Unit 3 Chapter 12 Studyguide
What factors influence people to conform to the actions of others?
Asch used a set of comparison lines and a standard line to experiment with conformity, finding that subjects conformed to group opinion about one third of the time, increased as the number of confederates rose to four, and decreased if just one confederate gave the correct answer. Cross-cultural research has found that collectivistic cultures show more conformity than individualistic cultures. Gender differences do not exist in conformity unless the response is not private, in which case women are more conforming than men. Group think occurs when a decision-making group feels that it is more important to maintain group unanimity and cohesiveness than to consider the facts realistically. Minimizing groupthink involves impartial leadership, seeking outside opinions, stating problems in an objective manner, breaking large groups into subgroups, encouraging questions and alternate solutions, using secret ballots, and holding group members responsible for the decisions made by the group. (Conformity test: Ascher used a set of comparison lines and a standard to line to experiment with conformity, finding that subjects conformed to group opinion about one third of the time, increased as the number of confederates rose to four, and decreased if just one confederate gave the correct answer Cross cultural research: Found that collectivist cultures show more conformity than individualistic cultures. Gender differences do not exist in conformity unless the response is not private, in which women are more conforming than men, Group thinking: occurs when a decision making group feels than it is more important to maintain group unanimity and cohesiveness than to consider the facts realistically Minimizing group think: Involves impartial leadership, seeking outside opinions, stating problems in an objective manner, breaking large groups into subgroups, encouraging questions and alternate solutions, using secret ballots, and holding group members responsible for the decisions made by the group)
CLASSIC STUDIES IN PSYCHOLOGY: Brown Eyes, Blue Eyes
A schoolteacher divided her class into brown-eyed children and blue-eyed children to teach them a lesson about prejudice. The children quickly began to discriminate toward whichever group was the out-group during a certain time period. (Schoolteacher divided her class into brown-eyed children and blue-eyed children: in order to teach about prejudice. The children began to quickly discriminate toward whichever group was the out-group during a certain time period)
How is aggressive behavior determined by biology and learning?
Aggression is behavior intended to hurt or destroy another person in a way that may be physical or verbal. Frustration is a major source of aggression. Biological influences on aggression may include genetics, the amygdala and limbic system, and testosterone and serotonin levels. Social roles are powerful influences on the expression of aggression. Social learning theory states that aggression can be learned through direct reinforcement and through the imitation of successful aggression by a model. Studies have concluded that violent television, movies, and video games stimulate aggressive behavior, both by increasing aggressive tendencies and providing models of aggressive behavior. Prosocial behavior is behavior that is socially desirable and benefits others. (Aggression: is a behavior intended to hurt or destroy another person in a way that may be physical or verbal. Frustration is a major source of aggression) Biological influences on aggression: may include genetics, the amygdala and limbic system, and testosterone and serotonin levels. Social roles: are powerful influences on the expression of aggression. Social learning theory: states that aggression can be learned through direct reinforcement and through the imitation of successful aggression by a model. Studies have concluded that: violent television, movies, and video games stimulate aggressive behavior, both by increasing aggressive tendencies and providing models of aggressive behavior. Prosocial behavior: is behavior that is socially desirable and benefits others.)
What is altruism, and how is deciding to help someone related to the presence of others?
Altruism is prosocial behavior in which a person helps someone else without expectation of reward or recognition, often without fear for his or her own safety. The bystander effect means that people are more likely to get help from others if there are one or only a few people nearby rather than a larger number. The more people nearby, the less likely it is that help will be offered. When others are present at a situation in which help could be offered, there is a diffusion of responsibility among all the bystanders, reducing the likelihood that any one person or persons will feel responsibility for helping. Researchers Latané and Darley found that people who were alone were more likely to help in an emergency than people who were with others. The five steps in making a decision to help are noticing, defining an emergency, taking responsibility, planning a course of action, and taking action. (Altruism: is prosocial behavior in which a person helps someone else without expectation of reward or recognition, often without fear for his or her own safety. The bystander effect: means that people are more likely to get help from others if there are one or only a few people nearby rather than a larger number. The more people nearby, the less likely it is that help will be offered. When others are present at a situation: in which help could be offered, there is a diffusion of responsibility among all the bystanders, reducing the likelihood that any one person or persons will feel responsibility for helping.)
What are the three components of an attitude, how are attitudes formed, and how can attitudes be changed?
Attitudes are tendencies to respond positively or negatively toward ideas, persons, objects, or situations. The three components of an attitude are the affective (emotional) component, the behavioral component, and the cognitive component. Attitudes are often poor predictors of behavior unless the attitude is very specific or very strong. Direct contact with the person, situation, object, or idea can help form attitudes. Attitudes can be formed through direct instruction from parents or others. Interacting with other people who hold a certain attitude can help an individual form that attitude. Attitudes can also be formed through watching the actions and reactions of others to ideas, people, objects, and situations. Persuasion is the process by which one person tries to change the belief, opinion, position, or course of action of another person through argument, pleading, or explanation. The key elements in persuasion are the source of the message, the message itself, and the target audience. In the elaboration likelihood model, central-route processing involves attending to the content of the message itself, whereas peripheral-route processing involves attending to factors not involved in the message, such as the appearance of the source of the message, the length of the message, and other non-content factors. (Attitudes: are tendencies to respond positively or negatively toward ideas, persons, objects, or situations. Attitudes's three components: The affective (emotional) component, the behavioral component, and the cognitive component. Attitudes are: often poor predictors of behavior unless the attitude is very specific or very strong. Direct contact: Direct contact with the person, situation, object, or idea can help form attitudes. Attitudes can be formed through direct instruction from parents or others. Interacting with other people: who hold a certain attitude can help an individual form that attitude. Attitudes: can also be formed through watching the actions and reactions of others to ideas, people, objects, and situations. Persuasion: the process by which one person tries to change the belief, opinion, position, or course of action of another person through argument, pleading, or explanation. Key elements in persuasion: are the source of the message, the message itself, and the target audience. In the elaboration likelihood model: central-route processing involves attending to the content of the message itself, peripheral-route processing: involves attending to factors not involved in the message, such as the appearance of the source of the message, the length of the message, and other non-content factors.
Social categorization is a process of social cognition in which a person, upon meeting someone new, assigns that person to a category or group on the basis of characteristics the person has in common with other people or groups with whom the perceiver has prior experience. One form of a social category is the stereotype, in which the characteristics used to assign a person to a category are superficial and believed to be true of all members of the category. An implicit personality theory is a form of social cognition in which a person has sets of assumptions about different types of people, personality traits, and actions that are assumed to be related to each other. Schemas are mental patterns that represent what a person believes about certain types of people. Schemas can become stereotypes.
Attribution is the process of explaining the behavior of others as well as one's own behavior. A situational cause is an explanation of behavior based on factors in the surrounding environment or situation. A dispositional cause is an explanation of behavior based on the internal personality characteristics of the person being observed. The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors on behavior while underestimating the influence of the situation. (Attribution: the process of explaining the behavior of others as well as one's own behavior. A situational cause: is an explanation of behavior based on factors in the surrounding environment or situation. A dispositional cause: is an explanation of behavior based on the internal personality characteristics of the person being observed. The fundamental attribution error: is the tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors on behavior while underestimating the influence of the situation)
How do people react when attitudes and behavior are not the same?
Cognitive dissonance is discomfort or distress that occurs when a person's actions do not match the person's attitudes. Cognitive dissonance is lessened by changing the conflicting behavior, changing the conflicting attitude, or forming a new attitude to justify the behavior. Impression formation is the forming of the first knowledge a person has about another person. The primacy effect in impression formation means that the very first impression one has about a person tends to persist even in the face of evidence to the contrary. Impression formation is part of social cognition, or the mental processes that people use to make sense out of the world around them. (Cognitive dissonance: is discomfort or distress that occurs when a person's actions do not match the person's attitudes. Cognitive dissonance is lessened: by changing the conflicting behavior, changing the conflicting attitude, or forming a new attitude to justify the behavior. Impression formation: the forming of the first knowledge a person has about another person. The primacy effect in impression formation: means that the very first impression one has about a person tends to persist even in the face of evidence to the contrary. Impression formation is part of social cognition, Social cognition: the mental processes that people use to make sense out of the world around them.
How is compliance defined, and what are four common ways to gain the compliance of another?
Compliance occurs when a person changes behavior as a result of another person asking or directing that person to change. Four common ways of getting compliance from others are the foot-in-the-door technique, the door-in-the-face technique, the lowball technique, and the that's-not-all technique. (Compliance: occurs when a person changes behavior as a result of another person asking or directing that person to change. Four common ways of getting compliance fro others: Foot in the door technique, the door in the face technique, the lowball technique, and the that's not all technique) Foot in the door technique: asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment Door in the face technique: door-in-the-face requests involve asking a more demanding question, followed by the actual request. Lowball technique: is a persuasion tactic in which an item is initially offered at a lower price than one expects in order to get the buyer to commit; then, the price is suddenly increased. Then that's not all : the technique involves making a request, and then emphasizing an additional argument before asking a person to comply with the request.)
What factors make obedience more likely?
Milgram did experiments in which he found that 65 percent of people obeyed the authority figure of a psychology professor even if it meant hurting, injuring, or possibly killing another person with an electric shock. When the performance of an individual on a relatively easy task is improved by the presence of others, it is called social facilitation. When the performance of an individual on a relatively difficult task is negatively affected by the presence of others, it is called social impairment. When a person who is lazy is able to work in a group of people, that person often performs less well than if the person were working alone, in a phenomenon called social loafing (Miligram's experiments: He found that 65 percent of people obeyed the authority figure of a psychological professor even if it meant hurting, injuring, or possibly killing another person with an electric shock Social facilitation: When the performance of an individual on a relatively easy task is improved by the presence of others Social impairment: When the performance of an individual on a relatively difficult task is negatively affected by the presence of others Social loafing: When a person who is lazy is able to work in a group of people, that person often performs less well than if the person were working alone)
What factors govern attraction and love, and what are some different kinds of love?
People tend to form relationships with people who are in physical proximity to them. People are attracted to others who are similar to them in some way. People may also be attracted to people who are different from themselves, with the differences acting as a complementary support for areas in which each may be lacking. People tend to like other people who like them in return, a phenomenon called the reciprocity of liking. Love is a strong affection for another person due to kinship, personal ties, sexual attraction, admiration, or common interests. Sternberg states that the three components of love are intimacy, passion, and commitment. Romantic love is intimacy with passion, companionate love is intimacy with commitment, and consummate love contains all three components. (People tend to form relationships with people: who are in physical proximity to them. People are attracted to others who are similar to them in some way. People may also be attracted to people: who are different from themselves, with the differences acting as a complementary support for areas in which each may be lacking. People tend to like other people: who like them in return, a phenomenon called the reciprocity of liking. Love is a strong affection for another person: due to kinship, personal ties, sexual attraction, admiration, or common interests. Sternberg states that the three components of love are: intimacy, passion, and commitment. Romantic love: is intimacy with passion, companionate love: is intimacy with commitment, consummate love: contains all three components.)
3 Why do people join cults?
People who join cults tend to be under stress, unhappy, unassertive, gullible, dependent, idealistic, and they want to belong. Young people are also likelier to join cults than are older people. Cults use love-bombing, isolation, rituals, and activities to keep the new recruits from questioning and critical thinking. Cults also use the foot-in-the-door technique. (People who join cults tend to be: under stress, unhappy, unassertive, gullible, dependent, idealistic, and they want to belong. Young people are also likelier to join cults than are older people. Cults use: love-bombing, isolation, rituals, and activities to keep the new recruits from questioning and critical thinking. Cults also use the foot-in-the-door technique (asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment)
How are prejudice and discrimination different?
Prejudice is a negative attitude that a person holds about the members of a particular social group. Discrimination occurs when members of a social group are treated differently because of prejudice toward that group. There are many forms of prejudice, including ageism, sexism, racism, and prejudice toward those who are too fat or too thin. In-groups are the people with whom a person identifies, whereas out-groups are everyone else at whom prejudice tends to be directed. Conflict between groups increases prejudice and discrimination according to realistic conflict theory. Scapegoating refers to the tendency to direct prejudice and discrimination at out-group members who have little social power or influence. New immigrants are often the scapegoats for the frustration and anger of the in-group. (Prejudice: a negative attitude that a person holds about the members of a particular social group. Discrimination occurs when: members of a social group are treated differently because of prejudice toward that group. There are many forms of prejudice: including ageism, sexism, racism, and prejudice toward those who are too fat or too thin. In-groups: are the people with whom a person identifies Out-groups: are everyone else at whom prejudice tends to be directed. Conflict between groups: increases prejudice and discrimination according to realistic conflict theory. Scapegoating: refers to the tendency to direct prejudice and discrimination at out-group members who have little social power or influence. New immigrants are often the scapegoats: for the frustration and anger of the in-group)
What are social categorization and implicit personality theories?
Social categorization is a process of social cognition in which a person, upon meeting someone new, assigns that person to a category or group on the basis of characteristics the person has in common with other people or groups with whom the perceiver has prior experience. One form of a social category is the stereotype, in which the characteristics used to assign a person to a category are superficial and believed to be true of all members of the category. An implicit personality theory is a form of social cognition in which a person has sets of assumptions about different types of people, personality traits, and actions that are assumed to be related to each other. Schemas are mental patterns that represent what a person believes about certain types of people. Schemas can become stereotypes. (Social categorization: is a process of social cognition in which a person, upon meeting someone new, assigns that person to a category or group on the basis of characteristics the person has in common with other people or groups with whom the perceiver has prior experience. One form of a social category is the stereotype, Stereotype: in which the characteristics used to assign a person to a category are superficial and believed to be true of all members of the category. An implicit personality theory: is a form of social cognition in which a person has sets of assumptions about different types of people, personality traits, and actions that are assumed to be related to each other. Schemas: are mental patterns that represent what a person believes about certain types of people. Schemas can become stereotypes.)
Why are people prejudiced, and how can prejudice be stopped?
Social cognitive theory views prejudice as an attitude acquired through direct instruction, modeling, and other social influences. Social identity theory sees a person's formation of a social sense of self within a particular group as being due to three things: social categorization (which may involve the use of reference groups), social identity (the person's sense of belonging to a particular social group), and social comparison (in which people compare themselves to others to improve their own self-esteem). Stereotype vulnerability refers to the effect that a person's knowledge of the stereotypes that exist against his or her social group can have on that person's behavior. People who are aware of stereotypes may unintentionally come to behave in a way that makes the stereotype real in a self-fulfilling prophecy. Intergroup contact is more effective in reducing prejudice if the groups have equal status. Prejudice and discrimination can also be reduced when a superordinate goal that is large enough to override all other goals needs to be achieved by all groups. Prejudice and discrimination are reduced when people must work together to solve a problem because each person has an important key to solving the problem, creating a mutual interdependence. This technique used in education is called the "jigsaw classroom." Interpersonal attraction refers to liking or having the desire for a relationship with another person. (Social cognitive theory: views prejudice as an attitude acquired through direct instruction, modeling, and other social influences. Social identity theory: sees a person's formation of a social sense of self within a particular group as being due to three things: social categorization (which may involve the use of reference groups), social identity (the person's sense of belonging to a particular social group), and social comparison (in which people compare themselves to others to improve their own self-esteem). Stereotype vulnerability: refers to the effect that a person's knowledge of the stereotypes that exist against his or her social group can have on that person's behavior. People who are aware of stereotypes: may unintentionally come to behave in a way that makes the stereotype real in a self-fulfilling prophecy. Intergroup contact: is more effective in reducing prejudice if the groups have equal status. Prejudice and discrimination can also be reduced: when a superordinate goal that is large enough to override all other goals needs to be achieved by all groups. Prejudice and discrimination are reduced: when people must work together to solve a problem because each person has an important key to solving the problem, creating a mutual interdependence. This technique used in education is called the "jigsaw classroom." Interpersonal attraction: refers to liking or having the desire for a relationship with another person.
PSYCHOLOGY IN THE NEWS: Facing Facebook-The Social Nature of Online Networking
Social networking at online sites is associated with race, ethnicity, and education level of one's parents, with some sites being more likely to be used by certain groups. Other research has found that people use these sites in positive or negative way according to the nature of their face-to-face interactions with others. People also tend to search through these sites for specific purposes rather than just aimless browsing. (Social networking at online sites is associated: with race, ethnicity, and education level of one's parents, with some sites being more likely to be used by certain groups. Other research has found that: people use these sites in positive or negative way according to the nature of their face-to-face interactions with others. People also tend to search through these sites: for specific purposes rather than just aimless browsing)
What is social psychology?
Social psychology is the scientific study of how a person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the real, imagined, or implied presence of other people. (Social psychology: The scientific study of how a person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the real, imagined, or implied presence of other people)
