but Columbus greatly underestimated Earth's size—and he had no idea that two continents, North and South America, lay in his path.

The Long Way Home

Their mission accomplished, most of the crew wanted to return to Spain the way they had come. Magellan, however, insisted that they push on across the Pacific to the East Indies. Magellan underestimated the size of the Pacific. Three more weeks, he thought, would bring them to the Spice Islands. Magellan was wrong. For nearly four months, the ships plowed across the uncharted ocean. Finally, in March 1521, the fleet reached the Philippines, where Magellan was killed. On September 8, 1522, nearly three years after setting out, the survivors—one ship and 18 sailors—reached Spain. The survivors had been the first people to circumnavigate, or sail around, the world. Antonio Pigafetta, one of the few survivors of the expedition, observed: "I believe of a certainty that no one will ever again make such a voyage."

How did the Portuguese establish footholds and trade on Africa's coasts? A. They explored inland and then established many permanent settlements around the Indian Ocean. B. They fought sea battles with the Spanish to control access to the East African trade routes. C. They established forts and trading posts on the coast and seized key ports around the Indian Ocean. D. They formed commercial alliances with the Arabs who dominated the East African trade network.

They established forts and trading posts on the coast and seized key ports around the Indian Ocean.

How did the Portuguese use geographic factors to help them control the spice trade? A. They used European technology and expanded agricultural production to set up a trading empire. B. They used force and diplomacy to set up coastal trading posts and seize key ports around the Indian Ocean. C. They conquered inland kingdoms, which they turned into a trading empire. D. They used diplomacy to establish alliances with inland Indian rulers and Arab traders.

They used force and diplomacy to set up coastal trading posts and seize key ports around the Indian Ocean.

Why did Cortés want to conquer the Aztecs? A. The Aztecs had attacked Spanish merchants. B. He wanted Aztec land and riches. C. He wanted to bring enslaved Aztecs to Spain. D. He needed more soldiers for his army.

Wanted Aztec land and Riches

The Taínos Meet Columbus

When Columbus first arrived in the West Indies in 1492, he encountered the Taíno (ty noh) people. The Taínos lived in villages and grew corn, yams, and cotton, which they wove into cloth. They were friendly and open toward the Spanish. Columbus noted that they were "generous with what they have, to such a degree as no one would believe but he who had seen it." Friendly relations soon evaporated. Columbus's men assaulted Taíno men and women, seized some to take back to the Spanish king, and claimed their land for Spain. The Spanish killed any Taínos who dared to resist. Columbus later required each Taíno to give him a set amount of gold. Any Taíno who failed to deliver was tortured or killed. A wave of Spanish conquistadors or conquerors, who soon arrived in the Americas repeated Columbus's encounter. They first settled on the islands of Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic and Haiti), Cuba, and Puerto Rico. Throughout the region, the conquistadors seized the Native Americans' gold ornaments and then made them pan for more gold. At the same time, the Spanish forced the Native Americans to convert to Christianity.

Atahualpa Resists

When Pizarro and his small force of about 200 men reached the Inca leader, they urged him to convert to Christianity and accept Charles V as sovereign. When Atahualpa refused, Pizarro tricked the Incan leader into meeting with him. Then with the help of Indian allies, he took the emperor prisoner and killed thousands of Incas.

Unlike most Spanish and Portuguese traders in East Asia, most Dutch East India Company traders A. worked for a trading company with sovereign powers. B. wanted to spread Christianity to East Asia. C. sailed around the Indian Ocean in search of spices. D. used force and diplomacy to seize coastal towns.

Worked for a trading company with sovereign powers

Lesson 2: Europeans Gain Footholds in Asia

___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Moluccas

a group of islands in eastern Indonesia; was the center of the spice trade in the 1500s and 1600s an island chain in present-day Indonesia, which Europeans in the 1400s called the Spice Islands because it was the chief source of spices