Unit 2 Ids - APUSH

Republican Motherhood

"Republican Motherhood" is a phrase used to describe the role of women throughout and after the American Revolution from the 1770s and into the 1820s. The role of women changed during the war because they became the masters of their households, and they began to see the fruits of their independence and support of the army. Abigail Adams represents this movement as she advocated for women's rights and reminded John Adams to "remember the ladies." Its core belief conveys that daughters of patriots should be educated in the values of the United States, such as life, liberty, and unalienable rights, in order to better the upcoming generations. The concept of marriage changed, as it shifted from a master-servant relationship to a compassionate unity of friends. While women became the head of the private sphere, they were still mostly shut out of the public sphere, such as politics. However, the new schools for women encouraged women to ask for more rights later on. This ideology played a major role in the history of feminism and the women's rights movement in the 1830s. It supported educated women who then went on to create an outspoken, strong middle class of women.

"The Virtuous Republic"

"The Virtuous Republic" refers to the idea that government leaders should be expected to put the interest of the nation above themselves. The idea of the Virtuous Republic came from the Roman republic along with enlightenment ideas. Some aspects of the Virtuous Republic include that the government needed to rule with the consent of the governed, the government needed a system of checks and balance to limit power, and it was necessary for the United States to have a written constitution. Other ideas included having a selfless and educated citizenry, elections should be frequent so as not to give a person too much power, and woman were in charge of raising and educating virtuous citizens. The Virtuous Republic fed into the idea of American exceptionalism and alluded to how Americans believed that their country was favorable to God.

Abigail Adams

Abigail Adams played a key role during the American Revolution. She was one of the first "feminists" who was an educated advocate for women's equality. Abigail was also the wife of John Adams. While John was in Philadelphia, Abigail remained with their four children in Massachusetts. She kept John informed of events that were taking place in Boston by writing him letters. He often sought her advice on decisions he made throughout the Continental Congress and through his term as president. She despised the idea that men held absolute power and the business of slavery. She pressed for liberation of slaves and women's rights, thus leading to an increased desire in independence. In the letters, Abigail and John discussed government and politics, giving modern historians eyewitness accounts of the Revolutionary War.

Thomas Hutchinson

As Anne Hutchinson's descendent, Thomas Hutchinson was destined for greatness. His political career began when he was appointed to be a member of the British general court from 1746-1749. He then went on to serve as a member of the government for over twenty years where he rose to very high positions. As governor of Massachusetts prior to and during the outbreak of the American Revolution, Hutchinson was a controversial figure because of his loyalty to the crown. Though he was not in favor of the Stamp Act, his job entitled him to enforce it among the people living in Massachusetts, resulting in the destruction of his home after a mob riot. Hutchinson represented the polarizing and complex role of a governor during the American Revolution.

Tea Act (1773)

As a way to raise money and relieve the British East India Company from the debt and ultimately resolve the possibility of a worldwide depression, the British Parliament attempted to create a tea monopoly when enforcing the Tea Act of 1773. To do this, they lowered their price of tea, encouraging Americans to buy it. This was designed to eventually put the competing tea companies out of business, thus creating a monopoly within the colonies. The Americans, however, saw through this plan and rebel groups, including the Sons of Liberty, quickly sought action against the tax, eventually resulting in the Boston Tea Party, where 300 chests of tea were dumped overboard in the Boston Harbor. This tax deepened the American's hatred for the British and was ultimately a leading factor for the American Revolution.

Committees of Correspondence

As the idea of liberty was promulgated in the colonies, groups like the Committees of Correspondence were formed to encourage opposition of Britain. Perhaps the most proactive of the Committees was that of Boston, which formed before the passage of the Stamp Act in the 1760s and included people such as James Warren and Samuel Adams, cousin of John Adams. Boston's Committee communicated with other colonies about the Stamp Act and encouraged them to oppose the tax. Committees such as this one allowed colonies to unite over their common resistance, a consensus which ushered into the American Revolution.

Phase I (Northern Campaign)

At the start of the Revolution in 1776, the American militia was half the size of the British army, but they were fueled by a passion for the cause of American independence. After 3,000 American men were captured by the British due to a retreat in New York, the militia grew discouraged, and many men simply went home. George Washington's armies fell from 19,000 men to a mere 5,000. Washington improved morale by planning two successful surprise attacks on Hessian soldiers, and reading quotes by essayist Thomas Paine that depicted the American soldier as a hero who should be praised and respected. Shortly thereafter, in 1777, the Americans had their first official victory at Saratoga after a miscommunication between British generals left their armies weak. The difficult winter of 1777-1778 discouraged the American generals and soldiers, but reassuring news came from the French in 1778 when France agreed to assist the Americans by supplying ammunition and the assistance of their navy. The Spanish followed France's lead and agreed to side with the colonists. Although the alliances made with these countries were leading factors in the American victory, France and Spain were originally more focused on regaining the territory in the Western Hemisphere that they had lost to the British.

Benedict Arnold

Benedict Arnold was born on January 14, 1741 in America. In history, he is known for being a general under the command of George Washington during the War for Independance. However, he is not remembered favorably. In 1780, Cornwallis moved his troops to for West Point on the Hudson River, all the while, adding loyalist colonials and slaves into his army. The Americans almost lost this fort to him because Benedict Arnold abandoned the continental army and fled to fight on the side of Cornwallis and the British. When called out on his treason, Arnold claimed he did not want to be in an alliance with "the enemy of the protestant faith" because at this time, because America had created an alliance with France, a catholic nation.

Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. As well as being an inventor, author, and all-around Renaissance man, Franklin served as one of the main liaisons between the American colonists and King Louis XVI of France. Franklin was able to convince the monarch to send ammunition and other supplies as well as reinforcements led by Marquis de Lafayette after the victory at Saratoga. The backing of the French, and later the Spanish, gave the Americans the edge to defeat the British and end the war. Franklin was instrumental in creating this alliance.

Black Soldiers

Black soldiers fought for both the British and the Americans during the American Revolution, all searching for freedom. While the patriots were fighting for the freedom of their country from the oppression of Great Britain, many black soldiers simply wanted personal liberation from slavery. Great Britain recruited slaves by promising them this freedom, and encouraged many slaves to escape, further complicating the war in the south. Examples such as the Ethiopian Regiment under Dunmore represent Great Britain's ploy to attract slaves in the south to their side. In the end, 10,000 black soldiers fought for the crown, while in comparison, 5,000 fought alongside the patriots. General Washington allowed free blacks to fight; however, Congress made the recruitment of black soldiers illegal in 1776. During a low point in the war, Congress passed the First Rhode Island Regiment, which bolstered the Continental army's numbers with a regiment of free blacks and slaves. All of the other colonies besides North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, allowed black soldiers to join their ranks because the army needed more men. When General Clinton took control of the army from General Howe in 1779, he used the southern colony's dependency on slavery to attract regiments of runaway soldiers. In particular, James Forten, and Crispus Attucks are remembered as two black men who fought bravely, the latter gave his life, for the patriot cause. However, despite their invaluable contribution to the war, African-Americans were not recognized in the Declaration of Independence or the Constitution later on. They did not receive their freedom or any rights until the 1860s, when the institution of slavery was formally abolished, and the 1960s when they were granted the right to vote.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

Congress passed the Northwest Ordinance on July 13, 1787. It created the Northwest Territory, a set of 3-5 states, which is recognized as the first organized region of the new United States. The region includes the land east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio River. The document set up a government for the new territory, described the process in which a new state would be admitted into the Union, and guaranteed that the new states would exist with the same rights that the original 13 colonies supported. Now, the west was not viewed as a colonial power, but rather a part of the United States as a whole. Jefferson described it as the "empire of liberty." It also outlawed slavery in the new states, calling for the protection of civil liberties for all. This would be a source of tension later on in the civil war. Finally, the document discussed how to deal with the Native Americans, who refused to acknowledge the settlers, and illegal settlers, also known as "squatters," in an effort to avoid constant warfare in the new land.

Richard Henry Lee

He was a Virginia delegate on the First Continental Congress and the Second Continental Congress. In Philadelphia in 1775, within the Second Continental Congress, Lee suggested to the other delegates that America should claim independence from Great Britain and cut all ties from the country. Pushed by Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, Lee presented the idea to the Congress. Being Virginian brought in support from the Southern states and caused other delegates to being the support for the revolution. Lee's suggestion started the talk and movement for independence within the committee and what lead to the writing of the Declaration of Independence.

Whigs and Tories

During the American Revolution, Patriots and Loyalist were also knows and Whigs and Tories respectively. Starting after 1768, the Whigs named themselves after the British political party who had similar views in regards to colonial policies. Tories, on the other hand, were colonists who supported British rule and were also called Royalists. Loyalists went on to become the more common term. These names are significant because they are just one example of the divisions between the colonists that became evident and critically important during the war.

Women in the Revolution

During the American Revolution, women played an important role in assisting the Continental Army, producing goods and holding down the house while the men were off at war. The position of women in society changed after the revolution. Despite the promises of equal rights that the political leaders preached, politicians still did not want women to be full citizens. The idea of "Republican Motherhood" arose, which stated that women were responsible for educating their sons, the next generation of political leaders. Although this stance seems degrading in modern times, this idea actually improved the status of women because it promoted female education. Unlike the men had planned, women's education empowered women to do something with their lives and educations in the real world, rather than encouraging them to stay at home. This change in the perception of women began the idea of the woman being the "Queen of the Home," which led to the deterioration of the man as a "Master" of his wife. Instead, marriage began to be associated with mutual respect.

John Adams

During the Enlightenment, Adams was an educated political theorist, which led to his role during the revolution. He was a fiery delegate from Massachusetts in the Continental Congress. During the revolution, Adams publicly spoke against Britain and their many taxes. Adams played a key role in America's independence because of his persistence during the Continental Congress on issues such as drafting a declaration of why America wanted to separate from Britain. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in the writing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, and he helped negotiate the Treaty of Paris in 1783, which ended the American Revolution. Later in life, John Adams would become the second president of the Unites States.

Saratoga

During the summer of 1777, British General John Burgoyne made plans to move south from Canada to join his fellow British commander, Sir William Howe, who was then stationed in New York. Burgoyne had the intentions of isolating all of New England with .Howe. However, Howe, having no knowledge of Burgoyne's plans to move south, moved his army to Pennsylvania. The American army, led by Benedict Arnold and Horatio Gates, surrounded Burgoyne's station just outside of Saratoga, New York. The Battles of Saratoga were fought 18 days apart and resulted in the surrender of the British. This was the first big win for the Americans. Almost simultaneously, Benjamin Franklin had been in France trying to convince them to assist the war against the British. The Battles at Saratoga helped show the French that the Americans have a chance of winning. After France allied with the Americans, Spain did as well. Not only did France and Spain supply food and men for the army, but they also sent expert military leaders to train the American soldiers. These battles were a major turning point for the Revolution. It helped to boost the morale of the radicals, and it also showed hope for the Revolution. The Americans were very strong after the French and Spanish joined the war with them, and much of the American successes in the war are accredited to the French and Spanish.

Ethan Allen

Ethan Allen was a patriot was born in Litchfield, Connecticut in 1738. He is most known for being the leader of the Green Mountain Boys. This group was created when New York landlords tried to claim property worked by other farmers in the mid-1770s. Allen insisted the land should belong to the people working on it, and by doing so, Ethan Allen and his Green Mountain Boys eventually created the boundary for the state of Vermont. Allen and his Green Mountains Boys are most known for their assistance at Fort Ticonderoga in New York. In 1775, they worked with the local militia to surround Fort Ticonderoga, causing the British to surrender.

Fort Ticonderoga

Fort Ticonderoga was the location of a very important victory for the Americans during the early stages of the American War for Independance. In May of 1775, Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys with local militia were able to surround Fort Ticonderoga, causing it to surrender. Another reason Fort Ticonderoga is important is because Washington's commander of artillery, Henry Knox, took cannons from this Fort the next winter to assist with the battle of Bunker Hill. Even though the Americans did not win this battle, the British were not able to fulfil their goal of taking Boston. Without these cannons, the British may have been able to capture Boston which would have made winning the war much more difficult.

Baron von Steuben

Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, better known as Baron von Steuben, was a Prussian-born military expert who essentially gave Washington's military a make-over. Born in Prussia in 1730, Steuben played an active role in the Seven Years War and eventually rose to the rank of a captain. Steuben moved back to Europe after the Seven Years War, where he was one of 15 men chosen to study warfare with Fredrick the Great. In 1778, Steuben was sent back to America where he reinstated Washington's army that was falling apart at the time. Much credit for the success of the American Revolution can be credited to Baron von Steuben because of the multitude of military tasks and drills he used to sharpen the American army. As a very efficient man, Steuben wrote the "Blue Book," a book based on drills for how to properly train, equip, and prepare an army for warfare. This book served as the first drill manual for the United States Army for 30 years after it was written.

General Henry Clinton

General Henry Clinton served as the commander in chief of the British troops in the Revolutionary war beginning in 1778, and he served as second in command in 1775. Previously, Clinton had been part of the New York militia and served in the 7 years war as a major general, where he was injured. His demonstration of loyalty to the crown of England, such as his efforts in the Battle of Bunker Hill and in the fighting around New York, was not appreciated by the British citizens, who blamed him for the loss instead of General Cornwallis, whom he foolishly abandoned in the final stages of the war. General Henry Clinton's lack of vigor ultimately caused Great Britain to lose the war because apathetic view of the battles resulted in his troops fighting defensively and even passively. Clinton's lack of vigor in the war illuminated two important traits of English society during the late 1700s: that their society was extremely presumptuous about their empire's strength, which generated the second new trait of a decline in their opinion that England feverently needed something, such as the colonies, to economically support their country.

George Grenville

George Grenville was a British prime minister who advocated the Revenue Act of 1764 and was the author of the Stamp Act of 1765. The Revenue Act refers to a series of indirect taxes placed on the colonists in 1764 which required that all exports be shipped through England initially, but were generally ignored because they were not enforced. However, the Stamp Act, a direct tax that required all legal documents to have a certain stamp on them that had to be purchased, was met with boycotts, newly formed opposition groups, and, eventually, the rebellion of the colonists. The colonists did not feel like the British had the right to levy a direct tax on them, even if the British were desperate for money to pay soldiers that had fought in defense of the colonists in the French and Indian War and were paying twenty-six times the tax the colonists were paying. Overall, Grenville's Stamp Act resulted in the colonists rising together against the unfair obligation of taxation without representation, leading to support of other ideals that the colonists believed were necessary to build a better country.

Quartering Act (1765)

In 1765, Parliament passed the Quartering Act in order to guarantee living space for the british soldiers stationed in the colonies. Soldiers were seen as necessary in the colonies because of possible Indian and/or French attacks. Colonists had to provide supplies and barracks for these soldiers. If excess space was needed, colonists were expected to provide living space in their own inns, stables, and houses. At this time, colonists were already angered by the Stamp and Declaratory Act, and the Quartering Act would serve as another source of anger on the road to revolution. The Quartering Act was important due the fact that the already furious colonists were forced to give up their own earnings and homes for the very people they resented most, which acted as another motive for the growing revolution.

Phase III (NY and Penn.)

In 1781, after their win in Cowpens, South Carolina, General Nathanael Greene led the Americans towards Yorktown to attack the Cornwallis's station in Yorktown. Cornwallis needed the assistance of the British troops in New York led by General Clinton. When Clinton and his soldiers moved south, American General Washington's army surrounded Clinton's troops. This forced Cornwallis to surrender. Once news of this defeat reached the civilians in London, the war efforts ceased and peace negotiations opened up. In September of 1783, the British and Americans finalized the Treaty of Paris, and America was now independent. America also gained Florida, Canada, all of the land east of the Mississippi, and the right to fish in the Atlantic off the coast of Canada. America has never known a greater political accomplishment.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

In 1783, representatives from the United States and England met in Paris to write and sign a treaty that would end the revolutionary war and recognize American independence. The Treaty of Paris came into discussion in early 1782, after the British surrendered to American troops at the battle of Yorktown. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay became the voices for the United States in Paris, and the three men joined with the British and the French to draft the treaty. Along with ending the war, the Treaty of Paris gave American Fisherman the right to fish in British waters along the coast of Canada, and it gave the colony access to territory between the Allegheny Mountains and the Mississippi River. This allowed for colonies in the North to have greater success in the fish market and for the United States to about double in size. In terms of England's demands, the Americans agreed to end the persecution of loyalists and to return all the land that was taken from loyalists during the war.

Suffolk Resolves

In the early 1740s, the British dissolved the right for representative provincial government in Massachusetts. The people of Suffolk county, MA were infuriated, and so several delegated from surrounding towns met at Milton to discuss what to do next. The final consensus of the meeting was that the colonists should refuse to obey the Acts. The delegated called for a boycott of all taxation from the British. These requests were written into the Suffolks Resolves, and Paul Revere took them to Pennsylvania, where representatives from twelve out of thirteen colonies were meeting in the First Continental Congress. The representatives of the congress endorsed the Suffolks Resolves, and they were set in motion in 1774.

Winter of Valley Forge (1777)

In the 1770s, the Continental Army had experienced a summer of losing battles, lowering their morale significantly. That winter, however, George Washington marched the army into battle at Valley Forge, where many soldiers died of cold, sickness, and insufficient food supply. However, General von Steuben came to the army's aid and trained the soldiers, shaping them into well-disciplined fighters. Though the winter of Valley Forge was tough on the army, the army that came out of the winter was ("Very strong, very tough"—Dr. Jack Henderson) stronger, more disciplined, and more resilient.

Trenton and Princeton, New Jersey

In the very early morning on December 26, 1776, Washington and his troops gathered into boats and traveled across the Delaware River to perform a surprise attack on the Hessian mercenaries Britain hired who were stationed in Trenton, New Jersey. This was due the seemingly bleak future of the Americans after a near escape during the British attack on New York. The Hessians were unable to successfully fight back because it was the night after Christmas and winter. Typically wars were not held on holidays or during the colder months. Nine days later, on January 3, 1777, the American army attacked the British soldiers in a similar fashion in Princeton, New Jersey. Although these battles were relatively small, this was important because it marked the first wins for the Patriots.

John Dickinson and Letters from a Farmer

John Dickinson was an important political figure in colonial America during and after the American Revolution for many reasons. He was a member in the First and Second Continental Congresses of 1774 and 1776, respectively, and he contributed to the writing of the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution. He created the Olive Branch Petition of 1775 in an attempt to avoid war, but it was rejected by the British. Although he did not sign the Declaration of Independence because of his belief that doing so without a foreign ally was dangerous, he did fight alongside the Delaware militia during the Revolutionary War. Perhaps his most highly respected contribution addition to the fuel of the revolution was his writing Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer to the Inhabitants to the Inhabitants of the British Colonies in 1767. These were a series of letters written in response to the Townshend Acts, giving logic to his understanding of what colonial rights should be as well as to the unjust oppression of the colonists by the British. These letters encouraged the colonists to fight for what their beliefs, especially the belief of what a genuinely free should look like.

John Locke

John Locke lived from the 1630s to the early 1700s; he was a philosopher born in England but lived in the Netherlands and was a major contributor to the Enlightenment. His ideas influenced the system of government and general ideals of the colonists during the era of revolution in the late 1700s. Locke believed in the natural rights of humans. He believed that revolution was necessary when a government failed to do what it was created to do, in this case, the British Monarchy and Parliament failing to support and represent the colonies of the New World. Another of Locke's influential ideas was that a government needed only limited power, which would be expressed through the system of Checks and Balances, and Separation of Powers. Thomas Jefferson's ideas mirrored Locke's thoughts concerning the revolution as well as many other figures. Locke believed in a society that would not be restrained by a tyrannical government but would thrive as a place of toleration, balance, education, and happiness, a concept reflected in the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and nearly all other aspects of the ideal American life.

Issue of Slavery with COA

Just before the Declaration of Independence was signed and adopted in July of 1776, a revision was made to the final draft to remove the passage that opposed slavery. The topic was debated furiously among politicians, because both sides of the argument presented compelling evidence to support their opinion. Those who wanted to continue to have blacks enslaved claimed that it was impossible to keep the colonies' economy intact without the cheap, forced labor. However, the logic of the anti-slavery believers was just as convincing. They presented the hypocrisy of fighting for freedom from repression by the British while continuing to own other people as slaves against their will. Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence, fought adamantly against slavery, even though he was known to have hundreds of slaves of his own. After the colonists finally won independence, there was little to no talk of ending slavery for a long time, proving that the removal of the Jefferson's passage on slavery was a missed opportunity to create a truly free country years earlier.

George III

King George began his rule in 1760 in Great Britain. Under his rule, Great Britain collected a lot of its debt. While under the throne, he lead Great Britain into the Seven Year's War alongside the American colonists. Additionally, to regain the money lost during the Seven Years War, he imposed taxes upon the colonists such as the Sugar Act, Stamp Act, and Tea Act. Each of these attempts failing and angering the Americans and British. Already angry and ready for war, George denied the Olive Branch Petition sent from America as a last resort to reconcile with the Mother Country. It was during the creation of the Declaration of Independence that the Americans listed their grievances against George, who they believed to be a "tyrant". Throughout America's fight for independence, King George was there leading Britain against unruly America.

Lord Cornwallis and Yorktown

Lord Cornwallis was the second in command General of the English army in the Revolutionary war that lasted from 1775 to 1783. Cornwallis had a particularly strong influence over the war in the southern colonies, and during his final retreats, he traveled through North Carolina and Virginia. He is most remembered for his capitulation at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, where he was surrounded on all sides by Franco-American troops and the French Navy on the Yorktown peninsula. General Clinton was unable to aid Cornwallis because he was blocked by Washington's troops in New York. Even though Cornwallis was not blamed by englishmen and enjoyed communal English sympathetically when he returned to Europe, his surrender at Yorktown likely cheated England out of fortunes to come from the American economy, and his loss at Yorktown significantly changed the course of history because a new global power surfaced from his surrender.

Marquis de LaFayette

Marquis de Lafayette was an ambitious, young, French general. Becoming interested in the American affairs with independence, Lafayette sailed unauthorized to America. At the young age of 19, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him major general of the Continental Army. It was through the army that Lafayette and Washington became such close friends. Throughout his career, Lafayette was very successful, for he was able to keep the ties between the French and Americans clean and was an essential role in the surrender of Cornwallis in 1783. In 1789, Marquis de Lafayette played a principal role in drafting the Declaration of the Rights of Man, influenced greatly by the Declaration of Independence.

Nathaniel Greene

Nathaniel Greene, a Quaker from Rhode Island, became a major General in 1776 in the Continental Army and was promoted to commander in chief of the Southern continental army in October 1778. He played a role in many key battles: the Siege of Boston, Trenton, Brandywine, Germantown, Guilford Courthouse, Eutaw Springs, and his strategy enabled Daniel Morgan's victory at Cowpens, SC. Nathaniel Greene's strategy starkly contrasted traditional battle strategy because he did not fight to win and instead sought to weaken the enemy. Despite 'losses' in the battles of Guilford Courthouse and Eutaw Springs, Greene was able to so significantly weaken the English troops, forcing them to retreat, thus weakening their position. The poor location of the English troops under Cornwallis enabled the Revolutionaries to win the war in the battle of Yorktown. Nathaniel Greene played a significant role in securing the American dream during the revolution, but he also influenced battle strategy with his cunning, resourceful, and ingenious goal to truly beat the enemy instead of trying to win the battle on paper.

Land Ordinance of 1785

Passed on May 20, 1785, the United States' Congress implemented an organizational system that allowed settlers to buy titles to farmland in the west (north of the Ohio River), which was newly acquired land from Great Britain. The Land Ordinance controlled the distribution of land to new settlers, selling it in sections or townships of 640 acres for $1 per acre. The pricing ended up being too expensive for common settlers, and land companies and speculators sold smaller sections for lower prices. The land sales brought money to Congress, who needed a steady source of income because they couldn't tax the settlers directly due to the Articles of Confederation. The Land Ordinance ordered for funds to be raised for public education in at least one section. This new use of public funds for education set the stage for a nation that valued education for all people and laid the foundation for the system of public education based upon property taxes.

Patrick Henry

Patrick Henry was an orator from Virginia and was considered one of the most radical men during the revolutionary period due to his Adams-esque passion and fervor, and he is known for the quote "Give me liberty, or give me death". In the 1760s, Henry became part of the House of Burgesses, and he proposed the Stamp Act Resolutions, being one of few members of the House to openly oppose Britain. In the 1770s, he was part of the First Continental Congress and was elected governor of Virginia, and later he openly criticized the Constitution of 1787. Although some colonists considered him too radical, it was men like Henry that gave the colonies the push they needed to have a successful revolution.

Paul Revere

Paul Revere, known for his famous like "The British are coming the British are coming", was a Boston engraver and member of the Boston Sons of Liberty. After the Boston Massacre in 1770, Revere helped increase the tension between the British and American people by creating an engraved and highly inaccurate print of the Boston Massacre. The picture depicted the British soldiers shooting into an unarmed, defenseless crowd of colonists. This increased tension because this further unified the colonies in their hate of the British and pushed closer to independence. However, this inaccurate picture still today warps the views of students because from the viewpoint of the picture, it appears that the British are the only ones at fault.

Robert Morris

Robert Morris began as a merchant and banker of Pennsylvania but became a congressman and significantly aided America in the revolutionary period. His movements against Britain began after his business was ruined by the Stamp Act, and he was elected into the Continental Congress in 1775. During the war, as capital for the Continental Army dwindled, Morris donated his own money to the soldiers which ultimately allowed them to stay afloat and to win battles such as the Battle of Trenton. In the 1780s, Morris formed the idea for a National Bank, which became the Bank of North America and brought economic stability to colonies after the war. At the end of his career as a politician, he served as a Senator for Pennsylvania.

Sam Adams and Sons of Liberty

Sons of Liberty were major opponents of the Stamp Act. An organization of merchants who opposed the newly imposed Stamp Act. They were mad because profited on the Seven Year's War however now, this law limited their trade. Greatly known for their motto "Liberty, Property, and No Stamps", they promoted the boycott against British goods. Boycotts on British goods, opposition groups, and violence on government leaders, lead to the repeal of the Stamp Act by Britain. Samuel Adams, who was a primary leader in the Sons of Liberty, also participated in the Boston Tea Party as well. After the Tea Act, in December of 1773, Samuel Adams and other colonists in Boston dressed as Native Americans and through 300 chests of tea into the water. This resulted in Britain losing over 4 million dollars. This act of defiance is what pushed British Parliament to close the ports in Boston and also lead to the Intolerable Acts. The combination of these events united the 13 colonies even more as they moved closer towards claiming independence.

European Alliances (Fr., Sp., Dutch)

The Americans knew they needed help from other countries to win the American Revolution, but it wasn't until the Americans won the Battle of Saratoga that the French were convinced that the Americans had a shot at winning the war. In 1778 Benjamin Franklin and other American diplomats brokered the Treaty of Amity and Commerce, whereby the French recognized the United States as a country and form an alliance. The French hoped to weaken Britain and regain some territory lost in the French and Indian War. Spain later joined the Americans in 1779 also desiring to regain control of the Florida region. Both countries did little to help the Americans in the war initially, but after 1780 both played crucial roles in the battles, an example being Yorktown, largely because of their navies. In 1782, the Dutch also joined; however, they did not send troops. These alliances were incredibly beneficial to America, for the new nation was low on money, supplies, and soldiers, and without the French, Spanish, and Dutch, it is unlikely that the United States would have won the war.

Articles of Confederation strengths

The Articles of Confederation was the first governing document of the United States. James Madison, who is referred to as the "Father of the Constitution," played a significant role in creating this document which was drafted by Congress in 1777. The strengths of the first constitution included allowing the government to declare war and peace, negotiate agreements with foreign countries, and settle arguments between states. The most important part of the Articles of Confederation was they way it dealt with western territory through the Northwest Ordinance of 1787.

Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights was a government document, drafted by James Madison, that was created to please the Anti-Federalists who needed assurance that the Constitution would not lead to another tyrannical government. The Bill of Rights was the set of the first ten amendments to the Constitution, and it was created in 1891. The Bill of Rights guaranteed basic civil rights for all citizens. The Amendments are as follows: 1. Freedom of speech, religion, assembly, press, and petition. 2. Right to bear arms. 3. No quartering. 4. No search and seizure without reason. 5. No self-incrimination (i.e. "I plead the fifth"). 6. Right to trial by jury. 7. Right to civil trial by jury. 8. No cruel or unusual punishment. 9. Protection of other rights (even if they are not listed in the Bill of Rights). 10. Power to the states and the people.

"Boston Massacre" (1770)

The Boston Massacre of 1770 was a major point in the build-up to the American Revolution. It started with a confrontation between an American store clerk and a British soldier looking for part-time work. When the argument got to the point of a fight, the soldier said for the American to meet him at the British fort that night to fight it out. When a mob of angry colonists arrived at the fort throwing hard-packed snowballs at the soldiers, one British soldier misheard an order from his commander and fired into the crowd, setting off a round of fire. Five colonists were killed in the shooting. It was after this event that the "intermission" of the revolution period began.

Boston Tea Party (1773)

The Boston Tea Party of 1773 was a reaction to Britain's idea of taxing tea. The British believed that the East India Company, which was the country's economy, could create a monopoly for tea. They believed that by lowering the prices of tea, the colonists would buy more of their tea and eliminate competition. Eventually, they would be the only successful source for tea. This did not work, because the colonists focused on the principle of the tax itself. The tea tax, like the other taxes, violated the law of 'no taxation without representation', and the physical reaction occurred on December 16th, 1773. The Sons of Liberty disguised themselves as Mohawk Natives, boarded ships, and threw pounds of tea into the Boston Harbor. The revenue lost that night was the equivalent to an estimated $4 million dollars in modern day. This act was the trigger event of the American Revolution. In 1774, Parliament responded with the Intolerable Acts, which ended all self-government in the colony of Massachusetts.

Constitution Articles I-VII

The Constitution was created in 1788, following the problematic Articles of Confederation brought to light the need for a stronger national government. The Constitution contained seven articles: Article I defined the Legislative Branch of the government. Article II defined the Executive Branch of the government. Article III defined the Judicial Branch of the government. Article IV regulated state power and the states' relation to the national government. Article V defined the amendment process. Article VI asserted the Constitution's power as the national governing document. Article VII states that 9 out of 13 votes are needed for the Constitution to be instated.

Constitutional Convention issues

The Constitutional Convention, which took place in the summer of 1787 in Philadelphia, met to discuss how to fix the Articles of Confederation. Several issues arose during the Constitutional Convention, beginning with the fact that several previous revolutionary leaders were not present, either because they did not agree with the Constitutional Convention or because they were in Europe at the time. Additionally, the North and South had different economic interests; the North was more focused on a commercial economy while the South was still wrapped up in the traditional rural slave-based economy. These economic differences caused disunity and competition among the states. There was also conflict over the ownership of the newly developed western land. Another conflict arose over how large and small states compared in representation in government and whether larger states should have more representatives due to their larger population. Finally, the largest conflict arose between those who believed in a strong central government and those who wanted the states to have more self-government, a conflict that is still the basis of many political conflicts today.

Declaration of Rights and Grievances

The Declaration of Rights and Grievances, written and passed by the Stamp Act Congress in October of 1775, declared that not only was the Stamp Act unconstitutional but that all taxes imposed by Great Britain were unconstitutional. The colonists, infuriated by the internal taxes of the Stamp Act, claimed that Parliament did not have the right to levy taxes on the colonies without their written formal consent, since the colonies had no representation in Parliament. Nine colonies participated in the Stamp Act Congress, the first multi-colony meeting since the Albany Plan of Union in 1756. The basis behind this document, no taxation without representation, would become one of the most important sayings during the war for independence. The document as a whole included fourteen points the colonists wanted England to hear, more examples including the right to a trial by jury and that all colonists deserved the same rights as Englishmen living in the mother country. Great Britain responded by repealing the Stamp Act and passing the Declaratory Act, which stated that England had the right to tax the colonists because the colonies were "virtually represented" in Parliament.

Declaratory Act (1766)

The Declaratory Act of 1766 passed by Parliament announced and reaffirmed that Britain's ability to tax the colonies was the same in Britain as well as in the New World. This act was in response to the Stamp and Sugar Acts of 1765 and 1764 respectively. These previous acts caused colonists to grow furious because of the heavy taxes on internal and external matters while there was no representation in the British Parliament. The act affected all of the colonies of the New World and encouraged the colonists to continue to protest taxation without representation, one of the leading causes for revolution in the colonies. This act would serve as one of the factors that caused colonists to consider revolution.

Coercive Acts/Intolerable Acts 1774

The East India Company was in debt and had surplus, thus the British government decided to bail them out.This caused the British to instate the Tea Acts of 1773, which allowed cheap tea to be directly shipped from England. Colonists were outraged because the tea coming directly from England to the people did not allow for the colonial merchants who normally sold tea to make a profit. The colonists also believed that England would create a tax on tea once they had a monopoly over it. In order to protest the Tea Acts, Bostonians known as the Sons of Liberty dressed up as Mohawk Indians and dumped $4 million (today) worth of tea into the Boston Harbor. As retaliation towards the protests, the British instituted the Intolerable Acts of 1774. The Intolerable Acts closed down the Boston Harbor, allowed Quebec to expand farther South, gave more power to the British governors, and allowed for British soldiers to forcibly stay in colonists homes. These Acts caused an uproar in the colonies, and, ironically for the British, made the colonists angry enough to organize the 1st Continental Congress, and revolution grew more certain.

First Continental Congress

The First Continental Congress occurred in October 1774, when three delegates from each of twelve of the thirteen colonies met in Philadelphia to discuss future plans for the colonies and plans of action against the Intolerable Acts. The congress authorized Committees of Safety, groups of Patriots who became a backbone government for the colonies as British officials slowly lost power. Patrick Henry's famous" Give me liberty or give me death" was spoken here, pushing the idea of independence further into the minds of the founding fathers. The congress also adopted the Suffolk Resolves, in which all Massachusetts counties were urged to close their courts and boycott British supplies until the Intolerable Acts were repealed. Also, the effect of the Enlightenment on thinking and human rights became evident here, after the delegates argued that England was taking away their "natural rights."

Gaspée Affair or incident (1772)

The Gaspee Affair took place on June 9, 1772 off the coast of Providence. The HMS Gaspee, a British boat, was on its way to Providence with officers to enforce British trade laws and stop illegal smuggling. When the Gaspee began chasing an American boat, the American boat led them right into a sand bar where the Gaspee was stuck and unable to move forward. When the Americans learned of the situation, they boarded eight longboats and rowed out to where the British were stuck. They attacked and captured the captain and crew, taking them as prisoners and set the Gaspee on fire (which set off an explosion from the gunpowder on the boat). This event united the colonies because it was an act of defiance against the trade laws Britain had imposed on them.

Olive Branch Petition

The Olive Branch Petition was introduced by John Dickinson (Pennsylvania) to the Continental Congress in July of 1775. It was an attempt to avoid a full-blown war with Great Britain by affirming the colonists' loyalty to the British Empire. The petition was rejected by the King and Britain declared the colonies as officially in-rebellion in August of 1775.

Proclamation of 1763

The Proclamation of 1763 was issued by King George III and written as a peace treaty during the last two years of the French and Indian War, which began in 1754 and ended with the loss of the French and the proclamation in 1763. Also known as the Seven Years' War, it was fought by the French and Indian against the British over land in North America. Afterwards, Britain was left in massive debt and without money to pay the soldiers, especially Americans, who had fought. In an effort to make revenue, the British began taxing the colonists, initiating a series of opposition groups and beginning the American fight for independence. The proclamation itself limited colonial expansion and was created in part as a conciliation for the Native Americans as well as a precaution since the British feared they would lose their alliance with the French against the Natives if peace was not made soon. The line created by the proclamation ultimately left a mark that remains today in the form of state lines in the United States of America. On the whole, the Proclamation of 1763 is remembered as the end to a war that set the basis for the American Revolution.

Quebec Act (1774)

The Quebec Act was passed by Parliament in 1774, at around the time of the passing of the Intolerable Acts, in order to secure the success, economically and socially, of the French living under British rule in Canada. The British wanted to incorporate the Quebec region into its empire as well as take away some of the legal restraints implemented in the area. The act introduced the appointment of a new governor and council to run the region, the recognition of a French civil code, the ability for Catholics to hold office, and the extension of borders to the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers. This act made the colonists fear a rise in French power as they moved closer to the colonies, and served as a possible threat to freedom.

Second Continental Congress

The Second Continental Congress took place in Philadelphia 1775 and was a congregation of all thirteen colonies to discuss the newly begun American Revolution. The United States's Declaration of Independence was adopted here on July 4, 1776, arguably the most important accomplishment of this congress. The 56 delegates from the colonies acted together as an interim government for the colonies until the war could be won, handling war tasks such as appointing generals, raising armies, and creating treaties including the Olive Branch Petition as a last attempt to repair the colony's relationship with England. The Second Continental Congress also printed paper currency and took out loans after realizing the war for independence could not be avoided.

Stamp Act Congress

The Stamp Act Congress was the first established organization in the American colonies. This was a meeting held in 1765 in New York. Consisting of representatives from British colonies in North America, it was also the first gathering of elected representatives from several colonies to create a unified protest against a cause; British taxes. The congress published The Declaration of Rights and Grievances. This document claimed that Parliament did not have the right to impose taxes if they didn't have the representation of the colonies. Eventually, the Stamp Act was repealed. The Congress is important, because it was the first of many organized political actions of the American Revolution.

Stamp Act (1765)

The Stamp Act of 1765 was introduced after the Sugar Act was repealed. The act was simply a way for the empire to collect revenue, by requiring colonists to buy a special stamp for any legal document they owned. Colonists were outraged because this was one of the first taxes on the Americans that directly affected everyone, not just the merchants and traders. Colonial elites, merchants, and working class members all protested through boycotts, public demonstrations, and opposition groups (e.g. Sons of Liberty). It was during the protest period for the Stamp Act that an effigy of Andrew Oliver was hanged on a tree that is now famously known as the "Liberty Tree". The historical slogan "No taxation without representation" was also common during this period, as the colonists fought to be represented in the British parliament.

Sugar Act (1764)

The Sugar Act of 1764 was an external tax placed on the goods of merchants, including items like molasses, timber, iron, fur hides, and sugar. Even though the price of sugar and molasses was lowered, the indirect tax introduced a new category of smuggling and made it more difficult to sneak products into the colonies. The Sugar Act additionally changed the protective-tariff so that all exports had to pass through England first. Colonists felt Britain's view of the colonies, not as equal but rather subordinates, and began to imagine ways to defend their land and economy. Also, the Sugar Act set up admiralty courts in the colonies to prosecute tax violators. This unsuccessful act was hard to enforce and raised only a small amount of revenue, so it was repealed and replaced by the Stamp Act.

Townshend Act (1767)

The Townshend Act of 1767 was the act imposed by Prime Minister Townshend. It levied taxes on tea, paper, paint, glass, and lead (for window-making). It was crafted to look like an indirect tax when it acted more like a direct tax since those are items that everyone used. The colonists quickly caught onto this idea. This revived the boycott on British goods, and American-made goods became a symbol of the growing resistance. This act angered the colonists and, once again, they banded together to resist the taxation.

Phase II (Southern Campaign)

The culture in the northern colonies was very radical, and most people did not believe in the idea of slavery. However, in the south, the people tended to be more loyal to the British. Also, the southern economy depended greatly on slaves, so there was some tension between the North and South. Britain recognized this and planned to move south in hopes of gaining the support of loyalists in the South. By 1780, the British occupied Savannah, Georgia and Charleston, South Carolina, and many loyalists joined forces with them. Unsurprisingly, the British treated the civilians in the south terribly. The soldiers were also angry because there was a shortage of funds for the colonies which resulted in soldiers being underpaid or not paid at all. So on January 1, 1781, 1,500 American soldiers marched on the Continental Congress, but the march was stopped after they were promised reimbursement for their time. The British were not able to control the south despite all of the chaos. The American militias continually attacked the British, and British forces left most of their southern stations. Even after all of this, the tensions between the patriots and loyalists were still present and prominent. This period was seen as the darkest point for the Americans during the war.

Articles of Confederation weaknesses

The first written constitution of the United States, the Articles of Confederation, was drafted in 1777 by Congress and ratified four years laters in 1781 because of its many weaknesses. The Articles of Confederation left most of the power to the individual state governments, and its government structure did not include a president, a judiciary branch, a tax base, or a standing army. In addition, major decision needed at least nine states to approve them. Because of this, it was difficult to pass new laws and make other decisions regarding how the country should be run. A unanimous vote from all the states was also required to amend the Articles of Confederation, which is the reason they were not ratified sooner. Ultimately, Shay's Rebellion is what alerted government officials that the Articles of Confederation needed to be revised to create a stronger central government.

Hessians

The hessians were soldiers from Germany hired by England to fight in the Revolutionary War, which lasted from 1775 to 1783. The hessians participated in battles in the northern colonies, but their most important role to the revolution was in the battles of Trenton and Princeton on December 26, 1776 and January 3, 1777, respectively. When George Washington's troops attacked and captured hessian soldiers in Trenton and again in Princeton, the Continental Army enjoyed a massive boost in morale because the troops had been losing faith in their mostly-losing war effort. However, the Continental Army's reaction to these battles was disproportionate to the the actual success of the battle because the hessians were sitting ducks. General Howe had abandoned the hessian colonel Johann Rall in Trenton, NJ earlier that winter for his luxurious winter quarters. Though it was a relatively insignificant win to the situation of the war, the vulnerable hessians were an opportunity for George Washington to prove himself to be an adequate general for the first time, and their vulnerability allowed the Americans to renew their passionate spirit for the cause of the Revolution.

Thomas Jefferson (1775-1790)

Thomas Jefferson was a prominent political player in the colony of Virginia and was instrumental in the creation of the new nation, the United States. He is most known for writing the Declaration of Independence when he was only thirty three years old and for his term as the third president of the United States. Jefferson was extremely influential, and his writings other than the Declaration left huge marks as well. Jefferson's 1786 Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom was a huge step towards the separation of Church and State when the Constitution was formed. Jefferson, being respected and well liked, helped unite the colonies, or at least their representatives, towards this greater goal of creating a free nation.

Thomas Paine's Common Sense

Thomas Paine was born in 1737. Paine was a revolutionist whose ideas were even a little too radical for the taste of the radicals for independence such as John Adams. In order to spread his ideas, Thomas Paine wrote Common Sense in 1776. Paine wrote this pamphlet under the persona "an Englishman". Because it was written under that name, people payed more attention. They thought if even some Englishmen think the way they were being treated was bad, maybe they should be against it too. Common Sense criticized the British Government and pointed out their inconsistencies. One of his major criticisms was that England compared itself to the mother of America. Paine revealed to the public using common language that no mother would be this harsh or cruel to their child, so England needed let America grow up and become its own country. Paine also criticized the king directly, calling him a "royal brute". The reason Common Sense made such an impact on the common colonial's support of the revolution was because he wrote in a way to which commoners could relate. People such as John Adams had similar ideas; however, they were not able to express them in such a simple, persuasive manner to the public.