Unit 3 History Test

Stamp Act

widely unpopular tax on an array of paper goods, repealed in 1766 after mass protests erupted across the colonies. colonists developed the principle no taxation without representation which questioned parliaments authority over the colonies and laid the foundation for future revolutionary claims. in 1765, grenville imposed the most odious measure of all, a stamp tax to raise revenues to support the new military force. the stamp act mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps certifying payment of tax. stamps were required on bills of sale for about 50 trade items as well as on certain types of commercial and legal documents, including playing cards, pamphlets, newspapers, diplomas, bills of lading, and marriage license. Greenville regarded all of these measures as reasonable and just. he was simply asking the Americans to pay a fair share fo the costs for their own defense, through taxes that were already familiar in britian. in fact the british people for two generations had endured a stamp tax heavier than that passed for the colonies. yet the americans were angrily aroused at what they regarded as Greenville's fiscal aggression. the new laws did not merely pinch their pocketbooks. far more ominously Greenville also seemed to be striking at the local liberties they had come to assume as a matter of right. worst of all Greenville's noxious legislation seemed to jeopardize the basic rights of the colonists as Englishmen. both the sugar act and the stamp act provided for trying offenders in the hated admiralty courts, where juries were not allowed. the burden of proof was on the defendant who were assumed to be guilty unless they could prove themselves innocent. trial by jury and the precept of innocent until proved guilty were ancient privileges that British people everywhere including the American colonists held most dear. many americans weaned on radical whig suspicion of all authority began to sniff the strong sent of a conspiracy to strip them of their historic liberties. lashed back violently and the stamp act became the target that drew their most ferocious fire. angry throats cried no taxation without representation. the Americans made the distinction between legislation and taxation. they coned the right of parliament to legislate about matters that affected the entire empire including he regulation of trade but they steadfastly denied the right of parliament in which no americans were seated to impose taxes on Americans. only their own elected colonial legislation the Americans insisted could legally tax them. taxes levied by the distant British parliament amounted to robbery a piratical assault on the sacred rights of property. Greenville dismissed the american protests as hairsplitting absurdities. the power of parliament was supreme and undivided asserted and in any case the americans were represented in parliament through virtual represent . he claimed that every member of parliament represented all british subjects, even those americans in boston or charleston who had never voted for a member of parliament. the americans scoffed at virtual representation. they didn't want direct representation in parliament which might have seemed like a sensible compromise. if they had obtained it, any member of the house of commons could have proposed an oppressive tax bill for the colonies and the outvoted american representatives few in number would have stood bereft of a principe with which to resist. thus the principle of no taxation without representation was important and the colonists clung to it with tenacious consistency. when the british replied that the sovereign power of government could not be divided between legislative authority in London and taxing authority in the colonies, they forced the Americans to deny the authority of parliament altogether and to being to consider their own political independence. this chain of logic eventually led to revolutionary consequences.

1st and 2nd continental congress

First- Met to discuss response to Intolerable Acts and ended up boycotting English goods. Second- Met to discuss war with Britain and decided to declare independence. most memorable of the responses to the intolerable acts was the summoning of the first continental congress in 1774. it was to meet in Philadelphia to consider ways of redressing colonial grievances 12 of the 13 colonies, with Georgia only missing sent 55 well respected men among them samuel adams, john adams, george washington, and patrick henry. intercolonial frictions were partially melted away by social activity after working hours. the 1st continental congress deliberated for 7 weeks, from september 5 to october 26, 1774. it was not a legislative but a consultative body a convention rather than a congress. john adams played a stellar roe. eloquently swaying his colleagues to a revolutionary course he helped defeat the narrowest of margins a proposal by the moderates for a species of American home rule under british direction. after prolonged argument the congress drew up several dignified papers. these included a ringing declaration of rights as well as solemn appeals to other british american colonies, to the king and to the british people. the most significant action of the congress was the creation of the association. unlike previous nonimporatioantion agreements, the association called fora complete boycott of British goods, nonimportation, nonexportation and non consumption. yet the delegates were not calling for independence they merely wanted to repeal the offensive legislation and return to the happy days before parliamentary taxation. if colonial grievances were redressed well and good if not the congress would meet again in may 1775. resistance hadn't ripened into open rebellion. parliament rejected the congresses petitions. in america violators of the association were tarred and feathered. muskets were gathered, men began to drill openly and a clash seemed imminent. the second continental congress met in philadelphia the next month in may 10, 1775 after the bloodshed at Lexington and concord in april of 1775. this time all thirteen colonies were present. the conservative element in congress was till strong despite the shooting at Massachusetts. there was till no well defined sentiment for independence, merely a desire to continue fighting in the hope that the king and parliament would consent to a redress of grievances. congress hopefully drafted new appeals to the British people and king appeals that were spurned. anticipating a possible rebuff, the delegates also adopted measures to raise money and to create an army and a navy. the british and the americans now teetered on the brink of all out warfare. the single most important action of the congress was to select George washington one of its members already in an officers uniform to head the hastily improvised army besieging boston.

declaration of independence

Formal pronouncement of independence drafted by Thomas Jefferson and approved by Congress. The declaration allowed Americans to appeal for foreign aid and served as an inspiration for later revolutionary movements worldwide. members of the philadephia congress instructed by their respective colonies gradually edged toward a clean break. on june 7, 1776 richard henry lee of virgina moved that these united colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent states. after considerable debate the motion was adopted nearly a month later on july 2, 1776. the passing of lees resolution was the formal declaration of independence by the american colonists and technically this was all that was needed to cut the british tie. john adams wrote confidently that ever thereafter july 2, would be celebrate annually with fireworks. but something more was needed. an epochal rupture of this kind called for some formal explanation. an inspirational appeal also needed to enlist other British colonies in the americas to invite assistance from foreign nations and to rally resistance at home. after lee made his memorable motion on june 7, congress appointed a committee to prepare a more formal statement of separation, the task of drafting it fell to thomas jefferson. after some debate and amendment the declaration of independence was formally approved by the congress on july 4, 1776. it might have better been called the explanation of independence or mr. jeffersons advertisement of mr. le's resolution. jefferson gave his appeal universality by invoking the natural rights of humankind not just british rights. he argued persuasively that because the king had flouted these rights the colonist were justified in cutting their connection. he then set forth a long list of the presumably tyrannous misdeeds of george III. it included imposing taxes without consent, dispensing with trial by jury, abolishing valued laws, establishing a military dictatorship, maintaining standing armies in peacetime, cutting off trade, burning towns, hiring mercenaries, and inciting hostility among the indians. he was making history through what has been called the world greatest editorial. he owned many slaves and his affirmation that all men were created equal was to haunt him and his fellow citizens for generations. foreign assistance could now be solicited with greater hope of success. those patriots who defied the king were now rebels and they must all hang together, franklin said, or they would hang separately. Jefferson defiant declaration of independence had a universal impact unmatched by any other american document. this shout heard around the world has been a source of inspiration to countless revolutionary movements against arbitrary authority. lafayette hung a copy on a wall in his home leaving beside it room for a future French declaration of rights of man.

indignation

anger or annoyance provoked by what is perceived as unfair treatment; anger as a result of something unjust

stamp act congress

assembly of delegates from nine colonies who met in new york city to draft a petition for the repeal of stamp act. helped ease sectional suspicions and promote intercolonial unity. the most conspicuous assemblage was the stamp act congress of 1765 which brought together in new york city 27 distinguished delegates from 9 colonies. after dignified debate the members drew up a statement of their right an grievances and beseeched the king and parliament to repeal the repugnant legislation.. the stamp act congress which was largely ignored in England made little splash at the time in america. its ripples however began to erode sectional suspicions for it brought together around the same table leaders from the different and rival colonies. it was one more halting but significant step toward intercolonial unity. more effective than the congress was the widespread adoption of nonimportation agreements against british goods. woolen garments of homespun became fashionable and the eating of lamp chops was discourages so that the wool bearing sheep would be allowed to mature. nonimportation agreements were in fact a promising stride toward union, they spontaneously united the American people for the first me in common action. mobilizing in support of nonimportation gave ordinary american men and women new opportunities to participate in colonial protests. many people who had previously stood on the sidelines now signed petitions swearing to uphold the terms of the consumer boycotts. groups of women assembled in public to hold spinning bees and make homespun cloth as a replacement for shunned british textiles. such public defiance helped spread angry resistance throughout American colonial society sometimes violence accompanied colonial protests. groups of ardent spirits known as sons of liberty and daughters of liberty took the law into their on hands crying liberty property and no stamps they enforced nonimportation agreements agains violators often with tar and feathers .patriotic mobs ransacked the houses of unpopular officials confiscated their money and hanged effigies of stamp agents on liberty poles. shaken by colonial commotion the machinery for collecting the tax broke down. on that dismal day in 1765 when the new tax was to go into effect the stamp agents had all been forced to resign and there was no one to sell the stamps. the law was openly and flagrantly defied or rather nullified. england was hard hit. America then bought about one quarter of all british exports and about one half of british shipping was devoted to the american trade. merchants manufacturers and shippers suffered from the colonial nonimportation agreements and hundreds of laborers were thrown out of work. loud demands converged on parliament for repeal of the tamp act. but many of the members could not understand why 7.5 million britons had to pay heavy taxes to protect the colonies whereas some 2 million colonist refused to pay for only one third fo the cost of their on defense. after a stormy debate parliament in 1766 repealed the stamp act. the colonists were overjoyed but that soon ended when parliament passed the declaratory act reaffirming parliaments right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever

role in the war- african ameicans, native americans, france, netheralnd (holland) and spain

blacks also fought and died for the cause. although many states initially barred them from militia service by wars end more than 5000 blacks had enlisted in the american armed forces. the largest contingents came form the northern states with substantial numbers of free blacks. blacks fought at Trenton, brandywine, saratoga, and other important battles. some including prince whipple later immortalized in Emanuel leutze's famous painting washington crossing the deleware became military heroes. others served as cooks, guides, spies, drivers, and road builders. african americans also served on the briths side. in november 1775 lord dunmore royal governor of virginia issued a proclamation promising freedom for any enslaved black in virginia who joined the british army. news of dunmore's decree traveled swiftly. virginia and maryland tightened slave patrols but within one month three hundred slaves had joined what came to be called lord dunmores Ethiopian regiment. in time thousands of blacks fled plantations for British promises of emancipation. at wars end the british kept their word to some at least and evacuated as many as fourteen thousand black loyalists to nova scotia, jamaica, and enlgand. 2 nations of the iroquois confederacy; the oneidas and the tuscaroras, sided with the americans, the senecas, mohawks, cayugas, and onondagas joined the British. they were urged on by mohawk chief joseph brant a convert to anglicanism who believed not without reason that victorious britian would restrain american expansion into the west. brant and the british ravaged large area of backcountry pennsylvnai and new york until checked by an American force in 1779. in 1784 the pro british iroquois were forced to sign the treaty of fort stanwix, the first treaty between the us and an indian nation. under its terms the indians ceded most of their land. france was thirsting for revenge against britian and was eager to inflame the quarrel that had broken out in america. stripped of its north american colonies britian would presumably cease to be . front rank power. france might then regain its former position and prestige, the loss of which in the recent seven years war rankled deeply. the american revolutionaries needed help in the struggle to throw off the british yoke. france then gave aid to the americans. france provided the rebels with guns, money immense amounts of equipment about one half of american regular armed forces and practically all of the new nations naval strength. france's entrance into the conflict forced the british to change their basic strategy in america. hitherto they could count on blockading the colonial coast and commanding the seas. now the french had powerful fleets in American waters, chiefly to protect their own valuable west indies islands but in apposition to jeopardize Britains blockade and lines of supply. the British therefore decided to evacuate philadelphia and concentrate their strength in new york city. spain entered the fray against britain in 1779, as did Holland. combined spanish and french fleets outnumbered those of britian and on two occasions the british isles seemed to be at the mercy of hostile warships.

conciliatory

intended or likely to placate or pacify

Intolerable Acts

series of punitive measures passed in retaliation for the boston tea party, closing the port of boston., revoking a number of rights in the massachusetts colonial charter, and expanding the quartering act to allow for the lodging of soldiers in private homes. in response colonists convened the first continental congress and called for a complete boycott of british goods. series of acts passed in response to the boston tea party. parliament passed a series . of acts to chastise boston in particular, massachusetts in general. they were branded in america . as the massacre of American liberty. most drastic of all was the boston port act. it closed the tea stained harbor until damages were paid and order could be ensured. by other intolerable acts as they were called in america. many of the chartered rights of colonial massachusets were swept away. restrictions were likewise placed on precious town meetings. contrary to previous practice enforcing officials who killed colonist in the line of duty could now be sent to britian for trial. there suspicious americans assumed they would likely to get off scot free. particularly intolerable to the Bostonians was a new quartering act which gave local authorities the power to lodge British soldiers anywhere even in private homes. it was accompanied by the quebec act passed at the same time it was erroneously regarded in english speaking america as part of the biritsh reaction to the turbulence in Boston. actually the quebec act was a good law in bad company. for many years the british government had debated how it should administer the 60,000 conquered french subjects in a statesmanlike measure. the french were guaranteed their catholic religion. they were also permitted to retain any of their old customs and institutions which did not include a representative assembly or trial by jury in civil cases. in addition the old boundaries of the province of quebec were now extended southward all the way to the ohio river. They thought it as harmful and angered them.This act had a wider range than the other intolerable acts which were slapped directly at Massachusetts. By having unrepresentative assemblies and denials of jury trials it seemed a dangerous example.Advanced land speculators were distressed to see the huge trans Allegheny area snatched from their grasp. Aroused anti catholic who were shocked by the extension of roman catholic control southward into a region that had once been set aside for Protestantism. intolerable acts Boston port act- closed Boston harbor until damages were paid and order could be ensured Massachusetts government act- replaced the active local government with an appointive one and increased the powers of the military governor Administration of justice act- allowed British officials charged with capital offenses to go to England or another colony for trial Quartering act- gave local authorities the power to lodge British soldiers the americans were angered by the intolerable acts. Most memorable of the responses to the intolerable acts was the summing of the first continental congress which was to meet in Philadelphia to consider ways of redressing colonial grievances. the most important action of the congress was the creating of the association which called for a complete boycott of british goods. The colonial grievances that the first continental congress wanted redressed by the king and parliament were rejected.

mercantilism

economic theory that closely linked a nations political power and military power to its bullion reserves. mercantilists generally favored protectionism and colonial acquisition as means to increase exports. the british authorities embraced a theory called mercantilism that justified their control over the colonies. mercantilists believed that wealth was power and that a country's economic wealth and hence its military and political power could be measured by the amount of gold or silver in its treasury. to amass gold or silver a country needed to export more than it imported. possessing colonies thus conferred distinct advantages since the colonies could both supply raw materials to the mother country thereby reducing the need for foreign imports and provide a guaranteed market for exports. the London government looked on the american colonists more or less as tenants. they were expected to furnish products needed in the mother country, like tobacco, sugar, and ships masts; to refrain from making for export certain products like woolen cloth or beaver hats, to buy imported manufactured goods exclusively from britain, and not to indulge in bothersome dreams of economic self sufficiency or self government. from time to time parliament passed laws to regulate the mercantilist system. the first of these the navigation law of 1650 was aimed at rival dutch shippers trying to elbow their way into the american carrying trade. thereafter all commerce flowing to and from the colonies could be transported only in biritsh (including colonial) vessels. subsequent laws required that european goods destined for america first had to be landed in britian where tariff duties could be collected, and british middlemen could take a slice of the profits, other laws stipulated that american merchants must ship certain enumerated products notably tobacco, exclusively to britian even though prices might be better elsewhere. british policy also inflicted currency shortage on the colonies. the British crown also reserved the right to nullify any legislation passed by the colonial assemblies if such laws worked mischief with the mercantilist system. in theory the mercantile system seemed selfish and oppressive. but the truth is that until 1763, the various navigation laws imposed no intolerable burden mainly because they were loosely enforced. colonial merchants learned to disregard or evade troublesome restrictions. some of the first american fortunes like that of john hancock were amassed by wholesale smuggling. americans also reaped direct benefits form the mercantile system. if the colonies existed for the benefit of the mother country, Britain existed for the benefit of the colonies. london paid liberal bounties to colonial producers f ship parts, over the protests of british competitors. virginia tobacco planters enjoyed a monopoly int he british market, snuffing out the tiny british tobacco industry. the colonists also benefited from the protection of the world mightiest navy and a strong seasoned army of redcoats, all without a penny. but it burdened the colonists with annoying liabilities. mercantilism stifled economic initiative and imposed a rankling dependency on british agents and creditors. most grievously many american simply found the mercantilist system debasing. they felt used, kept in a state of perpetual economic adolescence, and never allowed to come of age.

impacts of the french and indian war/seven years war

nine year war between the british and the french in north america. it resulted in the expulsion of the french from the north american mainland and helped spark the seven years war in europe. the removal of the french menace in canada profoundly affected american attitudes. while the french hawk had been hovering in the north and west, the colonial chicks had been forced to cling close to the wings of their british mother hen. now that the hawk was killed they could range far afield with a new spirit of independence. french humiliated by the british and saddened by the fate of canada, consoled themselves with one wishful thought. perhaps the loss of their American empire would one day result in the British loss of its American empire in a sense of history of the us, began with the fall of quebec and montreal, the infant republic was cradled on the plains of abraham. the spanish and indian menaces were also now substantially reduced. spain was temporarily eliminated from florida, although entrenched in louisiana and new orleans and was still securely in possession of much of Western north America including the vast territory from present day texas to california. as for the indians the treaty of paris that ended the seven years war dealt a harsh blow to the iroquois, creeks, and other interior tribes. the spanish removal from florida and the french removal from canada deprived the indians of their most powerful diplomatic weapon- the ability to play off the rival european powers against one another. in the future the indians would have to negotiate exclusively with the british. as a result Pontiac's uprising occurred. then land hungry American colonists were now free to burst over the dam of the Appalachian mountains and flood out over the verdant western lands. a tiny rivulet of pioneers had already trickled into Tennessee and Kentucky other courageous settlers made their preparations for the long, dangerous trek over the mountains. then the proclamation of 1763 was released which the colonists openly defied. the seven years war also caused the colonists to develop a new vision of their destiny. with the path cleared for the conquest of a continent, with their birthrate high and their energy boundless, they sensed that they were a potent people on the march. and they were in no mood to be restrained. lordly britons whose suddenly swollen empire had tended to produce swollen heads were in no mood for back talk. puffed up over their recent victories they were already annoyed with their unruly colonial subjects. the stage was set for a violent family quarrel. victory in the seven years war made britain the master of a vastly enlarged imperial domain in north america. but victory including the subsequent need to garrison ten thousand troops along the sprawling American frontier was painfully costly. the London government therefore struggled afer 1763 to compel the american colonists to shoulder some of the financial costs of the empire. this change in british colonial policy reinforced an emerging sense of american political identity and helped to precipitate the american revolution.

george washington

one of the most important actions of the congress was to select george washngton one of its members already in an officers uniform to head the hastily improvised army besieging boston. this choice as made with considerable misgivings. the tall powerfully build dignified virginia planter than 43 had never risen above the rank of a colonel in the military. his largest command had numbered only 12 hundred men and that had been some 20 years earlier. falling short of true military genius washington would actually lose more pitched battles than he won. but the distinguished virginian was gifted with outstanding powers of leadership and immense strength of character. he radiated patience, courage, self discipline, and a sense of justice.he was a great moral force rather than a great military mind a symbol and a rallying point. people instinctively trusted him, they sensed that when he put himself at head of a cause he was prepared if necessary to go down with . the ship. he insisted on serving without pay though he kept a careful expense account amounting to more than 100000 dollars. later he sternly reprimanded his steward at mount vernon for providing the enemy under duress with supplies. he would have preferred instead to see the enemy put the torch to his mansion. the continental congress though dimly perceiving washingtons qualities of leadership, chose more wisely than it knew. his selection was largely political. americans in other sections already jealous were beginning to distrust the large new england army being collected around Boston. wiseness suggested a commander form virgina the largest and most populous fo the colony . as a man of wealth both by inheritance and by marriage washington could not be accused of being a fortune seeker. as an aristocrat he could be counted on by his peers to check the excesses of the masses. the brillant new jersey campaign, battle of Trenton where he crossed the Delaware river and on december 26, 1776 he surprised and captured a thousand hessians who were sleeping off the effects of their Christmas celebration. a week later, leaving his campfires burning as a ruse, he slipped away and inflicted a sharp defeat on a smaller British detachment at Princeton. this this brilliant new jersey cam-pain crowned by these two lifesaving victories, revealed old fox Washington at his military best.

usurpations

unlawful seizures of rights or privileges; wrongful seizures of power

Battle of Saratoga

Decisive colonial victory in upstate New York, which helped secure French support for the Revolutionary cause. london officials adopted an intricate scheme for capturing the vital hudson river valley in 1777. if successful, the British would sever new England from the rest of the states and paralyze the american cause. the main invading force under general john burgoyne would push down the lake champlain route from canada. genral howe's troops in new york if needed could advance up the hudson river to meet burgoyne near albany. a third and much smaller british force commanded by colonel barry st. legar would come in form the west by way of lake ontario and the mohawk valley. British planners didn't reckon with general benedict arnold. after his repulse at quebec in 1775 he had retreated slowly along the st. Lawrence river back to the lake champalain area by heroic efforts keeping an army in the field. the British had pursed his tattered force to keep champlain in 1776 but they couldn't move farther south until t hey had won control . of the lake which was important for carrying supplies. while the briths stopped to construct a sizable fleet the tireless Arnold assembled and fitted out every floatable vessel. it was destroyed but time if not the battle had been won. winter was descending and the birritsh were forced to retire to canada. general burgoyne had to start anew from this base the following year. if arnold hadn't contributed his daring and skill the British invaders of 1776 would have recaptured for ticonderoga. and burgoyne would have succeeded in his venture if he had started from this springboard in 1777 instead of from montreal. general burgoyne began his fateful invasion with 7000 regular troops he was encumbered by a heavy baggage train and many women. progress was slow and american militiamen began to gather like hornets on burgoynes flanks. general howe meanwhile at a time when it seemed obvious that he should be starting up the hudson river from new york to join his slowly advancing colleague he deliberately embarked with the main British army for an attack on Philadelphia the rebel capital. he wanted to force a general engagement with Washington's army destroy it and leave the path wide open for burgoynes thrust. he assumed that he had time to help burgoyene directly if needed. general Washington keeping a wary eye on the british in new york transferred his army to the vicinity of philadelphia. the late in 1777 he was defeated in two battles at brandywine creek and germantown. general howe then settled in the lively capital leaving burgoyne to flounder through the wilds of upper new york. Washington finally retired to winter quarters at valley forge. there his frostbitten and hungry men were short of about everything except misery. this rabble was whipped into a professional army by the recently arrived Prussian drillmaster the profane but patient baron von steuben. burgoyne meanwhile had begun to bog down north of Albany while host of militiamen swarmed about him. in a series of sharp engagements, in which general Arnold was shot again in the leg at quebec the british army was trapped. meanwhile the Americans had driven back st. legars force at oriskany unable to advance or retreat burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire command at saratoga on october 17, 1777 to the American general of horatio gates Saratoga ranks high among the decisive battles of both american and world history the victory immensely revived the faltering colonial cause. even more important it made possible the urgently needed foreign aid from france which in turn helped ensure american independence.

Battle of Yorktown

George Washington, with the aid of the French Army, besieged Cornwallis at Yorktown, while the French naval fleet prevented British reinforcements from coming ashore. Cornwallis surrendered, dealing a heavy blow to the British war effort and paving the way for an eventual peace. one of the darkest periods of the war was 1780-1781 before the last decisive victory. inflation of the currency continued at full gallop. the government, virtually bankrupt declared that it would repay many of its debts at the rate of only 2.5 cents on the dollar. despair prevailed, the sense of unity withered, and mutinous sentiments infected the army. meanwhile the British general cornwallis was blundering into a trap. after futile operations in virgnia, he had fallen back to Chesapeake bay at yorktwon to await seaborne supplies and reinforcements. he assumed Britain would continue to control the sea. but these fateful weeks happened to be one of the brief periods during the war when british naval superiority slipped away. the french were now prepared to cooperate energetically in a brilliant stroke. admiral de grasse operating with a powerful fleet in the west indies advised the Americans that he was free to join with them in an assault on cornwallis at Yorktown. quick to seize this opportunity, general washington made a swift march of more than three hundred miles to the Chesapeake from the new york area. accompanied by rochambeaue's french army Washington beset the British by land while de grasse blockaded them by sea after beating off the british fleet. completely cornered cornwallis surrendered his entire force of 7000 men on october 19, 1781. the triumph was no less french than American. the french provided essentially all the sea power and about half of the regular troops in the besieging army of some 16000 men. stunned by the news prime minister lord north cried its all over. but george III stubbornly planned to continue the struggle for Britain was far from being crushed. it still had 54000 troops in north america including 32000 in the us. Washington returned with his army to new york, there to continue keeping a vigilant eye on the british force of 10000 men. fighting actually continued for more than a year after yorktwon with patriot loyalist warfare in the south especially savage. one of Washington's' most valuable contributions was to keep the languishing cause alive, the army in the field and the states together during these critical months. otherwise a satisfactory peace treaty might never have been signed.

king george III

King of England during the American Revolution. by 1770 king george III then only 32 years old was attempting to assert the power of the British monarchy. he was a good man in his private morals, but proved to be a bad ruler. earnest, industrious, stubborn, and lustful for power, he surrounded himself with cooperative yes men, notably his corpulent prime minister, lord north. george the III had the treasury to hire foreign soldiers during the american revolution and some 30,000 germans or hessians were ultimately employed. also, many whigs openly cheered the American victories at least at the outset. aside from trying to embarrass the tories politically many whigs believed that the battle for British freedom was being fought in america if george III triumphed his rule at home might become tyrannical. this outspoken sympathy in britian even though a minority greatly encouraged the Americans. if they continued their resistance long enough the whigs might come into power and deal generously with them. After bunker hill, when the colonists adopted the olive branch petition professing American loyalty to the crown and begging the king to prevent further hostilities , king geroge III slammed the door on all hope of reconciliation. in august 1775, he formally proclaimed the colonists in rebellion, the skirmishes were now out and out treason a hanging crime. the next moth he widened the chasm when he sealed arrangements for hiring thousands of german troops to help crush his rebellious subjects. the six German princes needed the money and geroge III needed the men. After yorktown when prime minster lord north cried its all over, george III stubbornly planned to continue the struggle for britan was far from being crushed. it still had 54,000 troops in north america and 32,000 in us. still despite his eagerness to continue fighting many Britons were weary of war and increasingly ready to come to terms. they had suffered heavy reverses in india and in the west indies. the island of minorca in the Mediterranean had failed, the rock of gibraltar was tottering. lord north's ministry collapsed in march 1782, temporarily ending the personal rule of george III. a whig ministry rather favorable to the american replace the tory regime of lord north.

treaty of paris

Peace treaty signed by Britain and the United States ending the Revolutionary War. The British formally recognized American independence and ceded territory east of the Mississippi while the Americans, in turn, promised to restore Loyalist property and repay debts to British creditors. 3 american peace negotiators had meanwhile gathered at paris; ben franklin, john adams vigilant for new england interest, and impulsive john jay of new york deeply suspicious of old world intrigues. the three envoys had explicit instructions form congress to make no separate peace and to consult with their french allies at all stages of the negotiations. but the americna represeantves chafed under this directive. they well knew that it had been written with the french foreign office indirectly guiding the pen. france was in a painful position. it had induced spain to enter the war on its side in part by promising to deliver British held gibraltar yet the towering rock was defying frantic joint assaults by french and Spanish troops. spain also coveted the immense trans allegheny area on which restless American pioneers were already settling. france ever eager to smash britain's empire desired an independent us, but one independent in the abstract, not in action. it therefore schemed to keep the new republic cooped up east of the allegheny mountains. a weak america like a horse sturdy enough to plow but not vigorous enough to kick would be easier to manage in promoting french interest and policy. france was paying a heavy price in men and treasure to win america's independence and it wanted to get its money worth. but john jay was unwilling to play france's game. suspiciously alert he perceived that the french could not satisfy the conflicting ambitions of both americans and spainards. he saw signs or though he did indicating that the paris foregin office as about to betray americas trans Appalachian interest to satisfy those of spain. he therefore secretly made separate overtures to london contrary to his instructions from congress. the hard pressed britsh easer to entice one of their enemies from the alliance speedily came to terms with the Americans. a preliminary treaty of peace was signed in 1782 the final peace the next year. by the treaty of paris of 1783 the british formally recognized the independence of the us in addition they granted generous boundaries stretching majestically to the Mississippi on the west to the great lakes on the north and to spanish florida on the south. the yankees though now divorced from the empire were to retain a share in the priceless fisheries of newfoundland. the canadians of course were profoundly displeased. the Americans on their part had to yield important concessions. loyalist were not to be further persecuted and congress was to recommend to the state legislatures that confiscated loyalist property be restored. as for the debts long owed to British creditors, the states vowed to put no lawful obstacles in the way of their collection. unhappily for future harmony the assurance regarding both loyalist and debts were not carried out in the manner hoped for by london. as for britian its acceptance of defeat in north america eventually paid enormous strategic dividends. persisting in the colonial conflict might well have bled britan dry. but shutting down the war against the americans enabled london to rebuild its army and navy and eventually prevail in its titanic struggle with napoleon and to become the preeminent world power it he 19th century.

common sense

Thomas Paine's pamphlet urging the colonies to declare independence and establish a republican government. The widely read pamphlet helped convince colonists to support the Revolution. many americans still continued to consider themselves part of a transatlantic community in which the mother country of Britain played a leading role, colonial . unity was poor and open rebellion was dangerous especially against a formidable Britain. irish rebels of that day were customarily hanged drawn and quartered. american rebels might have fared no better. as late as January 1776 five months before independence was declared the kings health was being toasted by the officers of Washington's mess near Boston. god save the king had not yet been replaced by god save the congress. gradually the americans were shocked into recognizing the necessity of separating from the crown. their eyes were jolted open by harsh brith acts like the burning of falmouth and norfolk and especially by the hiring of hessians. then in 1776 came the publication of common sense one of the most influential pamphlets ever written. its author was the radical thomas paine once an impoverished corset makers apprentice who had come over from Britain a year earlier. he began his incendiary tract with a treatise on the nature of government and eloquently anticipated thomas jeffersons declaration that only lawful states were those that derive their just powers form the consent of the governed. as for the king whom the Americans professed to revere he was nothing but the royal brute of great britain. common sense became a whirlwind bestseller. paine flatly branded the shilly shallying of the colonists as contrary to common sense. nowhere in the physical universe did the smaller heavenly body control the larger one. so why should the tiny island of britian control the vast continent o f america. paine's pen went a long way toward convincing the american colonists that heir true cause was independence rather than reconciliation with Britain- not least because without independence they could not hope for foreign assistance. paine could thus be said to have drafted the foundational document not only of american independence but of american foreign policy as well.

john dickinson

a Founding Father of the United States, was a solicitor and politician from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Wilmington, Delaware known as the "Penman of the Revolution" for his twelve Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, published individually in 1767 and 1768. john dickinson- a pennsylvania lawyer and legislator wrote a series of essays known as the letters from a farmer in pennsylvania. dickinson argued about many things including how the Townshend acts were illegal because they were trying to raise revenue a power that was only held by colonial assemblies. it urged united action from the colonists

pontiac's rebellioin

bloody campaign waged by ottawa chief pontiac to drive the british out of ohio country. it was brutally crushed by british troops, who resorted to distributing blankets infected with smallpox as a means to put down the rebellion. the treaty of paris that ended the seven years war dealt a harsh blow to the iroquois, creeks, and other interior tribes. the spanish removal from florida and the french removal from canada deprived the Indians of their most powerful diplomatic weapon- the ability to play off the rival european powers against each other. in the future the indians would have to negotiate exclusively with the british. seeing the newly precarious position of the indian people, the ottawa chief pontiac in 1763 led several tribes aided by a handful of french traders who remained in the region in a violent campaign to drive the british out of the ohio country. Pontiac's uprising laid siege in detroit in the spring of 1763 and eventually overran all but three british posts west of the Appalachians killing some two thousand soldiers and settlers. the british retaliated swiftly and cruelly. waging a primitive version of biological warfare one british commander ordered blankets infected with smallpox to be distributed among the indians. such tactics crushed the uprising and brought an uneasy truce to the frontier. his bold plan frustrated, Pontiac himself perished in 1769 at the hands of a rival chieftain. as for the british the bloody episode convinced them of the need to stabalize relations with the western indians and to keep regular troops stationed along the restless frontier, a measure for which they soon asked the colonists to foot the bill. the proclamation of 1763 was passed because of this rebellion.

proclamation of 1763

decree issued by parliament in the wake of pontiac's uprising, prohibiting settlement beyond the appalachians. contributed to rising resentment of british rule in the american colonies. prohibited settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians pending further adjustments. the hastly drawn document was not designed to oppress the colonists at all but to work out the indian problem fairly and prevent another bloody eruption like Pontiac's uprising. but countless americans especially land speculators were dismayed and angered. was not the land beyond the mountains their birthright. had they not in addition purchased it with their blood in the recent war. in complete defiance of the proclamation, they clogged the westward trails. in 1765, an estimated one thousand wagons rolled through the town of salisbury, north carolina on their way west. this wholesale flouting of royal authority boded ill for the longevity of british rule in america. Because of Pontiac's uprising the british passed this proclamation

Sugar Act

duty on imported sugar from the west indies. it was the first tax levied on the colonists by the crown and was lowered substantially in response to widespread protests victory flushed Britain emerged from the seven years war holding one of the biggest empires in the world and also the biggest debt about half of which had been incurred defending the american colonist. to justify and service that debt, british officials now mowed to redifine their relationships with their north American colonies. prime minster George Greenville first aroused the resentment of the colonists in 1763 by ordering the british navy to begin strictly enforcing the navigation laws. he also secured from parliament the so called sugar act of 1764, the first law ever passed by that body for raising tax revenue in the colonies for the crown. among various provisions it increased the duty on foreign sugar imported from the west indies. after bitter protests from the colonist, the duties were lowered substantially and the agitation died down. but resentment kept burning by the quartering act of 1765

Declaratory Act

passed alongside the repeal of the stamp act, it reaffirmed parliaments unqualified sovereignty over the north american colonies passed in response to the repeal of the stamp act. it reaffirmed parliament's right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever. it reaffirmed parliaments unqualified sovereignty over the north American colonies. it worried the colonists because it said that there would be more taxes to come

patriots and loyalists

patriots were american rebels while loyalists were colonials loyal to the king. loyalists were derisively called tories after the dominant political factions in britian whereas patriots were called whigs after the opposition factions in britain. loyalists numbering 16% of the american people remained true to their king. families often split over the issue of independence: benjamin franklin supported the patriot side while his illegitimate son william franklin the last royal governor of new jersey upheld the loyalist cause. the loyalist were tragic figures. for generations the British in the new world had been taught fidelity to the crown. loyalists is ordinarily regarded as a major virtue. if the king triumphed the loyalists would have been acclaimed patriots, and defeated rebels like washington would have been disgraced, severely punished , and forgotten. many people of education and wealth of culture and caution remained loyal. these wary souls were satisfied with their lot and believed that any violent change would only be for the worse. loyalists were also more numerous among the older generation young people make revolutions and from the outset energetic purposeful, and militant young people surged forward. figures like the scheming samuel adams and the impassioned patrick henry. his flaming outcry before the virginia asembly- give me liberty or give me death- still quickens patriotic pulses. loyalists also included the kings officers and other beneficiaries of the crown- people who knew which side their daily bread came from. the same was generally true of the anglican clergy and a large portion of their congregations all of whom had long been taught submission to the king. usually the loyalists were most numerous where the anglican church was strongest. a notable exception was virginia where the debt burdened Anglican aristocrats flocked into the rebel camp. the kings followers were well entrenched in aristocratic new york city and charleston and also in quaker pennsylvania and new jersey where general Washington felt that he was fighting in the enemy country while his men were starving at valley forge nearby Pennsylvania farmers were selling their produce to the british for the kings gold. loyalists were least numerous in new England where self government was especially strong and mercantilism was especially weak. rebels were the most numerous where Presbyterian and congregationalism flourished notably in new England. invading British armies vented their contempt and anger by using yankee churches for pigsties.

Quartering Act

required colonies to provide food and quarters for british troops. many colonists resented the act, which they perceived as an encroachment on their rights. resentment was kept burning by the quartering act of 1765. this measure required certain colonist to provide food and quarters for british troops. it required the colonies to house british soldiers in barracks provided by the colonies. if the barracks were too small to house all the soldiers then localities had to accommodate the soldiers in local inns, livery stables, ale houses, victualing houses, and the house of sellers of wine. it was passed in response to greatly increased empire defense costs in America, to keep cost of keeping army in America, colonists had to provide food and shelter to British. the americans were angrily aroused. They thought the act was striking at local liberties they had come to assume as a matter of rights. Some colonial assemblies defiantly refused to comply with the quartering act or voted only a fraction of their supplies. Objected to it because of cost- expensive to create barracks and put up the troops. Also objected to it because they were being taxed to pay for provisions and barracks of an army that they thought was unnecessary during peace time. London government suspended the legislature of new York in 1767 for failure to comply with the quartering act who refused to pay the amount the british army requested to create barracks for their soldiers. Townshend began to put pressures on the colonies to obey and support British which is why he suspended new york's legislature.