unit 2 - Cell Structures and Functions (pg. 46-60) ( pg.68-77)

Cell Recognition Protein

(Carbohydrate chains)gives a cell a "sugar coat" called the GLYCOCALYX., ( organ transplant). Each cell within the individual has its own particular "fingerprint" because of these chains. Transplanted tissue cells are often rejected by the recipient. This is because the immune system is able to recognize that the foreign tissue's cells do not have the appropriate carbohydrate chains. In humans, carbohydrate chains are also the basis for the A, B, and O blood groups. Carbohydrate chains project outward form the membrane. The MHC (Major Histocompatibility complex) glycoproteins are different for each person, so organ transplants are difficult to achieve. Cells with foreign MHC glycoproteins are attacked by blood cells responsible for immunity.

Grana

(a stack of Thylakoids) chlorophyll which is in the membranes of grana captures the solar energy needed to enable chloroplast to produce carbohydrates.

Sodium Potassium pump

(active) associated with nerve and muscle cells (in active transport ) moves sodium ions (Na+) to the outside of the cell and potassium ions (K+) to the inside of the cell. A change in carrier shape after attachment, and again detachment, of a phosphate group allows the carrier to combine alternately with sodium ions and potassium ions. The phosphate group is donated by ATP, which is broken down enzymatically by carrier. The chloride ion (CL-) usually crosses the plasma membrane because it is attracted by positively charged sodium ions (Na+). First sodium ions are pumped across a membrane and then chloride ions simply diffuse through channels that allow their passage; the chloride ion channels malfunction in person with Cystic Fibrosis, and this leads to the symptoms of this inherited (genetic) disirder. the change in carrier protein shape in the plasma membrane actively moves 3 sodium ions to the outside of the cell for every two potassium ions pumped to the inside of the cell. (steps: Carrier has a shape that allows it to take up 3 sodium ions. ATP is split and phosphate (from ATP) group is transferred to carrier. change in shape results that causes carrier to release 3 sodium ions outside the cell chloride ions follows by simply diffusing though channels since it's attracted to the positively charged sodium ions. )New shape allows carrier to take up two potassium ions from outside cell. Phosphate group is released from carrier by the entering potassium molecule. Change in shape results that causes carrier to release potassium ions inside the cell. New shape is suitable to take up three sodium ions once again.

Endocytosis

(active)cells take in substances by vesicle formation; occurs in three ways; phagocytosis, pinocystosis and receptor mediated endocytosis. cells take in substances by vesicle formation. A portion of the plasma membrane invaginates to envelop the substance, and then the membrane pinches off to form an intracellular vesicle.

Exocytosis

(active)vesicle formed from the golgi aparatus fuse with the plasma membrane as secretion occurs ( pancreatic cells release the hormone insulin) During exocytosis, vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane as secretion occurs. Often these vesicles have been produced by the Golgi Apparatus and contain proteins. The membrane of the vesicle becomes part of the plasma membrane, which is thereby enlarged.For this reason, exocytosis occurs automatically during cell growth. The proteins released from the vesicle adhere to the cell surface or become incorporated in an extracellular matrix. Some diffuse into tissue fluid where they nourish or signal other cells. In humans, molecules transported out of the cell by exocystosis include digestive enzymes, such as growth hormone produced by anterior pituitary cells. These vesicles release their contents only when the cell is stimulated by a signal received at the plasma membrane. ex a rise in blood sugar, signals pancreatic cells to release the hormone insulin, this is called regulated secretion because vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane only when it is appropriate to the needs of the body polypeptides, polysacharides, or polynucleotides, which are too large to be transported by carrier proteins? They are transported into or out of the cell by vesicles formation, therefore keeping the macromolecules contained so that they do not mix with those in the cytoplasm. Vesicle formation is an energy requiring process and therefore exocytosis and endocytosis are listed as forms of active transport.

Diffusion

(passive) is the movement of molecule such as lipid soluble molecules, water, gases, alcohol, dye, glycerol all non charged particles from a higher to a lower concentration. (down their concentration gradient) once even, the net movement of diffusion stops. (no net movement) ex gas exchange in the lungs ; oxygen diffuses into the capillaries of the lungs because there is a higher concentration of oxygen in the alveoli (air sacs) than in the capillaries. (After inhalation (breathing in) the concentration of oxygen in the alveoli is higher than that in the blood; therefore, oxygen diffuses into the blood.

Osmosis

(passive) the diffusion of " water" across a selectively permeable membrane due to concentration difference, solutes do not move. (movement of water to a higher concentration of solute) net movement keeps going.

007 Biology Cell Structure with Joanne Jezequel video:

-cells the smallest living units of an organism you need to know that all cells have three things in common: no matter what type of cell they are all cells have a cell membrane which separates the inside of the cell from its environment. Cytoplasm which is a jelly-like fluid and DNA which is the cell's genetic material. - there are two broad categories of cells: the first category: Eukaryotic cells they have organelles which include the nucleus and other special parts eukaryotic cells are more advanced complex cells such as those found in plants and animals. The second category is Prokaryotic cells they don't have a nucleus or membrane-enclosed organelles they do have genetic material but it's not contained within a nucleus prokaryotic cells are always one cell or unicellular organisms such as bacteria - what are organelles organelles little organ organelles are the specialized parts of a cell that have unique jobs to perform let's start with the nucleus the control center of the cell. - the nucleus contains DNA or genetic material DNA dictates what the cell is going to do and how its going to do it -Chromatin is the tangled spread-out form of DNA found inside the nuclear membrane when a cell is ready to divide DNA condenses into structures known as chromosomes. -The nucleus also contains a Nucleolus which is a structure where ribosomes are made after ribosomes leave the nucleus they will have the important job of synthesizing or making proteins outside the nucleus. - The ribosomes and the rest of the organelles float around in cytoplasm which is the jelly-like substance, ribosomes may wander freely within the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. - Sometimes abbreviated as ER there are two types of ER rough ER has ribosomes attached to it and smooth ER doesn't have ribosomes attached to it. - The endoplasmic reticulum is a membrane enclosed passageway for transporting materials such as the protein synthesized by ribosomes proteins and other materials emerge from endoplasmic reticulum in small vesicles. -where the Golgi apparatus sometimes called the Golgi body receives them as proteins move through the Golgi body, they are customized into forms that the cell can use. The Golgi body does this by folding the proteins into usable shape or adding other materials onto them such as lipids or carbohydrates. - Vacuoles are sac-like structures that store different materials here in this plant cell, the central vacuole stores water. - going back to the animal cell you will see an organelle called a Lysosome Lysosomes are the garbage collectors that take in damaged or worn out cell. Parts they are filled with enzymes that break down this cellular debris. - The mitochondrion is an organelle that is the powerhouse for both animal and plant cells during a process called cellular respiration, the mitochondria make ATP molecules that provide the energy for all of the cell's activities. Cells that need more energy have more mitochondria. -Meanwhile the cell maintains its shape through a Cytoskeleton the cytoskeleton includes the thread like micro filaments which are made of protein and microtubules which are thin hollow tubes -Now some organisms such as plants that are photo autotrophic meaning they capture sunlight for energy have cells with an organelle called a Chloroplast. The Chloroplast is where photosynthesis happens. It's green because it has a green pigment called Chlorophyll. -Plant cells also have a Cell wall outside of their cell membranes that shape support and protect the plant cell. -Animal cells never have a cell wall. - there are many other unique structures that only some cells have here are just a few in humans for example the respiratory tract is lined with cell that have Cilia these are microscopic hair like projections that can move in waves this feature helps trap inhaled particles in the air and expels them when you. -Another unique feature in some cells is Flagella some bacteria have flagella a flagellum is like a little tail that can help a cell move or propel itself. -The only human cell that has a flagellum is a sperm cell. -In summary : Eukaryotic cells are plant and animal cells with a nucleus and membrane enclosed organelles. -While Prokaryotic cells are unicellular organisms without a nucleus or membrane-enclosed organelles. - All cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm and genetic material. (and ribosomes, but they differ) - Only plant cells have chloroplasts. - both plant and animal cells have mitochondria. -only animals have centrioles -Cell walls are found in platns, fungi and bacteria

Substances get in or out of cells in basically 3 ways:

1)They may be able to travel directly through the plasma membrane. This is diffusion and osmosis. 2)They may be transported through the membrane via a transport protein that acts as a gate way. 3)They may be transported in or out of the cell by the cell membrane forming vesicles, a process called exocytosis and endocytosis

Facilitated Transport

A carrier protein speeds the rate at which a molecule crosses a membrane from higher concentration to lower concentration. A carrier protein is needed. 1. molecule enters carrier 2 molecule combines with the carrier 3 Carrier undergoes a change in shape that releases the molecule on the other side of the membrane some sugars and some amino acids The carrier proteins are specific for example; various sugar molecules of identical size might be present inside or outside the cell, but glucose can cross the membrane hundreds of times faster than the other sugars. This is a good example of the differential permeability of the membrane. It seems likely that the carrier has two conformations (noun- the shape and structure of something, especially an animal) and that it switches back and forth between two states; after glucose binds to the open end of the carrier, it closes behind the glucose molecule. As glucose moves along,the constricted end of the carrier opens in front of the molecule. After glucose is released into the cytoplasm of the cell,. the carrier returns to its former conformation so that it can bind with glucose again This process can occur as often as 100 times per second. Apparently, the cell has a pool of extra glucose carrier When the hormone insulin binds to a plasma membrane receptor, more glucose carriers ordinarily appear in the plasma ,membrane. Some forms of diabetes are caused by insulin insensitivity; that is, the binding of insulin does not result in extra glucose carriers in the membrane. The models shows that after a carrier has assisted the movement of molecule to the other side of the membrane, it is free to assist the passage of other similar molecules. Does not require energy because the molecules are moving down their concentration gradient in the same direction they tend to move anyways.

Cytoplasm

A jellylike(semifluid ( having a thick consistency between solid and liquid.) medium) fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended and also surrounds the nucleus.

Plasma membrane

A phospholipid bilayer in which protein are embedded. It is a living boundary that separates the living contents of the cell from the nonliving surrounding environment.

cell wall

A protective layer external to the plasma membrane in plant cells, bacteria, fungi, and some protists. In plant cells, the wall is formed of cellulose fibers embedded in a polysaccharide-protein matrix. The primary cell wall is thin and flexible. Cellulose forms fibrils that lie at right angles to one another for added strenght, whereas the secondary cell wall that contains lignin is stronger and more rigid and is the primary constituent of wood. support and protect

Plasma membrane

A selectively-permeable phospholipid bilayer forming the boundary of the cells. (Allows oxygen, nutrients, glucose and hydrogen). A thin barrier that separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment-managing the flow of substances into and out of the cell.

Organelles

A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell. Acts as the " machinery' of the 'cell factory. They are responsible for making the cell work.

Active Transport

Active transport ( moves against concentration gradient; low to high), exocystosis and endocytosis; requires ATP or a vesicle.

Phospholipids

All cells have a cell membrane - Fluid mosaic model - everything is moving fluidly inside the cell (it must move or it doesn't functions, everything must maintain their fluidity, floating)) Mosaic made up of many things ex protein gives protein their specific characteristic to allow in and out of cell (glycoprotein- contains a sugar, glycolipid, cholesterol), phospholipid keeps water on either side Head is polar- love water hydrophillic tail non-polar- hates polar hydrophobic characteristic come from the protein float back and forth if they get to close its bad, that's why the tails have a kink (unsaturated lipid tail too cold the cholesterol prevents them from getting too close and when it gets too warm as they try to drift apart the cholesterol tries to hold on to it to keep them there. -things that can move through a cell are thing that are uncharged (diffusion ex oxygen and carbon dioxide) - things are too large like water through Aquaporin and glucose (charge ) they have to move through protein, facilitated diffusion,active transport - put energy to move them

All cells

All cells take in food, rid waste and reproduce -they have a plasma membrane, have gentic material such as DNA and a cytosol/cytoplasm. -

Aquaporin

Allows water to get through Phospholipid.

Cells

Basic building blocks of all living things

Animal cells and plants cells

Both animal cells and plants cells contain mitochondria, while only plant cells have chloroplasts. Only animal cells have centrioles.

Enzymatic Protein

Catalyzes (cause or accelerate (a reaction) by acting as a catalyst) a specific reaction. (Cholera bacteria releases a toxin that interferes with the functioning of an enzyme that helps regulate the sodium content of cells. Sodium ions and water leave intestinal cells, and the individual may die from severe diarrhea.)

Cell size

Cell Size - briefly introduces the concept of why cells tend to be very, very small. The key idea is that smaller objects have a greater surface area to volume ratio. To cells, this means the cell membrane is relatively big compared to the inside of the cell, making it much easier for things like oxygen and glucose to get into the cell and for the cell to get rid of waste products. A large cell requires more nutrients and produces more wastes than a small cell. In other words, the volume represents the needs of the cell. Yet, as the cells get larger in volume, the proportionate amount of surface area actually decreases. ex small cell- more surface area per volume ex large cell- less surface area per volume Hence why Cell division restores the amount of surface area needed for the adequate exchange of materials. Further, cells that specialize in absorption have modifications that greatly increase the surface area per volume of the cell. For ex ; the columnar cells along the surface of the intestinal wall have surface foldings called microvilli (sing, microvillus), whioch increase the surface area. A cell needs a surface area that can adequately exchange materials with the environment. Surface-area-to-volume considerations require that cells stay small.

Maturation Saccule Model

Debated: According to the maturation saccule model, the vesicles fuse to form an inner face saccule, which matures as it gradually becomes a saccule at the outer face.

phospolipid

Formed by two molecules of fatty acids, phosphate and glycerol. It's a layer surrounding a cell = "Plasma Membrane" separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment.

Eukaryotic cell

Has a nucleus. A type of cell with a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles. Examples of organisms with these cells are protists, plants, fungi, and animals.

Crenation

In a hypertonic solution, animal cells ; water leaves the cell which shrivels

Plasmolysis (plant cells)

In a hypertonic solution, vacuoles lose water, the cytoplasm shrinks (plasmolysis) and chlorplasts are seen in the center of the cell

Lysis

In a hypotonic solution, water enters the cell, which may burst. (hemolysis; red blood cells disruption when place in a solution with less than 0.9% NaCL solution) In plants; In a hypotonic solution, vacuoles fill with water, turgor pressure develops, and Chloroplasts are seen next to the cell wall.

Plasmolysis

In plants, the shrinking of a cytoplasm due to osmosis, the chloroplasts are seen in the center of the cell. plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall as the large central vacuole loses water.

Glycoprotein

In the Rough ER it's modified into sugar chains with protein.

Receptor mediated endocytosis

It is a form of pinocytosis that is quite specific bc it uses a receptor protein shaped in such a way that a specific molecule such as vitamins, peptide hormone, or lipoprotein can bind to it. receptors are found at one location in the plasma membrane which is in the coated pit because there is a layer of protein on the cytoplasmic side of the pit. once formed the vesicle is uncoated and may fuse with a lysosome. if a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, the receptors return to their former location. (substance move from maternal blood into fetal blood at the placenta.) The importance of receptor mediated endocytosis is demonstrated by a genetic familial hypercholesterolemia (Cholesterolemia; cholesterol is transported in the blood by a complex of lipids and proteins called low density lipoprotein (LDL) . Normally, body cells take up LDL when LDL receptors gather in a coated pit. In Hypercholesterolemia, the LDL receptors are unable to bind to the coated pit and therefore their cells are unable to take up cholesterol . Instead cholesterol accumulates in the walls of the arterial blood vessels, leading to high blood pressure, occluded (blocked) arteries, and a heart attacks.) ReCeptor mediated endocytosis is selective and much more efficient than ordinary pinocytosis. It is involved in uptake and also in transfer and exchange of substances between cells. ex exChange takes place when substance move from maternal blood into fetal blood at the placenta for example

Prokaryotic cell

No nucleus. o0p99A type of cell lacking a membrane-enclosed nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles; found only in the domains Bacteria and Archaea.

Nuclear Pore

Pores on the nuclear envelope of the nucleus to allow the passage of proteins in the nucleus and ribosomal subunits out of the nucleus.

Glycoprotein

Protein attached with a carbohydrate (sugar) chain.

The Volume

Represents the needs of the cell.

Cell division

Restores the amount of surface area needed for adequate exchange of materials.

Polyribosomes

Ribosomes in groups in the cytoplasm

Cell Theory

Rudolf Virchow German microscopist, later came to the conclusion that cells don't suddenly appear; rather they come from pre-existing cells. All organisms are made up of basic living units called cells.: All organisms are composed of one or more cells. Cells are the basic living unit of structure and function in organisms All cells come only from other cells

Carrier Protein

Selectively interact with a specific molecule or ion so that it can cross the plasma membrane. A faulty carrier for glucose may be the cause of diabetes mellitus in some persons. The cells starve in the midst of plenty, and glucose spills over into the urine. (diabetes mellitus; faulty carrier, cells starve and glucose spill in urine) How a carrier function is not completely understoo, but after a carrier combines with a molecule, the carrier is believed to undergo a change in shape that moves the molecule across the membrane. Carrier proteins are required for facilitated transport and active transport

Hypotonic Solution

Solution that causes cells to swell or even burst (lysis); hemolysis is disrupted red blood cells. due to an intake of water said to be Hypotonic solutions. The prefix HYPO means less than, and refers to a solution with a lower concentration of solute (higher concentration of water) than inside the cell; the net movement of water is from the outside to the inside of the cell. Any salt solution lower than 0.9% is hypotonic to red blood cells. Animal cells placed in such a solution expand and sometimes burst due to buildup of pressure. The swelling of a plant cell in a hypotonic solution creates turgor pressure. When a plant is placed in a hypotonic solution, we observe expansion of the cytoplasm.

Cell Recognition Protein

The MHC( major histocompatibility complex) glycoprotein are diff for each person, so organ transplant are difficult to achieve. cells with foreign MHC glycoprotein are attacked by blood cells responsible for immunity.

Surface area

The measurement of the outer surface of an object. The smaller a cell is the larger the surface area per volume in the cell (6:1) (adequate metabolism and waste removal). The larger the cell the smaller the surface area per volume(3:1). 6mm (less adequate metabolism)

Turgor pressure

The pressure that water molecules exert against the plant cell wall. The plant cell does not burst because the cell wall does not give way. The turgor pressure in plant cells is extreneky important to the maintenance of the plants' erect position. If you forget to water your plants, they wilt due to decreased turgor presssure.

Stroma

The two membrane in the chlorplast encloses a fluid filled space. Contains DNA, Ribosomes and enzymes that synthesize carbohydrates from CO2 and water,

Metabolism

Total sum of chemical reactions in your body. ex creates new proteins, hormones, smell, hearing, thought, memory etc.

Introduction to Cytology

Unit 2 is all about the structure and function of cells. You will learn that cells contain tiny machine-like parts responsible for all the cells functions and that they are surrounded by a layer of phospholipids called the 'plasma membrane' which separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment - important for maintaining homeostasis. -You will also learn how nutrients and other substances get into and out the cell. -Cells are tiny chemical reaction factories and it is the chemical reactions inside cells that make you a living thing and which allow your life to continue. 'Life' is sustained by the trillions and trillions of chemical reactions that take place in your trillions of cells each and every day. Chemical reactions allow body functions, such as nerve impulses and muscle contractions. Chemical reactions also create new molecules, such as proteins and hormones. Almost all of the chemical reactions that happen in your body take place inside cells. - Cells create great environments for chemical reactions to take place. By the time you have completed this chapter, you should have an understanding of: Generally, what cells are, what they look like, and what they do The organelles found inside cells which are responsible for cell functions How organelles work together to carry out the important functions necessary for life The structure of the cell membrane How substances get into and out of cells

Waste Products

Urea, ammonia and Carbon Dioxide.

Chromatin

a threadlike matter in the nuclues. consists of DNA and Protein

Integral Proteins of plasma membrane

are embedded in the membrane, but they can move laterally back and forth. Some protrude from only one surface of the bilayer. Most span the membrane with a hydrophobic region within the membrane and hydrophillic regions that protrude from both surfaces of the bilayer. The integral proteins largely determine a membrane's specific function. red blood cells contains over 50 different types of proteins, and each has a specific function.

Hemolyis

bursted red blood cell due to a hypotonic solution

Stationary Saccule model

debated: the molecules move through stable saccules from the inner face to the outer face by shuttle vesicles.. *It is likely that both models apply, depending on the organism and the type of cell.

Fluid Mosaic model

description of the plasma membrane

Passive Transport

diffusion and facilitated transport ( both move toward lower concentration gradient; high to low); does not use chemical energy.

Nuclear Envelope

double membrane of the Nucleus

Regulated secretion

ex a rise in blood sugar, signals pancreatic cells to release the hormone insulin, this is called regulated secretion because vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane only when it is appropriate to the needs of the body (during exocytosis)

Phagocytosis

form of endocytosis. a process when the material taken in by endocytosis is Large (food particle or another cells). common in unicellular organisms such as amoeba. In humans, certain types of human White blood cells are amoeboid, they are mobile like an amoeba and are able to engulf debris such as worn out red blood cells or bacteria. Endocytosic vesicles fuses with a lysosome for intracellular digestion of debris. This process is a necessary and preliminary step toward the development of immunity for bacterial diseases. can be seen with a light microscope

Cell wall

found in plant cells not animals cells have a permeable but protective cell wall in addition to a plasma membrane. Many plant cells have both a primary and secondary cell wall. A main constituent of a primary cell wall is cellulose molecules. cellulose molecules form fibrils that lie at right angles to one another for added strength. A cell wall sometimes form inside the primary cell wall. Such secondary cell walls contain lignin , a substance that makes them even stronger than primary cell walls

Lysis

from a hypotonic solution for animals cells burst

Chromoplast

in leaves ( red and orange pigment)chloroplast

Amyloplast

in roots in chloroplast

Nucleolus

in the Nucleus. where rRNA( ribosomal RNA ) is produced and where rRNA joins with proteins to form the subunits of ribosomes.

Thylakoids

in the stroma of the chloroplast they are flattened sacs stacked up un structures called GRANA. Chlorophyll is found here in the membrane.

Cholesterol

is a lipoprotein

Nucleus

is a nuclear envelope nucleoplasm, chromatin and nucleoli Storage of genetic information; synthesis of DNA and RNA

Plasma membrane

is a phospholipid bilayer in which protein molecules are either partially or wholly embedded. Fluid consistency; comparable to that of light oil Proteins are scattered either just outside or within the membrane.; therefore they form a mosaic pattern. This description is called the FLUID MOSAIC MODEL Hydrophilic (water-loving) polar heads of the phospholipid molecules face the outside and inside of the cell where water is found. Hydrophobic (water-fearing) non polar tails face each other. Cholesterol is another lipid found in animal plasma membranes;related steroid are found in the plasma membrane of plants. Cholesterol. stiffens and strenghten the membrane, thereby helping to regulate fluidity. The proteins in a membrane may be integral proteins or peripheral proteins. Both phospholipids and proteins can have attaches carbohydrate(sugar) chains. If so, these molecules are called glycolipids and glycoproteins, the carbohydrate chains occur only on the outside surface and peripheral proteins occur asymmetrically on one surface or the other, the two halves of the membrane are not identical.

Osmotic pressure

is the pressure that develops within a system due to Osmosis. Water enters the thistle tube due to the osmotic pressure. In other words, the greater the possible osmotic pressure, the more likely it is that water will diffuse in that direction. Due to Osmotic pressure, water is absorbed by the kidneys and taken up by the capillaries from tissue fluid. Osmotic pressure is measured by placing a solution in an osmometer and then immersing the osmometer in pure water. The pressure that develops is the osmotic pressure of a solution.

Coated pit (receptor mediated endocytosis)

it is the one location where the receptors are found in the plasma membrane. The reason it is called a coated pit its because there is a layer of protein on the cytoplasmic side of the pit. Once formed the vesicle is uncoated and may fuse with a lysosome. If the vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, the receptors return to their former location

differentially (selectively) permeable

means that some substance can move across the membrane and some cannot.

Concentration Gradient

molecules move from an area where their concentration is high to an area where their concentration is low. Small non charged molecules, such as carbon dioxide, oxygen, glycerol, water and alcohol, can diffuse across the membrane. They can diffuse because they are able to slip between the hydrophillic heads of the phospholipids and pass through the hydrophobic tails of the membrane. These molecules are said to follow their concentration gradient as they move from an area where their concentration is high to an area where their concentration is low. Consider that a cell is always using oxygen when it carries on cellular respiration. Therefore, the concentration of oxygen is always higher outside a cell and oxygen follows a concentration gradient when it enters a cell. Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, is produced when a cell carries on cellular respiration, Therefore carbon dioxide is also following a concentration gradient when it moves from inside the cell to outside the cell.

Peripheral protein of Plasma membrane

on the inside surface of the membrane are often held in place by cytoskeleton filaments. The peripheral proteins associated with the membrane often have a structural role in that they help stabilize and shape the plasma membrane.

Glycolipids

phospholipid attached with a carbohydrate (sugar) chain.

Glycocalyx - cell recognition protein (the carbohydrate chain)

protects the cell and has various other functions; facilitates adhesion between cells, reception of signal molecules, and cell to cell recognition.

Pumps

proteins that use energy to move substance agaianst its concentration gradient. like using a water pump to go against gravity.

Cristea

provides large surface area in mitochondria to accommodate protein complexes and other participants that produces ATP.

Crenation

red blood cells shrink due to being in a hypertonic solution

A tour of the cell video notes:

see notes

Organelles of the cell video notes

see notes

Nucleoplasm

semi fluid medium in the nucleus. difference bewtween PH of nucleoplasm and cytoplasm.

Ribosomes

small bodies in the cytoplasm that contains rRNA and Proteins

Hypertonic Solution

solutions that cause cells to shrink or shrivel due to loss of water. The prefix- HYPER- Means more than, and refers to a solution with a higher percentage of solute (lower concentration of water) than the cell. The net movement of water is from the inside to the outside of the cell. any solutions with a concentration higher than 0.9% NaCl is hypertonic to red blood cells, they shrink. (crenation). Meats are sometimes preserved by salting them. The bacteria are not killed by the salt but by the lack of water in the meat. When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall as the large vacuole loses water, this is an example of plasmolysis, a shrinking of the cytoplasm due to osmosis. The dead plants you may see along a salted roadside died because they were exposed to a hypertonic solution during the winter

Cell Theory

states that all organisms are made up of basic living units called cells and that cells only come from pre-existing cells, in a basic theory of biology.

Enzymatic Protein

that carry out metabolic reactions directly

Chromosome

the chromatin coils to form a rod like structure. before the cells divide.

Matrix

the fluid space in the membranous mitochondria; contains DNA, Ribosomes and enzymes to break down carbohydrates products releasing energy to be used for ATP production.

Chemical Reactions

the making and breaking of chemical bonds, leading to changes in the composition of matter.

Active Transport

the movement of materials through a cell membrane using energy. ex; Iodine collects in the cells of the thyroid gland;nutrients are completely absorbed from the thyroid gland; nutrients are completely absorbed from the gut by the cell lining the digestive tract; sodium ions (Na+) can be almost completely withdrawn from urine by cells lining the kidney tubules. In these instance substances have moved to the region of higher concentration, exactly opposite to the process of diffusion. It has been estimated that up to 40% of a cell's energy supply may be used for active transport of solute across its membrane. Both carrier proteins and an expenditure of energy are needed to transport molecules against its concentration gradient. In this case energy (ATP molecules) is required for the carrier to combine with the substance to be transported. Therefore, it is not surprising that cells involved primarily in active transport, such as kidney cells, have a large number of mitochondria near the membrane through which active transport is occuring.

Chlorophyll

the pigment in Chloroplast (green pigment color)

Receptor Protein

the protein in the membrane is shaped in a way that a specific molecule can bind to it. (Pygmies are short, not bc they do not produce enough growth hormone, but because their plasma membrane growth hormone receptors are faulty and cannot interact with growth hormone.)

Isotonic Solution

the solute concentration and the water concentration both inside and outside the cell are equal, and therefore there is no net gain or loss water. A 0.9% solution of NaCl (sodium chloride) is known to be isotonic to red blood cells. (Percent solutions are grams of solute per 100 ml of solvent. Therrefore, a 10% solution is 10g of solute with water added to make up 100ml of solution.) The prefix ISO means the same as and the term Tonicity refers to the strength of the solution.

Turgor Pressure

the swelling of a plant cell in a hypotonic solution;expansion of the cytoplasm bc the large central vacuole gains water and the plasma membrane pushes against the rigid cell wall which does not give way.Chloroplasts are seen against the cell wall. Turgor pressure is important for the maintenance of the plant's erect position. if you don't water plant turgor pressure drops and the plant wilts.

Channel Protein

through which a particular substance can simply move across the membrane. (cystic fibrosis; chloride channel default) Allows a particular molecule or ion to cross the plasma membrane freely. Cystic Fibrosis, an inherited disorder, is caused by faulty chloride (CL-) channel; a thick mucus collects in airways and in pancreatic and liver ducts.

ATP

used for synthetic reactions, active transport, and all energy requiring process needed in the cell. All organisms have this except bacteria.

Photosynthesis

uses solar energy to synthesize carbohydrate solar enegery+carbon dioxide+water = carbohydrate and oxygen.

Solvent

usually a liquid in a solution

Solute

usually a solid in a solution

Pinocytosis

when vesicle form around a liquid or around very small particles.(blood cells that line the kidney tubules or the intestinal walls and plant root cells all use pinocytosis to ingest a substance. can be seen with the electron microscope. Pinocystosis involves a significant amount of the plasma membrane because it occurs continuously. The loss of the plasma membrane due to pinocytosis is balanced by the occurrence of exocytosis, however.

Net movement

which is the sum of their motion.