Unit 2: Chapter 3: After Aristotle: A Search for the Good Life

conceptualism

Abelard proposed it as a compromise between Realism and Nominalism. He argued that universal essences do not exist but similarities among categories of experiences do.

internal sense

According to Augustine, people have an 'internal sense' that helps them evaluate their experiences by providing an awareness of truth, error, personal obligation, and moral right. Deviation from this internal sense causes the feeling of guilt. In fact, one need not actually act contrary to this internal sense to feel guilty but only ponder doing so. Just thinking about doing something sinful will cause as much guilt as actually doing something sinful. All this results in behaviour being controlled internally rather than externally. That is, instead if controlling behaviour through externally administered rewards and punishments, it is controlled by personal feelings of virtue or guilt.

Describe the Greek social and cultural conditions in the time after Aristotle's death that gave rise to Skepticism, Cynicism, Epicureanism, Stoicism, and Christianity. What did Skepticism and Cynicism promote? (pp. 66-68)

After Sparta defeated Athens in the Peloponnesian War, the Greek city-states began to collapse, and the Greek people became increasingly demoralized. In this postwar atmosphere, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle flourished, but a gulf was beginning to develop between philosophy and the psychological needs of the people. Shortly after Aristotle's death, the Romans invaded Greek territory, making an already unstable situation even more uncertain. Both Skepticism and Cynicism were critical of other philosophies, contending that they were either completely false or irrelevant to human needs. As a solution, Skepticism promoted a suspension of belief in anything, and Cynicism promoted a retreat from society.

mystery religions

Also influential were a number of ancient 'mystery religions' that entered the Greek and Roman worlds primarily from the Near East. Three examples are the cults of Magna Mater (Great Mother), Isis, and Mithras. The mystery religions (or cults) had several things in common; secret rites of initiation, ceremonies (such as some form of sacrifice) designed to bring initiates into communion with the patron deity or deities, an emphasis on death and rebirth, rituals providing purification and forgiveness of sins (such as confession and baptism in holy water), the confession of sin, sacramental dramas providing initiates the exaltation of a new life, and the providing of a feeling of community among believers. Clearly, there was much in common between the mystery religions and early Christianity. Incidentally, the popular god Mithras was said to have been born on Decemeber 25th in the presence of shepards.

Antisthenes

Antisthenes studied with the Sophists Gorgias and later became a companion of Socrates. Antisthenes completely lost faith in philosophy and renounced his comfortable upper-class life. He believed that society, with its emphasis on material goods, status, and employment, was a distortion of nature and should be avoided. Showing a kinship to both the Sophists and Skeptics, Antisthenes questioned the value of intellectual pursuits. Antisthenes preached a back-to-nature philosophy that involved a life tree from wants, passions, and the many conventions of society. He thought that true happiness depended on self-sufficiency. It was the quest for the simple, independent, natural life that characterized Cynicism.

Briefly describe the lives and work of Antisthenes (ca. 445-365 BC) and Diogenes (ca. 412-323 BC). Describe the philosophy of Cynicism. (pp. 68-69) Comment: In modern usage, the word cynic has a very different meaning from its original one. Now a cynic is someone who believes that all people are governed by selfish motives, whereas Cynicism originally referred to a desire to live close to nature and apart from societal rules and regulations.

Antisthenes studied with the Sophists Gorgias and later became a companion of Socrates. Antisthenes completely lost faith in philosophy and renounced his comfortable upper-class life. He believed that society, with its emphasis on material goods, status, and employment, was a distortion of nature and should be avoided. Showing a kinship to both the Sophists and Skeptics, Antisthenes questioned the value of intellectual pursuits. Antisthenes preached a back-to-nature philosophy that involved a life tree from wants, passions, and the many conventions of society. He thought that true happiness depended on self-sufficiency. It was the quest for the simple, independent, natural life that characterized Cynicism. The considered fame of Anisthenes was exceeded by his disciple Diogenes, the son of a disreputable money changer who had been sent to prison for defacing money. In his personal life, Diogenes rejected conventional religions, manners, housing, food, and fashion. He lived by begging and proclaiming his brotherhood with not only all humans but also animals. Diogenes lived an extremely primitive life and was given the nickname 'Cynic', which literally means 'doglike'. In fact, the Cynics argued that nonhuman animals provide the best model for human conduct. First, all the needs of nonhuman animals are natural and, therefore, the satisfaction of those needs is straightforward. Second, nonhuman animals do not have religion. Clearly, the primary message of the Cynics was that nature, not social conventions, should guide human behaviour. Social conventions are human inventions, and living in accordance with them causes shame, guilt, hypocrisy, greed, envy, and hate, among other things. There fore, 'the Cynic rejects the family and all the distinctions based on sex, birth, rank, race, or education.'

Avicenna

Avicenna: was a child prodigy who had memorized the Koran by the age of 10. He wrote books on many topics, including medicine, mathematics, logic, metaphysics, Islamic theology, astronomy, politics, and linguistics. In most of his work, he borrowed heavily from Aristotle, but he made modifications in Aristotle's philosophy that persisted for hundreds of years. In his analysis of human thinking, Avicenna started with the five external senses--sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. Then he postulated seven "interior senses," which were arranged in a heirarchy.

Zeno of Citium

Because Zeno of Citium taught in a school that had a stoa poikile, or a painted porch, his philosophy came to be known as Stoicism. Zeno believes that the world was ruled by a divine plan and that everything in nature, including humans, was there for a reason.

Emperor Constantine

Charged the bishops with the task of arriving at a single set of documents to be used by all Christian communities. Thus was created the "Constantine Bible," which was lost to history, so its contents are unknown. Largely due to his efforts, a single set of beliefs and documents defined Christianity, and this helped promote its popularity.

Jesus

Christian religion is centered around Jesus. He taught, among other things, that knowledge of good or evil is revealed by god and that, once revealed, such knowledge should guide human conduct.

Describe the cultural conditions prevalent during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. (pp. 92-93)

During the 14th and 15th centuries, philosophy still served religion, as did everyone and everything else. There were two classes of people: believers and nonbelievers. The latter, if they could not be converted, were physically punished, imprisoned, or killed, and they were considered either stupid or possessed by the devil. Clearly, this was not a time of open inquiry. As with other paradigms, the Christian paradigm determined what was acceptable as a problem and what counted as a solution.

Stoicism

Epicureanism and Stoicism were responses to the Skeptics' and Cynics' claims that philosophy had nothing useful to say about everyday life. Because Zeno of Citium taught in a school that had a stoa poikile, or a painted porch, his philosophy came to be known as Stoicism. Zeno believes that the world was ruled by a divine plan and that everything in nature, including humans, was there for a reason. The Stoics believed that to live in accordance with nature was the ultimate virtue. The most important derivative of this 'divine plan' theory was the belief that whatever happens, happens for a reason; there are no accidents; and all must simply be accepted as part of the plan. The good life involved accepting one's fate with indifference, even if suffering was involved. Indeed, courage in the face of suffering or danger was considered most admirable.

Briefly describe the life and work of Zeno of Citium (ca. 333-262 BC). Describe the philosophy of Stoicism. What feature of the Roman Empire contributed to the success of Stoicism? (pp. 70-71)

Epicureanism and Stoicism were responses to the Skeptics' and Cynics' claims that philosophy had nothing useful to say about everyday life. Because Zeno of Citium taught in a school that had a stoa poikile, or a painted porch, his philosophy came to be known as Stoicism. Zeno believes that the world was ruled by a divine plan and that everything in nature, including humans, was there for a reason. The Stoics believed that to live in accordance with nature was the ultimate virtue. The most important derivative of this 'divine plan' theory was the belief that whatever happens, happens for a reason; there are no accidents; and all must simply be accepted as part of the plan. The good life involved accepting one's fate with indifference, even if suffering was involved. Indeed, courage in the face of suffering or danger was considered most admirable. In short, a Stoic is a person who may be sick, in pain, in peril, dying, in exile, or disgraced but is still happy. The Stoics did not value material possessions highly because they could be lost or taken away.Virtue alone was important. All people were expected to accept their stations in life and perform their duties without question. The joy in life came in knowing that one was participating in a master plan, even if that plan was incomprehensible to the individual. The only personal freedom was in choosing whether to act in accordance with nature's plan. In the Roman Empire, Stoicism won out over Epicureanism, perhaps because Stoicism was compatible with the Romans emphasis on law and order. The widespread appeal of Stoicism can be seen in the fact that it was embraced by Seneca, and philosopher; Epictetus, a slave; Maruc Aurelius, and emperor.

Briefly describe the life and work of Epicurus of Samos (ca. 341-270 BC). Describe the philosophy of Epicureanism. (pp. 69-70) Comment: As with Cynicism, the modern meaning of Epicurianism differs substantially from its original meaning. Today, Epicureanism refers to the pursuit of pleasure, and an Epicurean is someone who has refined tastes in food and wine. As Hergenhahn documents, the original Epicureans were devoted to simplicity in life and strived to avoid the sort of extremes in bodily pleasure involved in hedonism. Thus, in many respects, the original meaning of Epicurean is almost opposite to the modern usage.

Epicureanism and Stoicism were responses to the Skeptics' and Cynics' claims that philosophy had nothing useful to say about everyday life. Epicurus of Samos based his philosophy on Democritus's atomism but rejected his determinism. According to Epicurus, the atoms making up humans never lose their ability to move freely; hence, he postulated free will. It is important to realize, however, that it was the nature of atoms and atomic activity that gave humans their freedom, not a disembodied soul. Like Democritus, the epicureans were materialists, believing that " the universe is eminently physical, and that includes the soul of man." Epicurus also agreed with democritus that there was no afterlife because the soul was made up of freely moving atoms that scattered upon death. Atoms were never created or destroyed; they were only rearranged. It followed that the atoms constituting an individual would become part of another configuration following the individual's death. However, it was assumed that nothing was retained or transferred from one configuration to another. The good life must be attained in this world, for there is no other. The Epicureans preferred naturalistic explanations to supernatural ones, and they strongly protested against magic, astrology, and divination. Thus, the type of Hedonism (seeking pleasure and avoiding pain) prescribed by Epicurus emphasized the pleasure that results from having one's basic needs satisfied. In this sense, the good life for the Epicurean consisted more of the absence of pain than the presence of pleasure--at least, intense pleasure. Epicurus urged his followers to avoid power and fame because such things make others envious, and they may become enemies. Wise individuals attempt to live their lives unnoticed.

Epicureanism

Epicureanism and Stoicism were responses to the Skeptics' and Cynics' claims that philosophy had nothing useful to say about everyday life. The Epicureans preferred naturalistic explanations to supernatural ones, and they strongly protested against magic, astrology, and divination. Thus, the type of Hedonism (seeking pleasure and avoiding pain) prescribed by Epicurus emphasized the pleasure that results from having one's basic needs satisfied. In this sense, the good life for the Epicurean consisted more of the absence of pain than the presence of pleasure--at least, intense pleasure. Epicurus urged his followers to avoid power and fame because such things make others envious, and they may become enemies. Wise individuals attempt to live their lives unnoticed.

Epicurus of Samos

Epicurus of Samos based his philosophy on Democritus's atomism but rejected his determinism.

Describe the expansion of Islam during the Dark Ages. Describe the philosophies and contributions of Avicenna (980-1037), Averroes (1126-1198), and Maimonides (1135-1204). (pp. 82-85)

Expansion: During this time, Islam was a powerful force in the world. Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570, and in middle age, believers say he received a revelation from God instructing him to preach. He called his religion Islam, which means "surrender to God," and his followers were called Muslims (or Moslems). His teachings are contained in the Koran. This expansion brought the Muslims into contact with ancient works long lost to the Western world. Islamic philosophers translated, studied, and expanded on the ancient wisdom of Greece and Rome, and the writings of Aristotle were of special interest. By utilizing this wisdom, the Muslims made great strides in medicine, science, and mathematics--subjects that were of greatest interest during the expansion of the Islamic empire because of their practical value. Avicenna: was a child prodigy who had memorized the Koran by the age of 10. He wrote books on many topics, including medicine, mathematics, logic, metaphysics, Islamic theology, astronomy, politics, and linguistics. In most of his work, he borrowed heavily from Aristotle, but he made modifications in Aristotle's philosophy that persisted for hundreds of years. In his analysis of human thinking, Avicenna started with the five external senses--sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. Then he postulated seven "interior senses," which were arranged in a heirarchy. First is the common sense, which synthesizes the information provided by the external sense. Second is retentive imagination, the ability to remember the synthesized information from the common sense. The third and fourth are compositive animal imagination and compositive human imagination. Compositive imagination allows both humans and animals to learn what to approach or avoid in the environment. Fifth is the estimative power, the innate ability to make judgments about environmental objects. Lambs may have an innate fear of wolves, and humans may have an innate fear of spiders and snakes, or there may be a natural tendency to approach the things conductive to survival. Sixth is the ability to remember the outcomes of all the information processing that occurs lower in the heirarchy, and seventh is the ability to use that information. Averroes: disagreed with Avicenna that human intelligence is arranged in a heirarchy with only the highest level enabling humans to have contact with God. According to Averroes, all human experiences reflect God's influence. In almost everything else, though, Averroes agreed with Avicenna, and he too basically an Aristotelian. Averroes's writings are mainly commentaries in Aristotle's philosophy, with special emphasis on Aristotle's work on the senses, memory, sleep and waking, and dreams. Also, following Aristotle, Averroes said that only the active intellect aspect of the soul survives death, and because the active intellect is the same for everyone, nothing personal survives death. Maimonides: Maimonides, in addition to being a biblical and talmudic scholar, was a physician who, among other things, anticipated the modern concern with psychosomatic disorders by showing the relationship between ethical living and mental health. He wrote 'The Guide for the Perplexed' for scholars who were confused by the apparent conflict between religion and the scientific and philosophical thought of the day. Specifically, he sought a reconciliation between Judiasm and Aristotelian philosophy. He attempted to show the many passages from the Old Testament and the Talmud could be understood rationally and, therefore, need not be taken on faith alone. Other passages were to be understood only as allegory and not taken as literally true. He went so far as to say that is something is demonstrably false, it should be rejected, even if it is stated as true in the Bible or Talmud.

What is Scholasticism? Briefly describe the life, work, and philosophy of Peter Abelard (1079-1142). (pp. 86-89) Comment: Scholasticism represents the re-entry point of Aristotle's thought into the mainstream of religious thought in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Well over a thousand years after Aristotle's death, his thinking re-emerges in the form of Scholasticism, in which his writings are integrated into Christian theology. The downside of this development was that Aristotle's work became an unassailable part of religious dogma, and Aristotle's views - whether correct or incorrect - became required beliefs for obedient Christians. The upside of Scholasticism, however, is that the introduction of Aristotle's writings into the mainstream of Christian thought may have paved the way for later developments in the Renaissance, in which other Greek philosophers, myths, and literature became subjects of keen interest. The renewed interest in classical Greek thought during the Renaissance in turn fostered an intellectual and artistic atmosphere of greater freedom of enquiry that ultimately led to the development of science.

Finally, efforts were made to modify the works, especially those of Aristotle, and in modified form, they were incorporated in church dogma. Some of the keenest minds in the history of Western thought took on the Monumental tasks of synthesizing Aristotle's philosophy and Christian theology and showing what implications that synthesis had for living one's life. This synthesis came to be called Scholasticism. Peter Abelard: marks the shift toward Aristotle as the philosopher in Western philosophy. In addition to translating Aristotle's writings, Abelard introduced a method of study that was to characterize the Scholastics period. Using his Dialectic Method, he pitted conflicting authorities against one another; but through it all, the authority of the Bible was expected to prevail. The dialectic Method was controversial because it sometimes seemed to question the validity of religious assumptions. Abelard was not overly concerned about this issue, however, because he believed that God existed ad therefore all methods of inquiry should prove it. The believer, then, has nothing to fear from logic, reason, or even the direct study of nature.

Peter Lombard

He argued even more forcefully for the place of reason within Christianity than did St. Anselm. Perhaps even more important, Lombard insisted that God could be known by studying his works. There is no need to escape from the empirical world to understand God; one can learn about God by studying the empirical world. Thus, for Lombard, there were three ways to learn about God; faith, reason, and the study of God's works (the empirical world).

St. Anselm

He argued that perception and reason can and should supplement Christian faith. Although St. Anselm was basically an Augustinian, his acceptance of reason as a means of understanding God represented a major departure from Christian Tradition, which had emphasized faith.

St. Augustine

He combined Stoicism, Neoplatonism, and Judaism into a powerful Christian worldview that would dominate Western life and thought until the 13th century.

Averroes

He disagreed with Avicenna that human intelligence is arranged in a heirarchy with only the highest level enabling humans to have contact with God. According to Averroes, all human experiences reflect God's influence. In almost everything else, though, Averroes agreed with Avicenna, and he too basically an Aristotelian. Averroes's writings are mainly commentaries in Aristotle's philosophy, with special emphasis on Aristotle's work on the senses, memory, sleep and waking, and dreams. Also, following Aristotle, Averroes said that only the active intellect aspect of the soul survives death, and because the active intellect is the same for everyone, nothing personal survives death.

Peter Abelard

He marks the shift toward Aristotle as the philosopher in Western philosophy. In addition to translating Aristotle's writings, Abelard introduced a method of study that was to characterize the Scholastics period.

St. Thomas Aquinas

He was a large introspective person, who became a begging friar. Aquinas's greatest task (and achievement) was the reconciliation of faith and reason, which he accomplished by arguing effectively that reason and faith are not incompatible.

St. Albertus Magnus

He was one of the first Western philosophers to make a comprehensive review of both Aristotle's works and the Islamic and Jewish scholars' interpretations of them.

Who invented the ontological argument for the existence of God? Describe this argument. Describe the reconciliation of the use of reason and Christian faith as represented in the beliefs of St. Anselm (ca. 1033-1109) and Peter Lombard (ca. 1095-1160). (pp. 85-86)

In 'Faith Seeking Understanding,' St Anselm argued that perception and reason can and should supplement Christian faith. Although St. Anselm was basically an Augustinian, his acceptance of reason as a means of understanding God represented a major departure from Christian Tradition, which had emphasized faith. St. Anselm exemplified how reason could be used within the Christian faith with his famous 'ontological argument for the existence of God'. This is a complex argument, but essentially it says that if we can think of something, something must be causing the thought. That is, when we think of things, there must exist real things corresponding to those thoughts (reification). Peter Lombard: Also an Augustinian, he argued even more forcefully for the place of reason within Christianity than did St. Anselm. Perhaps even more important, Lombard insisted that God could be known by studying his works. There is no need to escape from the empirical world to understand God; one can learn about God by studying the empirical world. Thus, for Lombard, there were three ways to learn about God; faith, reason, and the study of God's works (the empirical world).

Maimonides

In addition to being a biblical and talmudic scholar, was a physician who, among other things, anticipated the modern concern with psychosomatic disorders by showing the relationship between ethical living and mental health.

Describe the philosophy of Neoplatonism. Briefly describe the perspectives of Philo (ca. 25 BC-AD 50) and Plotinus (ca. 204-270). Explain how Neoplatonism provided a platform for Christianity. (pp. 71-74)

Neoplatonism, however, stressed the most mystical aspects of Plato's philosophy and minimized its rational aspects. One brand of Neoplatonism combined Platonic philosophy with Judaism and, in so doing created two things lacking in the prevailing religions and philosophies-- a concern with individual immortality and human passion. Philo took the Biblical account of the creation of man as the starting point of his philosophy. From that account, we learn that the human body was created from the earth but that the human soul was part of God himself. Thus, humans have a dual nature: The body is lowly and despicable, and the soul is a fragment of the divine being or, at least, a ray of divine light. The life of an individual human can develop in one of two directions: downward, away from the inner light and toward the experiences of the flesh; or upward, away from experiences of the flesh and toward the inner light. Philo, like the Pythagoreans and Plato before him, condemned sensory experience because it could not provided knowledge. Accoring to Philo, all knowledge comes from God. To receive God's wisdom, however, the soul (mind) must be purified. That is, the mind must be made free of all sensory distractions. Real knowledge can be attained only when a purified, passive mind acts as a recipient of divine illumination. Plotinus arranged all things into a heirarchy, at the top of which was the One, or God. The One was supreme and unknowable. Next in the heirarchy was the Spirit, which was the image of the One. It was the Spirit that was part of every human soul, and it was by reflecting on it that we could come close to knowing the One. The third and lowest member of the heirarchy was the Soul. Although the Soul was inferior to the One and to the Spirit, it was the cause of all things that existed in the physical world. Although Plotinus was generally in agreement with Plato's philosophy, he did not share Plato's low opinion of sensory experience. Rather, he believed that the sensible world was beautiful, and he gave art, music, and attractive humans as examples. It was not that the sensible world was evil; it was simply less perfect than the spiritual world. The step from Neoplatonism to early Christianity was not a large or difficult one. To the Christian, the Other World of the Neoplatonists became the kingdom of God to be enjoyed after death.

Neoplatonism

Neoplatonism, however, stressed the most mystical aspects of Plato's philosophy and minimized its rational aspects. One brand of Neoplatonism combined Platonic philosophy with Judaism and, in so doing created two things lacking in the prevailing religions and philosophies-- a concern with individual immortality and human passion. The step from Neoplatonism to early Christianity was not a large or difficult one. To the Christian, the Other World of the Neoplatonists became the kingdom of God to be enjoyed after death.

St. Bonaventure

One of the most influential voices of conservatism was St. Bonaventure, who condemned the works of Aristotle.

Vedantism

One such influence came from the religions of India and Persia. Indian 'Vedantism', taught that perfection could be approximated by entering into semiecstatic trances.

Describe the cultural conditions from which Christianity emerged, including Vedantism, Zoroastrianism, and the mystery religions. Describe the beliefs of the following Christians: (a) Jesus (ca. 4 BC-AD 30), (b) St. Paul (ca. 10-64), (c) Emperor Constantine (ca. 280-337), and (d) St. Augustine (354-430). Describe St. Augustine's ideas concerning the will and the ways in which one can know God. (pp. 74-81) Comment: Introspection came to be an important concept in the early history of psychology and, as we see in this section, it was important to St. Augustine as well. Examination of one's inner experiences continues to be important in humanistic psychology today.

One such influence came from the religions of India and Persia. Indian 'Vedantism', taught that perfection could be approximated by entering into semiecstatic trances. Zoroastrianism, which taught that individuals are caught in an eternal struggle between wisdom and correctness on one hand and ignorance and evil on the other. All good things were thought to derive from the brilliant, divine sun and all bad things from darkness. Also influential were a number of ancient 'mystery religions' that entered the Greek and Roman worlds primarily from the Near East. Three examples are the cults of Magna Mater (Great Mother), Isis, and Mithras. The mystery religions (or cults) had several things in common; secret rites of initiation, ceremonies (such as some form of sacrifice) designed to bring initiates into communion with the patron deity or deities, an emphasis on death and rebirth, rituals providing purification and forgiveness of sins (such as confession and baptism in holy water), the confession of sin, sacramental dramas providing initiates the exaltation of a new life, and the providing of a feeling of community among believers. Clearly, there was much in common between the mystery religions and early Christianity. Incidentally, the popular god Mithras was said to have been born on Decemeber 25th in the presence of shepards. Jesus: Christian religion is centered around Jesus. He taught, among other things, that knowledge of good or evil is revealed by god and that, once revealed, such knowledge should guide human conduct. In any case, those who claimed that Jesus was the son of God came to be called Christians. But before it was to become a dominant force in the western world, Christianity needed a philosophical basis, and this was provided to a large extent by Plato's philosophy. St. Paul: was the first to claim and preach that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah. While on the road to Damascus, Paul is said to have had a vision that Jesus was the Messiah foretold by Hebrew prophets. Upon this vision, Saul of Tarsus was converted to Paul, Jesus became the Christ, and Christianity was born. Paul was a Roman citizen whose education involved both Judaic teachings and Greek philosophy. From Judaic tradition, he learned that there was one god who created the universe and shapes the destiny of humans. God is Omniscient (knows everything), omnipresent (is everywhere), and omnipotent (has unlimited power). Humans fell from a state of grace in the Garden of Eden, and they have been seeking atonement ever since for this original sin. To these beliefs, Paul added the belief that God had sacrificed his son to atone for our shared transgressions--that is, original sin. This sacrifice made a personal reunion with God possible. The human was now clearly divided into three parts: the body, the mind, and the spirit. As it was for the Pythagoreans, Platonists, and Neoplatonists, the body was the major source of difficulty for early Christians.The spirit was the spark of God within us and was the most highly valued aspect of human nature. Through our spirit, we were capable of becoming close to God, and the spirit was viewed as immortal. Humans, then, are caught in an eternal struggle between sinful, bodily urges and God's law. For Paul, all physical pleasure was sinful, but most sinful of all was sexual pleasure. This state of conflict involving the good, the bad, and the rational is very much like the one described by Freud many centuries later. Emperor Constantine: charged tge bishops with the task of arriving at a single set of documents to be used by all Christian communities. Thus was created the "Constantine Bible," which was lost to history, so its contents are unknown. The controversial and influential bishop of Alexandria, first decreed the 27 books that now constitute the New Testament and only those books be regarded as canonical. However, after Constantine, and largely due to his efforts, a single set of beliefs and documents defined Christianity, and this helped promote its popularity. St. Augustine: It was he who combined Stoicism, Neoplatonism, and Judaism into a powerful Christian worldview that would dominate Western life and thought until the 13th century. For Augustine, as for earlier Christians, ultimate knowledge consisted of knowing God. The human was seen as a dualistic being consisting of a body not unlike that possessed by animals and a spirit that was close to or part of God. The war between the two aspects of human nature, already present in Platonic philosophy, became the Christian struggle between heaven and hell--that is, between God and Satan. "The Will" God speaks to each individual through his/her soul, but the individual need not listen. According to Augustine, individuals are free to choose between the way of the flesh (Satan), which is sinful, and the way of God. According to Augustine, people have an 'internal sense' that helps them evaluate their experiences by providing an awareness of truth, error, personal obligation, and moral right. Deviation from this internal sense causes the feeling of guilt. In fact, one need not actually act contrary to this internal sense to feel guilty but only ponder doing so. Just thinking about doing something sinful will cause as much guilt as actually doing something sinful. All this results in behaviour being controlled internally rather than externally. That is, instead if controlling behaviour through externally administered rewards and punishments, it is controlled by personal feelings of virtue or guilt. Augustine's doctrine if 'predestination' raised many questions that were never satisfactorily answered. In most cases, the doctrine was rejected in favor of the belief that all humans can earn salvation by accepting Christ as their savior and by avoiding sin during their lifetime. 'Augustine's Confessions' Augustine was instrumental in shifting the locus of control of human behaviour from the outside to the inside. For him, the acceptance of free will made personal responsibility meaningful. Because individuals are personally responsible for their actions, it is possible to praise or blame them, and people can feel good or bad about themselves depending on what choices they make. If people periodically chose evil over good, however, they need not feel guilty forever. By disclosing the actual or intended sin (as by confession), they are forgiven and again can pursue the pure, Christian life. 'Knowing God' For Augustine, it was not necessary to wait for the death of the body to know God; knowledge of God was attainable within an individual's lifetime. For Augustine then, a second way of knowing God (the first being the scriptures) was introspection, or the examination of one's inner experiences. We see here the influence of Plato, who also believed that truth must be attained through introspection. Augustine introspection, however, became a means of achieving a personal communion with God. According to St. Augustine, the feeling of love that one experiences when one us contemplating God creates an ecstasy unsurpassed among human emotions. Such a feeling is the primary goal of human existence; anything that is compatible with achieving such a state of ecstasy is good, whereas anything that distracts from its achievement is bad. Faith and a personal, emotional union with God were, for Augustine, the most important ingredients of human existence. Reason, which had been supreme for the Greeks, became inferior not only to faith but also to human emotion.

Philo

Philo took the Biblical account of the creation of man as the starting point of his philosophy. Accoring to Philo, all knowledge comes from God. To receive God's wisdom, however, the soul (mind) must be purified. That is, the mind must be made free of all sensory distractions. Real knowledge can be attained only when a purified, passive mind acts as a recipient of divine illumination.

Plotinus

Plotinus arranged all things into a heirarchy, at the top of which was the One, or God. Although Plotinus was generally in agreement with Plato's philosophy, he did not share Plato's low opinion of sensory experience. Rather, he believed that the sensible world was beautiful, and he gave art, music, and attractive humans as examples. It was not that the sensible world was evil; it was simply less perfect than the spiritual world.

Pyrrho of Elis

Pyrro of Elis is usually considered the founder of the school of Skepticism, although skeptics had much in common with the earlier Sophists.

Briefly describe the life and work of Pyrrho of Elis (ca. 365-275 BC). Describe the philosophy of Skepticism. How did widespread Skepticism come to help the spread of Christianity? (pp. 67-68)

Pyrro of Elis is usually considered the founder of the school of Skepticism, although skeptics had much in common with the earlier Sophists. The Skeptics' main target of attack was dogmatism. For them, a dogmatist was anyone claiming to have arrived at an indisputable truth. The Skeptics believed that the arguments for and against any philosophical doctrine were equally compelling. Because all claims of truth appeared equivocal, the Skeptics advocated a suspension of judgment. They were not dogmatic in their beliefs, however, saying always, this is how things appear to us or this is how things appear to me.They were not affirming or denying any belief; they were only claiming that they were unaware of any reliable criteria for distinguishing among various claims of truth. The Skeptics noted that because no matter what one believed it could turn out to be false, one could avoid the frustration of being wrong by simply not believing in anything. By refraining from making judgments about things that could not truly be understood.

What are realism, nominalism, and conceptualism? (pp. 86-88)

Realists: Those claiming that universals and essences had a real, independent existence. Nominalists: To them, what others called universals are nothing more than convenient verbal labels that summarize similar experiences. The debate was profound because both the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle accepted Realism. Nominalism was much more in accordance with empirical philosophy than it was with rationalism. The main thrust of Abelard's argument was that we should not confuse words with things. Abelard argued that logic and physics were two different disciplines, and he wanted to keep them sharply separate. Abelard accused Wiliam of confusing the two disciplines, and in the process, committing the fallacy of reification (believing that if you can name something, there must necessarily be something real that corresponds to the name). Conceptualism: Abelard proposed it as a compromise between Realism and Nominalism. He argued that universal essences do not exist but similarities among categories of experiences do.

What were the Dark Ages and when did they begin? How did the Crusades lead to the rediscovery of Aristotle's work? (pp. 81-82)

Some historians mark the beginning of that portion of the Middle Ages known as the Dark Ages with the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410; Others with the death of Augustine in 430; and others with the abdication of the last Roman emperor in 476. It was during those 'holy wars' that Aristotle's writings were rediscovered. Many centuries earlier, mainly because of the conquests of Alexander the Great, the Greek influence had been spread over a large area in which Greek philosophy, science, and art came to flourish.In fact, many believe that the Greeks overextended themselves and were thus unable to control their empire. When the Romans began to invade this empire, Greek scholars fled into territories later conquered by the Muslims. These scholars carried with them many Greek works of art and philosophy, among them the works of Aristotle. Aristotle's works were preserved in the great Islamic universities and mosques and were used to develop Islamic philosophy, religion, mathematics, and medicine. The Muslim armies moved west, and the Christian armies moved east. The clash between the two resulted in the bloody holy wars, but it also brought the West back into contact with Aristotle's philosophy. At first, church authorities welcomed Aristotle's writings; then, after more careful analysis, they banned the works. It was clear that for Aristotle's thoughts to be "accepted," they needed to be Christianized. Long before Aristotle's writings were rediscovered by the West, however, the Muslims were benefiting greatly from them. In fact, more than 200 years before the West attempted to Christianize Aristotle's philosophy, several Muslim philosophers busied themselves attempting to make it compatible with Islam.

Describe the philosophies of St. Albertus Magnus (ca. 1193-1280) and St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), as well as Hergenhahn's summary of the limitations of Scholastic philosophy. (pp. 89-91)

St. Albertus Magnus: was one of the first Western philosophers to make a comprehensive review of both Aristotle's works and the Islamic and Jewish scholars' interpretations of them. Magnus presented Aristotle's views on sensation, intelligence, and memory to the church scholars and attempted to show how human beings' rational powers could be used to achieve salvation. Following Aristotle, Magnus performed detailed observations of nature, and he himself made significant contributions to botany. St. Thomas Aquinas: was a large introspective person, whom his fellow students referred to as the dumb ox. He came from a distinguished, aristocratic family. It was assumed that following his training for the priesthood, Aquinas would return to Monte Cassino, where the family's influence would help him become abbot. Instead he joined the Dominican order and became a begging friar. With this decision, he turned his back on family wealth and power and reduced his chances of advancement within the church hierarchy. Aquinas did as much anybody to synthesis Aristotle's philosophical works and the Christian tradition. This was a major feat, but it had an important negative aspect. Once Aristotle's ideas were assimilated into church dogma, they were no longer challengeable. In fact, Aristotle's writings became almost as sacred as the Bible. This was unfortunate because much of what Aristotle had said later turned out to be false. Aquinas's greatest task (and achievement) was the reconciliation of faith and reason, which he accomplished by arguing effectively that reason and faith are not incompatible. For him, as for the other Scholastics, all paths led to the same truth--God and his glory. Thus, God could now be known through revelation; through scripture; through examination of inner experience; or through logic, reason, and the examination of nature. One of the most influential voices of conservatism was St. Bonaventure, who condemned the works of Aristotle. Aquinas's Influence: Aquinas's work eventually had several effects: it divided reason and faith, making it possible to study them separately. It made the study of nature respectable. An it showed the world that argument over church dogma was possible. Although his goal was to strengthen the position of the church by admitting reason as a means of understanding God, Aquinas's work had the opposite effect. Several philosophers following Aquinas argued that faith and reason could be studied separately and that reason could be studied without considering its theological implications. Philosophy without religious overtones was becoming a possibility--a possibility that had not existed for well over a thousand years New information was accepted only if it could be shown to be compatible with church dogma; if this was not possible the information was rejected. "The truth" had been found, and there was no need to search elsewhere. Although the Scholastics were outstanding scholars and hairsplitting logicians, they offered little of value to either philosophy or psychology. They were much more interested in maintaining the status quo than in revealing any new information. As mentioned earlier, once Aquinas separated faith and reason, it was only a matter of time before there would be those wishing to exercise reason while remaining unencumbered by faith.

St. Paul

St. Paul: was the first to claim and preach that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah. For Paul, all physical pleasure was sinful, but most sinful of all was sexual pleasure. This state of conflict involving the good, the bad, and the rational is very much like the one described by Freud many centuries later.

Skepticism

The Skeptics noted that because no matter what one believed it could turn out to be false, one could avoid the frustration of being wrong by simply not believing in anything. By refraining from making judgments about things that could not truly be understood.

dogmatist

The Skeptics' main target of attack was dogmatism. For them, a dogmatist was anyone claiming to have arrived at an indisputable truth.

Diogenes

The considered fame of Anisthenes was exceeded by his disciple Diogenes, the son of a disreputable money changer who had been sent to prison for defacing money. In his personal life, Diogenes rejected conventional religions, manners, housing, food, and fashion. He lived by begging and proclaiming his brotherhood with not only all humans but also animals. Diogenes lived an extremely primitive life and was given the nickname 'Cynic', which literally means 'doglike'. In fact, the Cynics argued that nonhuman animals provide the best model for human conduct. First, all the needs of nonhuman animals are natural and, therefore, the satisfaction of those needs is straightforward. Second, nonhuman animals do not have religion. Clearly, the primary message of the Cynics was that nature, not social conventions, should guide human behaviour. Social conventions are human inventions, and living in accordance with them causes shame, guilt, hypocrisy, greed, envy, and hate, among other things. There fore, 'the Cynic rejects the family and all the distinctions based on sex, birth, rank, race, or education.'

Scholasticism

The synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy with Christian teachings. Finally, efforts were made to modify the works, especially those of Aristotle, and in modified form, they were incorporated in church dogma. Some of the keenest minds in the history of Western thought took on the Monumental tasks of synthesizing Aristotle's philosophy and Christian theology and showing what implications that synthesis had for living one's life. This synthesis came to be called Scholasticism.

Occam's razor

This belief that extraneous assumptions should be 'shaved' from explanations or arguments came to be known as 'Occam's Razor.'

realism

Those claiming that universals and essences had a real, independent existence.

hedonism

Thus, the type of Hedonism (seeking pleasure and avoiding pain)

nominalism

To them, what others called universals are nothing more than convenient verbal labels that summarize similar experiences. The debate was profound because both the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle accepted Realism. Nominalism was much more in accordance with empirical philosophy than it was with rationalism.

dialectic method

Using his Dialectic Method, he pitted conflicting authorities against one another; but through it all, the authority of the Bible was expected to prevail. The dialectic Method was controversial because it sometimes seemed to question the validity of religious assumptions.

William of Occam

William of Occam, a british-born Franciscan monk, accepted Aquinas's division of faith and reason and pursued the latter. Occam believed that in explaining things, no unnecessary assumptions should be made--in other words, that explanations should always be kept as parsimonious (simple) as possible.

Describe the philosophy of William of Occam (ca. 1290-1350). What is Occam's razor? Why is William of Occam's philosophy considered to be a turning point in philosophy? (pp. 91-92)

William of Occam, a british-born Franciscan monk, accepted Aquinas's division of faith and reason and pursued the latter. Occam believed that in explaining things, no unnecessary assumptions should be made--in other words, that explanations should always be kept as parsimonious (simple) as possible. This belief that extraneous assumptions should be 'shaved' from explanations or arguments came to be known as 'Occam's Razor.' For Occam, sensory experience provided information about the world--period. Occam's philosophy marks the end of scholasticism. Despite the church's efforts to suppress them, Occam's views were widely taught and can be viewed as the beginning of modern empirical philosophy.

Zoroastrianism

Zoroastrianism, which taught that individuals are caught in an eternal struggle between wisdom and correctness on one hand and ignorance and evil on the other.