Unit 4 Nutrition Exam (Ch 7-8), Nutrition Unit 5 Exam (Ch. 10-11), Chapters 1-2

Mucus

Lubricates your intestinal tract

Name functions, food sources, and deficiency and toxicity symptoms for vitamin B12

- Also called cobalamin because it contains the metal cobalt. - The only water-soluble vitamin that can be stored in your body, primarily in your liver. - Intrinsic factor is needed to promote vitamin B12 absorption. - Intrinsic factor binds with vitamin B12 in your small intestine, where the vitamin is absorbed. - Individuals who cannot produce intrinsic factor are unable to absorb vitamin B12 and are diagnosed with pernicious anemia. Individuals with this condition are given regular shots of vitamin B12, which inject the vitamin directly into the blood, bypassing the intestine. - Because your body stores plenty of vitamin B12 in the liver, the symptoms of pernicious anemia can take years to develop. - You need it to use certain fatty acids and amino acids and to make the DNA in your cells. - Needed for healthy nerves and tissues. - Plays an important role in keeping your cells, particularly your red blood cells, healthy - Adults need 2.4 micrograms of vitamin B12 daily. - American adults consume more than 4 micrograms/day. The body's ability to absorb naturally occurring vitamin B12 from foods diminishes with age. - This decline appears to be due to a reduction in the acidic juices in the stomach, which are needed to break the bonds that bind the B12 to the proteins in food. - If the bonds aren't broken, the vitamin can't be released. - Up to 30% of individuals over the age of 50 experience this decline in acidic juices in their stomachs. - The pernicious anemia associated with a vitamin B12 deficiency occurs in about 1-2% of older adults. - With less acid present, the bacteria normally found in the intestines aren't properly destroyed and so tend to over-grow. This abundance of bacteria feeds on vitamin B12, diminishing the amount of the vitamin that may be available. - The synthetic form of vitamin B12 that is used in fortified foods and supplements isn't bound to a protein, so it doesn't depend on your stomach secretions to be absorbed. (synthetic vitamin B12 still needs intrinsic factor to be absorbed.) - Because the synthetic variety is a more reliable source, individuals over the age of 50 should meet their vitamin B12 needs primarily from fortified foods or a supplement. - Food Sources: foods from animal sources, such as meat, fish, poultry, and dairy products. - A varied diet that includes the minimum recommended servings of these food groups will easily meet your daily needs. - Synthetic vitamin B12 is found in fortified soy milk and some ready-to-eat cereals, which are ideal sources for older adults and strict vegetarians, who avoid all foods from animal sources. - There are no known risks of consuming too much vitamin B12 from foods, fortified foods, or supplements, and no UL has been set. - There is no known benefit from taking B12 supplements if your diet contains foods from animal sources and/or fortified foods. - Because vitamin B12 and folate work closely together to make healthy red blood cells, deficiency can cause macrocytic anemia, the same type of anemia caused by a folate deficiency. - In macrocytic anemia due to a vitamin B12 deficiency, there is enough folate available for red blood cells to divide, but the folate can't be utilized properly because there isn't enough vita-min B12 available. - The true cause of macrocytic anemia is more likely a B12 deficiency than a folate deficiency. Because pernicious anemia (caused by a lack of intrinsic factor) is a type of macrocytic anemia, its initial symptoms are the same as those seen in folate deficiency: fatigue and shortness of breath. - Vitamin B12 is needed to protect nerve cells, including those in your brain and spine, so one long-term consequence of pernicious anemia is nerve damage marked by tingling and numbness in the arms and legs and the inability to maintain balance. If diagnosed early enough, these symptoms can be reversed with treatments of vitamin B12.

Spring water

Water that is obtained from underground water that flows naturally to the surface. The water is collected at the spring or at the site of the well purposefully drilled to obtain this water.

Name functions, food sources, and deficiency and toxicity symptoms for vitamin B6

- A collective name for several related compounds, including pyridoxine, the major form found in plant foods and the form used in supplements and fortified foods. - 2 other forms, pyridoxal and pyridoxamine, are found in animal food sources such as chicken and meat - Acts as a coenzyme with more than 100 enzymes involved in the metabolism of proteins. - It is needed to create non-essential amino acids and to convert the amino acid tryptophan to niacin. - Helps your body metabolize fats and carbohydrates and break down glycogen, the storage form of glucose. - Needed to make the oxygen-carrying hemoglobin in your red blood cells and to keep your immune and nervous systems healthy. - Women need 1.3 to 1.5 mg and men need 1.3 to 1.7 mg/day, depending on age. - Because it is found in ready-to-eat cereals, meat, fish, poultry, many vegetables and fruits, nuts, peanut butter, and other legumes, Americans easily meet their daily needs - To protect against potential nerve damage, the UL = 100 mg/day for adults over 19. - It would be very difficult to eat a dangerous level of vitamin B6 from food alone. - Taking supplements can be harmful. - Over the years, vitamin B6 has been touted to aid the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), which include moodiness, irritability, bloating, and anxiety. - More research is needed to determine if vitamin B6 supplements would help reduce PMS in women. - While high intakes of vitamin B6 from foods do not appear to be problematic, chronically taking large amounts of vitamin B6 through supplements has been associated with nerve damage, losing control of bodily movements, and gastrointestinal issues such as nausea and heartburn. Typically these symptoms subside once supplement consumption stops. - Signs of deficiency are a sore tongue, inflammation of the skin, depression, confusion, and possibly anemia. - Those who consume too much alcohol are more likely to fall short of their needs. - Not only does alcohol cause your body to lose vitamin B6, but also those suffering from alcoholism are likely to have an unbalanced diet, with little variety.

Define phytochemicals including antioxidants. State their role in protecting against free radicals. Site several sources of phytochemicals.

- During oxidation, oxygen-containing molecules called free radicals can damage cell structure, cell proteins, and even DNA. - The unstable free radicals steal electrons from other molecules in order to stabilize themselves. - The robbed molecule then itself becomes a free radical, and looks for another molecule to attack. - This chain reaction, if not stopped, can significantly damage cells. - Free radicals are normal by-products of your body's metabolic reactions, which convert energy from food. - They can also result from exposure to chemicals in the environment (such as cigarette smoke and air pollution) and from the damaging effects of the sun's ultraviolet rays on unprotected skin - Phytochemicals, naturally occurring plant compounds that give fruits and vegetables their vibrant colors, have many beneficial functions in the body, such as acting as antioxidants, which can help protect against cancer. - Filling your plate with a colorful variety of antioxidant-and phytochemical-rich plant-based foods is currently one of the best-known strategies to fight chronic diseases - Naturally occurring sub-stances in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains that protect against certain chronic diseases. - Red, Anthocyanins, Lycopene, Apples, beets, cabbage, cherries, cranberries, red cabbage, red onion, red beans, peppers, tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruit - Yellow/Orange, Beta-carotene, Flavonoids, Apricots, butternut squash, cantaloupe, carrots, mangoes, peaches, pumpkin, sweet potatoes Apricots, clementines, grapefruits, lemons, papaya, pears, pineapple, yellow raisins - White, Alliums/allicin, Chives, garlic, leeks, onions, scallions - Green, Lutein, zeaxanthin, Indoles, Broccoli, collard greens, honeydew melon, kale, kiwi, lettuce, mustard greens, peas, spinach Arugula, broccoli, bok choy, brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, Swiss chard, turnips - Blue/Purple, Anthocyanins, Phenolics, Blackberries, black currants, elderberries, purple grapes Eggplant, plums, prunes, raisins - Brown, Beta-glucan, lignans, phenols, plant sterols, phytoestrogens, saponins, tocotrienols, Barley, brown rice, oats, oatmeal, whole grains, whole-grain cereals

Name functions, food sources, and deficiency and toxicity symptoms for vitamin A

- Essential for Vision - Involved in reproduction, bone health, and immunity. It plays an important role in cell division and cell differentiation, the processes that determine what a cell becomes in your body. - Helps keep your skin, which acts as another barrier to infections, healthy to prevent harmful bacteria from entering your body. - Works with your immune system to create white blood cells that fight pathogens that enter your bloodstream. - Vitamin A in foods and supplements can be mea-sured in two ways: in micrograms (μg) of retinol activity equivalents (RAE) and in international units (IU). - Affects cell division by prompting gene expression, a process that uses genetic information to make the proteins needed to begin the process of cell division. - As cells divide and cluster together, changes occur that cause them to become different from their initiating cells. - This differentiation determines what they become in your body. - When immature skin cells differentiate into mature skin cells, vitamin A acts as a signal to turn on the genes to create the proteins needed to make healthy skin. This role of vitamin A is one reason dermatologists prescribe retinoid containing medicines, such as Retin-A or Isotretinoin (originally sold as Accutane) to treat acne - Retin-A is a topical medication that works by enhancing the turnover of skin cells and inhibiting the formation of acne. - Istotretinoin is a medication taken orally that, among other things, affects cell differentiation by manipulating the gene expression of acne-producing cells to alter their development in the skin. - During the early stages of pregnancy, vitamin A signals cells to differentiate into tissues that form the baby's body. - Vitamin A plays a particularly important role in the development of the lungs, heart, kidneys, ears, and other organs. - Vitamin A may help regulate the cells involved in bone growth through gene expression. Too much vitamin A, how-ever, may negatively affect healthy bones. Vitamin A is important for keeping your skin and the mucous membranes of your lungs, intestinal tract, and kidneys healthy and structurally sound. If these linings are weakened or damaged, bacteria and viruses can infiltrate your body and make you sick. - Vitamin A is actually a family of substances called retinoids that includes retinol, retinal, and retinoic acid. These are called preformed vitamin A because they are in a form that your body readily uses. - Retinol is the most usable of the three forms and can be converted to both retinal and retinoic acid in your body - Preformed vitamin A is found only in foods from animal sources, such as liver and eggs, and is added to all processed milk - Plant food sources do not contain preformed vitamin A, but some do contain provitamin A carotenoids, which can be converted to retinol in your body. Carotenoids are the yellow-red pigments that give carrots, butternut squash, and cantaloupe their vibrant, deep orange color. - There are more than 600 different carotenoids, but only 3—beta-carotene (β-carotene), beta-cryptoxanthin (β-cryptoxanthin), and alpha-carotene (α-carotene)—can be converted to vitamin A - These three provide approximately 25-35% of the dietary vitamin A consumed by adults in the US, with the majority of it coming from beta-carotene - Other nutritionally significant carot-enoids, including lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin, may function as antioxidants or provide health benefits, but cannot be converted to vitamin A - The carotenoid lycopene, found in tomatoes and tomato products, functions as an antioxidant in the body - Because retinol is the most usable form of vitamin A and because provitamin A carotenoids can be converted to retinol, the preferred way to measure vitamin A in foods is its conversion to RAE. However, some vitamin supplements and food labels use the older measure, IU, on their products. (One RAE in micrograms is the equivalent of 3.3 IU.) - Adult females need 700 micrograms RAE of vitamin A/day, whereas adult males need 900 micrograms RAE/day.* This is the average amount needed to maintain adequate stores in your body to keep it healthy - Organ meats (liver), milk, and eggs are the most popular sources of preformed vita-min A in the U.S. diet. - Because vitamin A is stored in your body, excessive amounts of preformed vita-min A can accumulate to toxic levels. - UL: 3,000 micrograms of pre-formed vitamin A/day - Overconsumption of pre-formed vitamin A is usually due to taking supplements and is less likely to occur from overeating vitamin A in foods. - Consuming more than 15,000 micrograms of preformed vitamin A at one time or over a short period of time can lead to nausea, vomiting, headaches, dizziness, and blurred vision. - Chronic daily consumption of more than 30,000 micrograms of vitamin A (more than 300 times the amount that adults need daily) can lead to hypervitaminosis A, an extremely serious condition in which the liver accumulates toxic levels of vitamin A. - Hypervitaminosis A can lead to deterioration and scarring of the liver and even death. - High intake of preformed vitamin A during pregnancy, particularly in the first trimester, can cause birth defects in the face and skull and lungs. - All women of childbearing age who are using retinoids for acne or other skin conditions should take the proper steps to avoid becoming pregnant. - Although vitamin A is needed for bone health, some research suggests that consuming too much may lead to osteoporosis, or thinning of the bone, which in turn increases the risk of fractures

Inorganic

- Not containing carbon and not formed by living things.

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for flouride

- The safe ion form of fluorine, a poisonous gas. - Calcium fluoride is the form that is found in your bones and teeth. - The best-known function of fluoride is its role in keeping teeth healthy. Enamel, the outer layer of the tooth can become eroded over time by acids. The acids are produced by the bacteria in your mouth when they feast on the carbohydrates that you eat. - Continual exposure of your teeth to these acids can cause erosion and create a cavity. - Fluoride from food, beverages, and dental products, such as toothpaste, helps protect your teeth in several ways. - It helps to repair the enamel that has already started to erode, and it interferes with the ability of the bacteria to metabolize carbohydrates, thus reducing the amount of acid they produce. - Provides a protective barrier between your tooth and the destructive acids. - As a component of saliva, it provides a continual fluoride bath to your teeth's surfaces. - Consuming adequate amounts of fluoride is extremely important during infancy and childhood, when teeth are developing, and for maintenance of healthy teeth throughout your life. - In the 1930s, scientists noticed lower rates of dental caries among individuals whose community water systems contained significant amounts of fluoride. - Studies showed the fluoride was the protective factor in the water that helped fight dental decay. - Since 1945, most communities have fluoridated their water, and today, over 74% of Americans live in communities that have a fluoridated water supply - The increase in access to fluoridate water is one of the major reasons why there has been a decline in dental caries in the US, and fluoridation of water is considered one of the 10 greatest public health advances of the twentieth century - Adult men need 3.8 mg and women 3.1 mg/day. - If the tap water in your community is fluoridated at 0.7 mg/liter, you would have to consume more than 15 cups of water daily, through either beverages or cooking, to meet your fluoride needs 11 liter = 4.2 cups. - The toothpaste that you use to brush your teeth can also be a source of fluoride. - Foods in general are not a good source of fluoride. - The best sources are fluoridated water and beverages and foods made with this water, such as coffee, tea, and soups. Another source of fluoride can be juices made from concentrate using fluoridated tap water. - If you shy away from tap water and drink and cook predominantly with bottled water, you may be robbing yourself of some cavity protection. - Most bottled waters sold in the US have less than the optimal amount of fluoride. - The amount of fluoride in bottled water has to be listed on the label only if fluoride has been specifically added. - Because of fluoride's protective qualities, too little exposure to or consumption of fluoride increases the risk of dental caries. Having some fluoride is important for healthy teeth, but too much can cause fluorosis, a condition whereby the teeth become pitted and develop white patches or stains on the surface, which can become brownish as the disease progresses. - Fluorosis creates teeth that are extremely resistant to caries but cosmetically unappealing - Fluorosis occurs when teeth are forming, so only infants and children up to about 6 years of age are at risk. - Once teeth break through the gums, fluorosis can't occur. Fluorosis results from over-fluoridation of water, the misuse of dietary fluoride supplements, or excessive use of dental products that contain fluoride. - Skeletal fluorosis can occur in bones when a person consumes at least 10 mg of fluoride daily for 10 or more years. - This is a rare situation that occurs when water is mistakenly over-fluoridated. This can cause bone concentrations of fluoride that are up to five times higher than normal and result in stiffness or pain in joints, osteoporosis, and calcification of the ligaments. - The UL for adults has been set at 10 mg to reduce the risk of fluorosis in the bones. (The UL for infants and children is much lower, to prevent fluorosis in teeth)

Explain water balance and mechanisms for maintaining this balance in the body.

- The state whereby an equal amount of water is lost and replenished daily in the body. - 1 aspect of water balance is excreting excess water so that you don't have too much in your body. You normally lose water daily through these 4 routes: • Via your kidneys in the form of urine • Via intestinal fluids in your stool (unless you are experiencing diarrhea, the amount of water lost in stool is normally small) • Via the water that evaporates when you exhale • Via your skin when you release the heat produced in your body core - When the amount of water you consume is equal to the amount you lose daily, you are in water balance. - When you are not in water balance—that is, having too much or too little water in your system—health problems can occur. - Maintaining water balance is very important. - There are several ways in which water is lost from your body and several mechanisms that help you replenish those losses - The first aspect of being in water balance is consuming enough water. - You get most of your daily water from beverages such as tap or bottled water, milk, juices, and soft drinks. You get some water from the foods that you eat, although much less in comparison - Even the driest foods, like oatmeal and bread, provide some water. - A small amount of water is generated during metabolism. - You get most of your water from foods and beverages, though a small amount is also generated through the process of metabolism. - You lose water in your urine, stool, sweat, and exhaled breath. - The water that evaporates when you exhale and the water lost through your skin when you release the heat generated during normal reactions is called insensible water loss, as it occurs without your noticing it. - An individual loses about 3 cups of water daily due to insensible water loss. - Insensible water loss doesn't include the water lost in sweat. Sweating is your body's way of releasing a higher than normal amount of heat. The amount of water lost during sweating varies greatly and depends on many environmental factors, such as the temperature, the humidity, the wind, the sun's intensity, clothing worn, and the amount of physical activity you are doing. - If you jump rope in the noontime sun on a summer day wearing a winter coat, you'll soon be losing a lot of water as sweat. In contrast, little or no sweat will leave your body if you sit under a shady tree on a dry, cool day wearing shorts and a light T-shirt.

Name functions, food sources, and deficiency and toxicity symptoms for vitamin C

- Though excessive amounts of vitamin C aren't known to be toxic, consuming more than 3,000 mg daily through the use of supplements has been shown to cause nausea, stomach cramps, and diarrhea. - UL = 2,000 mg/day to avoid the intestinal discomfort that excessive amounts of the vitamin can cause. - Too much vitamin C can also lead to the formation of kidney stones in individuals with a history of kidney disease. - You don't have to go out of your way to ensure that your dog's daily chow contains enough vitamin C. - Dogs and many other animals possess an enzyme that can synthesize vitamin C from glucose. Humans lack the necessary enzyme for this conversion and have to rely on food to meet their daily vitamin C needs. - Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, acts as a coenzyme that is needed to synthesize and use certain amino acids. - Needed to make collagen, the most abundant protein in your body. - Collagen is plentiful in your connective tissue, which supports and connects all your body parts, so this protein is needed for healthy bones, teeth, skin, and blood vessels. Deficiency would affect your entire body. - Acts an antioxidant that may help reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer. - It helps absorb the iron in plant foods such as grains and cereals and break down histamine, the component behind the inflammation seen in many allergic reactions. - Helps keep your immune system healthy by enabling your body to make white blood cells, like the ones shown in the photo below. These blood cells fight infections, and this immune-boosting role has fostered the belief that high doses of vitamin C can cure the common cold. - Women need 75 mg/day - Men need 90 mg/day - Smoking accelerates the breakdown and elimination of vitamin C from the body, so smokers need to consume an additional 35 mg of vitamin C every day to make up for these losses. - Most Americans can meet their vitamin C needs by consuming fruits and vegetables. - 1 serving of either orange or grapefruit juice will meet an adult's daily needs. - Food sources: tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, broccoli, oranges, and cantaloupe - Ascorbic acid is the active form of vitamin C - Because it helps to absorb the form of iron found in plant foods, those with a rare disorder called hemochromatosis which causes the body to store too much iron, should avoid excessive amounts of vitamin C. - Iron toxicity is extremely dangerous and can damage many organs in your body, including the liver and heart. - For centuries, scurvy, the disease of a vitamin C deficiency, was the affliction of sailors on long voyages. - After many weeks at sea, sailors would run out of vitamin C-rich produce and then develop the signs of scurvy: swollen and bleeding gums, a rough rash on the skin, coiled or curly arm hairs, and wounds that wouldn't heal. - Because vitamin C is needed for healthy blood vessels, a deficiency also often causes purple-colored spots, a sign of skin hemorrhages, to appear on the skin and in mucous membranes of the body such as the lining of the mouth. - In 1753, a British naval surgeon discovered that orange and lemon juice prevented scurvy. Decades later, the British government added lemon or lime juice to their standard rations for sailors to thwart scurvy. In 1919, vita-min C was discovered as the curative factor in these juices.

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for zinc

- Toxicity symptoms: intestinal problems. nausea, vomiting, stomach pains, cramps, diarrhea, impaired immune function, and lowered HDL cholesterol in the body. - UL: 40 mg/day - Deficiency symptoms: Skin rash and hair loss, diarrhea, loss of taste and smell, loss of appetite, delayed sexual maturation, and impotence - Because zinc is found in the germ and bran portion of the grain, refined grains stripped of these components have as much as 80% less zinc than whole grains. - Consuming large amounts of zinc daily has been shown to lower the level of copper in your body by competing with this mineral for absorption in the intestinal tract. - This is an excellent example of how the overconsumption of one mineral can compromise the benefits of another. - Because zinc is needed during development, a deficiency can slow and impair growth. - Classic studies of groups of people in the Middle East showed that people who consumed a diet mainly of unleavened bread, which is high in zinc-binding phytates, experienced impaired growth and dwarfism - More than 100 enzymes in your cells need zinc to function properly. - It plays a role in the structure of RNA and DNA in your cells and in gene expression, and in your taste acuity, and in helping fight age-related macular degeneration (AMD). - Found in almost every cell of your body. It is involved in the function of more than 100 enzymes, including those used for protein synthesis. - It was not considered an essential nutrient until 1974. - Needed for adequate growth in developing infants and throughout the adolescent years. - Needed for production of white blood cells, so it helps keep your immune system healthy. - Helps reduce the inflammation that can accompany skin wounds. - Helps in wound healing by being part of enzymes and proteins that repair and enhance the proliferation of skin cells. - The ability to savor the flavors of your foods. - A deficiency of zinc has been shown to alter taste perceptions - The jury is still out if zinc may help reduce the symptoms of the common cold. Some studies suggest that consuming lozenges and syrups with high doses of zinc, within 24 hrs of the onset of the first sniffle or sneeze, appears to provide some benefit from a reduction in the duration, but not the severity, of a cold. - The bioavailability of the form of zinc used in the lozenges may also be important and play a role in its effect on fighting the common cold. - Some folks who take zinc lozenges may experience a "bad taste" lingering in their mouth. - Studies found that zinc acetate lozenges shortened the duration of nasal discharge, congestion, hoarseness, and cough. - Studies support the assertion that zinc may play a role in reducing the risk of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a condition that hampers central vision. - May work with an enzyme in your eyes that's needed to properly utilize vitamin A for vision. - May help mobilize vitamin A from the liver to ensure adequate blood levels of this vitamin. - Men need 11 mg - Women need 8 mg - American adults are meeting their daily zinc needs. - Men are consuming approximately 14 mg and women are consuming 10 mg/day - Vegetarians, especially strict vegetarians, can have as much as a 50% higher need for zinc. - Phytates in grains and legumes, which are staples of vegan diets, can bind with zinc, reducing its absorption in the intestinal tract. - Food sources: red meat, some seafood, whole grains

Distilled Water

- Water that has been boiled and processed to remove most, but not all, contaminants

Name functions, food sources, and deficiency and toxicity symptoms for vitamin D

- Vitamin D is called the "sunshine vita-min" because it is made in your body with the help of ultraviolet (UV) rays from sunlight. - Many individuals do not obtain enough sun exposure, so they must meet their needs through their diets. - Enters your body in an inactive form. - The ultraviolet rays of the sun convert a cholesterol-containing compound in your skin to previtamin D, which is then converted to an inactive form of vitamin D in your blood. - The vitamin D in your foods is also in this inactive form. This inactive form travels in your blood to your liver, where it is changed into a circulating form of vitamin D and is released back into your blood. - Once in your kidneys, it is converted to an active form of vitamin D. - Once in an active form, vitamin D acts as a hormone and regulates two important bone minerals, calcium and phosphorus. - Vitamin D stimulates the absorption of calcium and phosphorus in the intestinal tract, helping to keep the levels of these minerals within a healthy range in your blood. - Because of its role in regulating these minerals, vitamin D helps to build and maintain your bones. - Although phosphorus deficiency is very rare, dietary calcium deficiencies do occur, causing blood levels of calcium to drop. When this happens, vitamin D and parathyroid hormone cause calcium to leave your bones to maintain the necessary levels in your blood. - Vitamin D then signals your kidneys to decrease the amount of calcium excreted in the urine. - All of these actions help to regulate the amount of calcium in your blood. - Some research studies suggest that vitamin D may help protect against breast, colon, and prostate cancers, although other research does not show any protection against these cancers from supplemental vitamin D - other studies suggest that some individuals with excessive blood levels of vitamin D may be at higher risk for pancreatic cancer. - Exciting research is also emerging as to the role that vitamin D may play in preventing or treating diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure, and autoimmunue disorders such as multiple sclerosis, as well as other conditions. - Your daily needs are based on the amount needed for healthy bones. - Most individuals can synthesize some of their needed vitamin D with adequate exposure to the sun. However, the seasons of the year and time of day can affect ultraviolet radiation and vitamin D synthesis in your body. - Also, individuals with a higher amount of the skin pigment melanin, which reduces vitamin D production from sun-light, need a longer period of sun exposure to derive the same amount of vitamin D, when compared with a person who has less melanin. - The amounts of cloud cover, smog, and air pollution can all reduce the amount of vitamin D produced in the skin. - Although the use of sunscreen with a sun protective factor (SPF) of 8 or more can also block the body's ability to synthesize vitamin D, individuals typically don't apply enough of it, cover all of their skin, or reapply it during the day, so some synthesis likely occurs. - Your daily vitamin D needs are based on the amount you would need to eat in foods and not on the synthesis of vitamin D in your skin from sunlight. - Based on the important roles that vita-min D plays in your body, it is currently recommended that adults age 19 to 70 consume 15 micrograms, or 600 IU, of vitamin D daily - Based on revised Dietary Reference Intakes, adults over the age of 70 should incorporate 20 micrograms, or 800 IU, into their daily consumption. - When you are reading labels to assess the amount of vitamin D in your foods, keep in mind that the Daily Value (DV) on the Nutrition Facts panel is set at 400 IU, less than the current amount recommended for adults. - One of the easiest ways to get your vitamin D from food is to drink fortified milk, which provides 100 IU, or 2.5 micrograms, of vitamin D per cup. - Other than fatty fish (such as sardines and salmon), fortified milk, breakfast cereals, juice, and yogurt, very few foods provide ample amounts of vitamin D - Consuming too much vitamin D can cause loss of appetite, weight loss, irregular heart beat, and increased urination. -UL: 4,000 IU (100 micrograms). This is 5-6 times higher than the daily recommendation. - As with the other fat-soluble vitamins, excess amounts of vitamin D are stored in the fat cells, and an accumulation can reach toxic levels, causing hypervitaminosis D. This condition causes overabsorption of calcium from the intestines as well as calcium loss from bones. When both of these symptoms occur, blood calcium levels can become dangerously high.

Name functions, food sources, and deficiency and toxicity symptoms for vitamin E

- Vitamin E is sometimes referred to as a vitamin in need of a disease to cure. For almost 40 years after its discovery, scientists searched unsuccessfully for a curative role for vitamin E. - They now have shifted their focus and begun valuing the vitamin's importance as an effective antioxidant -There are 8 different forms of naturally occurring vitamin E, but alpha-tocopherol, is most active in your body. - The synthetic form of vitamin E found in dietary supplements is only half as active as the natural form - Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant. This role is extremely important in protecting cell membranes and preventing oxidation of the "bad" LDL cholesterol carrier. - Phospholipids (lipids that contain phosphorus and two fatty acids) are critical components of cell membranes. - Many phospholipids contain unsaturated fatty acids, which are vulnerable to the damaging effects of free radicals. As an antioxidant, vitamin E neutralizes free radicals before they can harm cell membranes - When the bad LDL cholesterol carrier is oxidized, it contributes to the buildup of artery-clogging plaque. - Antioxidants, including vitamin E, can help protect the LDL cholesterol carrier from being oxidized and reduce the buildup in the arteries, called atherosclerosis Vitamin E is an anticoagulant, which means that it inhibits platelets (fragments of cells used in blood clotting) from unnecessarily clumping together and creating a damaging clot in your blood-stream. - Vitamin E also alters the stickiness of the cells that line your lymph and blood vessels. This decreases the ability of blood components to stick to these walls and clog these passageways. - Research to date on the use of vitamin E to prevent heart disease is conflicting, and at this time, studies do not support the use of vitamin E supplements to protect against heart disease - Adults need to consume 15 mg of vitamin E/day. Because alpha-tocopherol is the most active form of vitamin E in your body, your vitamin E needs are expressed in alpha-tocopherol equivalents. - American adults, on average, are consuming less than 10.5 mg of vitamin E/day, so are falling short of their dietary needs - Because vitamin E is fat soluble, vegetable oils, foods that contain these oils, nuts, and seeds are good sources. - Some green leafy vegetables, avocado, and fortified cereals can also contribute to your daily needs - There isn't any known risk of consuming too much vitamin E from natural food sources. However, overconsumption of the synthetic form that is found in supplements and/or fortified foods could pose risks - Because vitamin E can act as an anticoagulant and interfere with blood clotting, excess amounts in your body increase the risk of hemorrhage. Because of this, the UL for supplements and/or fortified foods is 1,000 mg for adults. However, this may actually be too high. This applies only to healthy individuals consuming adequate amounts of vitamin K - Vitamin E in cell membranes can neutralize free radicals, preventing them from damaging phospholipid - Vitamin E supplements can cause a serious situation in which the blood can't clot quickly enough to stop the bleeding from a wound. A study showed that those at risk of heart disease who took 400 IU (265 mg) or more of vitamin E daily for at least one year had an overall higher risk of dying during that time. - Another study of men who took about 300 mg/day for eight years showed no reduction in cardiovascular events, including stroke or heart attack, and actually showed an increasein hemorrhagic stroke. One theory is that too much vitamin E may disrupt the balance of other antioxidants in the body, causing more harm than good. Individuals who can't absorb fat - The synthetic form that is found in supplements and/or fortified foods could pose risks. Because vitamin E can act as an anticoagulant and interfere with blood clotting, excess amounts in your body increase the risk of hemorrhage. - This applies only to healthy individuals consuming adequate amounts of vitamin K. - One theory is that too much vitamin E may disrupt the balance of other antioxidants in the body, causing more harm than good. Individuals who can't absorb fat properly may fall short of their vitamin E needs - A study showed that those at risk of heart disease who took 400 IU (265 mg) or more of vitamin E daily for at least one year had an overall higher risk of dying during that time.35 - Another study of men who took about 300 mg per day for eight years showed no reduction in cardiovascular events, including stroke or heart attack, and actually showed an increase in hemorrhagic stroke - Though rare, a chronic deficiency can cause nerve problems, muscle weak-ness, and uncontrolled movement of body parts. - Because vitamin E is an antioxidant and is found in the membranes of red blood cells, a deficiency can also increase the susceptibility of cell membranes to damage by free radicals.

Explain how vitamins can be destroyed citing several methods to preserve them.

- Water-soluble vitamins can be destroyed by exposure to air, water, or heat. - Vegetables and fruits begin to lose their vitamins almost immediately after being harvested, and some preparation and storage methods can accelerate vitamin loss - Although the fat-soluble vitamins tend to be more stable than water-soluble vitamins, some food preparation techniques can cause the loss of these vitamins as well - Air (oxygen) exposure can destroy the water-soluble vitamins and the fat-soluble vitamins A, E, and K. For this reason, fresh vegetables and fruits should be stored in airtight, covered containers and used soon after being purchased - When you toss out the water that cooks your vegetables, you are also tossing out some water-soluble vitamins. Soaking foods will cause water-soluble vitamins to leach out of the food and into the liquid - Steaming or microwaving vegetables, using minimal water, may help preserve some vitamins in vegetables. - Heat, especially prolonged heat from cooking, will also destroy water-soluble vita-mins, especially vitamin C. - Because they are exposed to less heat, vegetables cooked by microwaving, steaming, or stir-frying can have approximately 11⁄2 times more vitamin C after cooking than if they were boiled, which involves longer heat exposure - Cooking vegetables until just tender is best, as it reduces the cooking time and heat exposure and preserves the vitamins - Whereas heat causes foods to lose vitamins, cooler temperatures help preserve them - A package of fresh spinach left at room temperature will lose more than half of its folate, a B vitamin, after four days. Keeping the spinach in the refrigerator delays that loss until eight days - After light enters your eye through the cornea, it travels to the back of your eye to the retina and macula (which is located in the retina and allows you to see fine details and things that are straight in front of you). - Vitamin A is a component of two light-sensitive proteins that are essential for vision. The two proteins, rhodopsin and iodopsin, are in the light-absorbing cells in the retina called rods and cones, respectively. - As rhodopsin absorbs incoming light, the shape of vitamin A is altered, and it detaches from its protein. This causes a cascade of events that transmits visual messages through your optic nerve to your brain. - This change in rhodopsin is called bleaching. Although the breakdown of iodopsin is similar, rhodopsin is more sensitive to dim light than iodopsin and is more likely to become bleached. - After bleaching, the vitamin A returns to its original shape and becomes part of the protein again, regenerating the eye's light-absorbing capabilities.

Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry (DXA): - How It Is Done: An X-ray is used to measure bone, fat, and lean tissue. The type of tissue that the X-ray passes through will absorb different amounts of energy. The amount of energy lost will allow the percentage of body fat to be determined. - Cost: Expensive

Air Displacement Using a BodPod: - How It Is Done: A person's body volume is determined by measuring air displacement from a chamber. The person sits in a special chamber (called the BodPod) and the air displacement in the chamber is measured. From this measurement, the percentage of body fat can be estimated. - Cost: Expensive

Bioelectrical Impedance: - How It Is Done: An electric current flows through the body and its resistance is measured. Lean tissue is highly conductive and less resistant than fat mass. Based on the current flow, the volume of lean tissue can be estimated. From this information, the percentage of body fat can be determined. - Cost: Very affordable

Skinfold Thickness Measurements: - How It Is Done: Calipers are used to measure the thickness of fat that is located just under the skin in the arm, in the back, on the upper thigh, and in the waist area. From these measurements, percent body fat can be determined. - Cost: Very affordable

Name functions, food sources, and deficiency and toxicity symptoms for thiamin (B1)

- The first B vitamin to be discovered. - The path to its discovery began in the 1890s in East Asia. A Dutch doctor, Christiaan Eijkman, noticed that chickens and pigeons that ate polished rice (rice with the nutrient-and thiamin-rich outer layer and germ stripped away) developed polyneuritis. This debilitating nerve condition resulted in the birds not being able to fly or stand up. Eijkman noted that polyneuritis was also a symptom of beriberi, a similar disease that had been observed in humans. When Eijkman changed the birds' diet to unpolished rice, with the outer layer and germ intact, the birds were cured. Though Eijkman realized that the unpolished rice eliminated the symptoms, he didn't know why. In 1911, Casimir Funk identified thiamin as the curative factor in the unpolished rice. - Thiamin plays a role in the transmission of nerve impulses and so helps keep nerves healthy and functioning properly. - You need thiamin for the metabolism of carbohydrates and certain amino acids. - Thiamin plays a role in breaking down alcohol in the body. - RDA = 1.1 mg for women and 1.2 mg for men. - American men consume close to 2 mg of thiamin daily, whereas women, eat 1.4 mg daily, so both groups are meeting their daily needs. - Food Sources: enriched and whole-grain foods, such as bread and bread products, ready-to-eat cereals, pasta, and rice, and combined foods, such as sandwiches. - A medium-sized bowl of ready-to-eat cereal in the morning and a sandwich at lunch will just about meet your daily thiamin requirement. - Pork is the richest source of naturally occurring thiamin. - There are no known toxicity symptoms from consuming too much thiamin from food or supplements, so no UL has been set. - The disease that occurs in humans who are deficient in thiamin is beriberi - There are two types of beriberi. Wet beri-beri affects the cardiovascular system, so symptoms often include a rapid heart beat, shortness of breath, and edema (swelling) in a person's calves and feet. Dry beriberi affects the nervous system, so symptoms may include difficulty in walking, tingling and loss of feeling in the hands and feet, confusion, and problems with coordination. - The populations of poor countries with an inadequate food supply rely heavily on refined grains that are not enriched (recall that enriched grains have the B vitamins thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and folic acid, as well as the mineral iron, added to them). These people are more susceptible to a thiamin deficiency and the side effects of beriberi. - In the US, widespread use of enriched grains means that instances of beriberi are rare. - Americans are not completely immune to thiamin deficiencies. - Those who chronically abuse alcohol tend to have a poor diet that is probably deficient in thiamin. Alcohol consumption also interferes with the absorption of the small amounts of thiamin that may be in the diet, accelerating its loss from the body. - Alcoholics may find themselves battling a thiamin deficiency that can cause beri-beri, and chronic alcohol abuse can lead to an advanced form of thiamin deficiency called Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. - The syndrome is a progressively damaging brain disorder that can cause mental confusion and memory loss, loss of muscle coordination, leg tremors, abnormal eye movements, and hallucinations. Although some of these symptoms can be reversed after the person is medically treated with thiamin, some of the memory loss may be permanent

Name functions, food sources, and deficiency and toxicity symptoms for niacin (B2)

- Too little niacin in the diet can result in the deficiency disease called pellagra. - In the early 1900s, pellagra was widespread among the poor living in the southern US, where people relied on corn—a poor source of niacin—as a dietary staple. - The symptoms of pellagra—dermatitis (inflammation or irritation of the skin), dementia (loss of memory along with confusion and disorientation), and diarrhea—led to its being known as the disease of the three Ds. Death was often associated with the disease. - Another nutrient your body needs in order to use carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. - Without it, you wouldn't be able to create energy from the foods that you eat. - Needed to synthesize fat and cholesterol and keep your skin cells healthy and your digestive system functioning properly. - Has been shown to lower the total amount of cholesterol in the blood and the "bad" LDL cholesterol carrier. It can also lower high levels of fat (triglycerides) in the blood and simultaneously raise the level of the "good" HDL cholesterol carrier. - The nicotinic acid form of niacin is sometimes prescribed by physicians for patients with high blood cholesterol levels. - When niacin is used to treat high blood cholesterol, it is considered a drug. - The amount prescribed by a physician is often more than 50 times the UL for niacin. - You should never consume high amounts of niacin unless a physician is monitoring you. - The recommended daily amount is 14 mg for women and 16 mg for men, an amount set to prevent the deficiency disease pellagra. - American adults far exceed their daily niacin needs. - Niacin can be synthesized in the body from the amino acid tryptophan. For this reason, your daily niacin needs are measured in niacin equivalents (NE). It is estimated that 60 mg of tryptophan can be converted to 1 mg of niacin or 1 mg NE. - Food Sources: meat, fish, poultry, enriched whole-grain breads and bread products, fortified cereals - Protein-rich foods, particularly animal foods such as meat, are good sources of tryptophan and thus of niacin. - If you are falling short of both your dietary protein and niacin, tryptophan will first be used to make protein in your body, at the expense of your niacin needs. - As with thiamin, your niacin needs are probably met after you eat your breakfast and lunch, especially since similar foods contain both vitamins. - There is no known danger from consuming too much niacin from foods such as meat and enriched grains. - Over-consuming niacin by taking supplements or eating too many overly fortified foods can cause flushing, a reddish coloring of the face, arms, and chest. - Too much niacin consumption can also cause nausea and vomiting, be toxic to your liver, and raise your blood glucose levels. UL = 35 mg to prevent flushing, the first side effect to be observed when too much niacin is consumed. - This UL applies only to healthy individuals. It may be too high for those with certain medical conditions, such as diabetes mellitus and liver disease. - Once other cereal grains were available, pellagra disappeared as a wide-spread disease in the US. - The niacin in the grains was later identified as the curative factor for pellagra. - Although not common in the US, pellagra does occur among individuals who abuse alcohol and have a very poor diet

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for calcium

- Too much dietary calcium can also cause constipation, hypercalcemia, or kidney stones and interfere with the absorption of other minerals, such as iron, zinc, magnesium, and phosphorus - Calcium, along with phosphorus, forms hydroxyapatite, which provides strength and structure for bones and teeth. - Dairy foods are a good source of calcium. - A diet adequate in protein, vitamin K, calcium, and vitamin D, along with regular physical activity, is needed to build and maintain healthy bones. - A chronic deficiency of dietary calcium and/or vita-min D, excess alcohol consumption, and smoking can all increase the risk of osteoporosis (a condition caused by frail bones) - Calcium is one of the most abundant minerals in nature and is found in everything from pearls to seashells to eggshells. Calcium is also the most abundant mineral in your body. More than 99% of your body's calcium is located in your bones and teeth. - Calcium couples with phosphorus to form hydroxyapatite, providing strength and structure in your bones and the enamel on your teeth. - Adequate dietary calcium is needed to build and maintain bone mass. - Calcium makes up 40% of the weight of your bones. The remaining 1% of calcium is in your blood, in the fluids that surround your cells, in your muscles, and in other tissues. Calcium is needed for muscle contraction, and to help your nervous system transmit messages. - It is involved in the dilation and contraction of blood vessels, and it helps your blood clot. Finally, calcium is necessary for the secretion of some hormones and enzymes. It must be maintained at a constant level for your body to function properly. - Studies show that a heart-healthy diet rich in calcium, potassium, magnesium, fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy products can help lower blood pressure. - 1 example of such a diet, the DASH diet, contains 3 servings of lean dairy foods daily, the minimum amount of servings recommended to obtain this protective effect - A diet with plenty of calcium has been shown to help reduce the risk of developing benign tumors in the colon that may eventually lead to cancer. - It may protect the lining of the colon from dam-aging bile acids and cancer-promoting substances. - A million American adults visit their health care providers annually with kidney stones. Most of these stones are composed mainly of calcium oxalate. - Research has shown that a balanced diet, along with adequate amounts of dietary calcium, may actually reduce the risk of developing kidney stones. - Calcium binds with the oxalates in foods in the intestines and prevents their absorption. - With fewer oxalates filtering through the kidneys, fewer stones are formed. However, research involving calcium supplements has not indicated the same protective effect. - High intake of calcium from supplements, not food sources, has been shown to increase the risk of kidney stones - The current UL's set for calcium are based on research related to risk for increased kidney stones. - Adults age 19-50 need 1,000 mg of calcium daily. - Women over 50, and men over 70, should increase their daily intake to 1,200 mg. - Most women and many older males do not meet their daily calcium needs. - Food Sources: Milk, yogurt, and cheese are the major sources of calcium in the American diet. Each serving from the dairy group will provide approximately 300 mg of calcium. (Choose nonfat, low-or reduced-fat, or skim milk versions to reduce the amount of saturated fat in these foods.) - Though 3 servings of dairy foods will just about meet many adults' daily needs, American adults consume less than 2 servings of dairy daily - Broccoli, kale, canned salmon with bones (the calcium is in the bones), and tofu that is processed with calcium can also add calcium to the diet. - Calcium-fortified foods, such as juices and cereals, are also excellent sources. - Spinach, rhubarb, and okra also contain calcium, but these foods are also high in calcium-binding oxalates, so less than 10% of the mineral is absorbed in the body - The UL is 2,500 mg daily for adults age 19 to 50, and at 2,000 mg for those age 51 and beyond, to avoid kidney stones. Too much dietary calcium can also cause constipation and interfere with the absorption of other minerals, such as iron, zinc, magnesium, and phosphorus. - Hypercalcemia, or having abnormally high blood levels of calcium, can potentially impair kidney function and lead to calcium deposits in the body. - If your diet is low in calcium, calcium leaves your bones in order to maintain a constant level in your blood. - A chronic deficiency of dietary calcium can lead to less dense, weakened, and brittle bones and increased risk for osteoporosis and bone fractures - If you are fortunate enough to have elders, such as grandparents, in your life, you may have heard them comment that they are shrinking as they age. They aren't really shrinking, but they may be losing height as the tissues supporting their spine lose mass and elasticity and the joint capsules between the bones (or vertebrae) of the spine lose their cushion of fluid. This is normal. - In many older adults, the vertebrae themselves lose mass and begin to collapse, so that it becomes more difficult for the spine to hold the weight of the head and upper body. This leads to a gradual curvature of the spine, which affects their posture. As older individuals begin to hunch over, they can lose as much as a foot in height.

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Name functions, food sources, and deficiency and toxicity symptoms for folate

- 2 forms of folate: the naturally occurring folate in foods and the synthetic form, folic acid, which is added to foods (such as ready-to-eat cereals and grains) and found in supplements. - A very small amount of folic acid can occur naturally in foods. - Folate is vital to making the DNA in your cells. If the synthesis of DNA is disrupted, your body's ability to create and maintain new cells is impaired. - For this reason, folate plays many important roles, from maintaining healthy blood cells and preventing birth defects to possibly fighting cancer. - Folate helps your body use amino acids and is needed to help red blood cells divide and increase in adequate numbers. - Folate plays an extremely important role during pregnancy, particularly in the first few weeks after conception, often before the mother knows she is pregnant. - Folate is needed to create new cells so that the baby can grow and develop. - Deficiency during pregnancy can result in birth defects called neural tube defects. - The neural tube forms the baby's spine, brain, and skull and is formed during the first 12 weeks of gestation. If the neural tube doesn't develop properly, two common birth defects, anencephaly and spina bifida, can occur. - In anencephaly, the brain doesn't completely form, so the baby can't move, hear, think, or function. An infant with anencephaly dies soon after birth. - In spina bifida, the baby's spinal cord and backbone aren't properly developed, causing physical disabilities, such as the inability to walk. - Folic acid could possibly reduce the risk of these birth defects by 50-60% if consumed at least the month prior to conception and during the T early part of pregnancy. - Inadequate amounts of folate in the body can disrupt the cell's DNA, potentially triggering the development of cancer. - Adequate intake of folate may help reduce the risk of certain cancers, specifically colon cancer - Some studies suggest that folate supplements may actually increase the risk of prostate cancer. - This suggests that while some may be good, more (through supplements) may not be better. - Your body absorbs the synthetic folic acid more easily than it absorbs naturally occurring folate. - Synthetic folic acid is absorbed 1.7 times more efficiently than most folate that is found naturally in foods. Because of this, your folate needs are measured in dietary folate equivalents (DFE). - Most adults should eat 400 micrograms DFE of folate/day. - While the foods in your diet analysis program database list the micrograms of folate as DFE, the Nutrition Facts panel on the food label doesn't make this distinction. - To convert the micrograms of folic acid found on the food labels of foods with folic acid added, such as enriched pasta, rice, cereals, and bread, to dietary folate equivalents, multiply the amount listed on the label by 1.7: 100 μg × 1.7 = 170 μg DFE - Women who are planning to or are capable of becoming pregnant should consume 400-800 micrograms of synthetic folic acid/day in the form of a supplement. - Women with a family history of neural tube defects should take even larger amounts - Because 50% of pregnancies in the US are unplanned, every woman who may become pregnant is advised to follow these same recommendations. - Since 1998, the FDA has mandated that folic acid be added to all enriched grains and cereal products. This enrichment program has reduced the incidence of neural tube defects by 25-30%. - Food sources: enriched pasta, rice, breads and cereals, legumes (dried peas and beans), leafy green vegetables (spinach, lettuce, col-lards), broccoli, asparagus, orange juice - There isn't any danger in consuming excessive amounts of naturally occurring folate in foods. - Consuming too much folic acid, either through supplements or fortified foods, can be harmful for those deficient in vitamin B12. - A vitamin B12 deficiency can cause anemia and, more dangerous, crippling and irreversible nerve damage. - Too much folate in the diet masks the symptoms of B12-deficiency anemia and may even exacerbate the anemia. - Though the folate can correct anemia, the nerve damage due to the vitamin B12 deficiency persists. This delays a proper diagnosis and corrective therapy with vitamin B12. - By the time the person is given the vitamin B12, irreversible nerve damage may have occurred. - While, as you read, low folate intake may be associated with increased cancer risk, studies suggest that folate consumption double the DRI or even higher may also increase the risk of some cancers - Deficiency can also cause abnormally large/immature blood cells known as megaloblasts - These megaloblasts develop into abnormally large red blood cells, or macrocytes, that have a diminished oxygen-carrying capacity. - Eventually, macrocytic anemia causes a person to feel tired, weak, and irritable and to experience shortness of breath. - Because folate acts with vitamin B12 to produce healthy red blood cells, a deficiency of either vitamin can lead to macrocytic anemia - UL = 1,000 micrograms from enriched and fortified foods and supplements to safeguard those who may be unknowingly deficient in vitamin B12.

Explain the role of vitamin supplements and fortified foods in the diet.

~ Foods ~ - Pros: Sources of other nutrients and energy; can supply phytochemicals, antioxidants, and fiber; delicious and satisfying - Cons: Need to shop for and prepare meals; need to plan for in diet ~ Fortified Foods ~ - Pros: Easy to obtain a specific nutrient; can be delicious and satisfying - Cons: Often more expensive than regular variety; risk of overconsumption of nutrients; can displace a more nutrient-dense food ~ Supplements ~ - Pros: Easy to obtain; no planning or preparation involved - Cons: Can be expensive; risk of overconsumption of nutrients; lack of antioxidants, phytochemicals, and fiber found naturally in foods; not satisfying - Foods with added nutrients - Can be a valuable option for individuals whose diets fall short of some nutrients. - Someone who doesn't drink milk, such as a strict vegetarian or an individual who is lactose intolerant, may benefit from drinking vitamin D-and calcium-fortified soy milk. - Older adults who are inactive, and thus have lower calorie needs, may choose fortified foods to add nutrients, such as vitamins B12 and E, to their limited dietary selections. - Women in their childbearing years may look to folic acid-fortified cereals to help them meet their daily needs of this B vitamin. - Can do a disservice in the diet if they displace other vitamin-and mineral-rich foods. - A sugary orange drink that has vitamin C added to it should not replace vitamin C-rich orange juice. Although the vitamin C content of the 2 beverages may be the same, the orange-flavored drink doesn't compare well to the juice when it comes to providing other nutrients and phytochemicals. - A diet containing numerous fortified foods can put you at risk of over-consuming some nutrients. If a heavily fortified food, like some cereals, snack bars, and beverages, claims to contain "100% of the vitamins needed daily," then eating several servings of the food or a combination of several fortified foods is similar to taking several multivitamin supplements. You are more likely to over-consume vitamins from fortified foods than from whole foods.

Vegan Diet for Elite Athletes Positive effects: • While more research is still needed, proponents of vegan diets blame animal proteins for a wide variety of health issues, including heart disease, blood pressure, type 2 diabetes, and various types of cancer. • Vegan or plant-based diets are higher in carbohydrates, which can be beneficial to restore depleted glycogen in active individuals. • An increase in intake of a variety of fruit, vegetables, and whole grains can supply adequate micro-nutrients (vitamins and minerals). • Vegan diets have been correlated with lower healthcare costs, along with protecting animal rights and reducing global warming.

Vegan Diet for Elite Athletes Negative effects: • A vegan diet requires advanced planning. Consuming a balanced diet may be an issue for some athletes who travel a lot for their sport. • Without a well-constructed plan, individuals may be deficient in total protein intake, which can impact muscle protein synthesis and recovery. • It can be difficult on a vegan diet to obtain adequate micronutrients, including vitamin B12, vitamin D, iron, zinc, calcium, and iodine. • Further research is needed to support and quantify the training and recovery benefits of a vegan diet.

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for potassium

- Although a deficiency of dietary potassium is rare, too little potassium can cause hypokalemia. This may occur during bouts of vomiting and/or diarrhea and in individuals who have anorexia nervosa and/or bulimia nervosa - An important mineral with numerous functions in your body - More than 95% of the potassium in your body is inside your cells, with the remainder in the fluids outside your cells, including your blood. - Potassium is an electrolyte that helps maintain fluid balance and keeps your blood pH and acid-base balance correct. - Potassium plays a role in the contraction of your muscles, including your heart, and the conduction of nerve impulses. Because of this, a dramatic increase of potassium in your body can lead to irregular heart beats or heart attack, whereas dangerously low levels can cause paralysis. - Potassium is tightly controlled and balanced in your body with the help of your kidneys. - A diet with plentiful potassium has been shown to help lower blood pressure, especially in individuals whose blood pressure is too high. - Causes the kidneys to excrete excess sodium from the body and keeping sodium levels low can help lower blood pressure. - The DASH diet is abundant in foods with potassium. Potassium Aids in Bone Health and Reduces Kidney Stones Because potassium plays a buffering role in your blood, it helps keep the bone-strengthening minerals, calcium and phosphorus, from being lost from the bones and kidneys. - Numerous studies suggest that having adequate amounts of potassium in your diet helps increase the density, and thus the strength, of your bones. - Helps reduce the risk of kidney stones by causing the body to excrete citrate, a compound that binds with calcium to form kidney stones - Adults should consume 4,700 mg of potassium/day. This amount is recommended to help reduce the risk of high blood pressure. - Can help lower the risk of developing kidney stones and preserve bone health. - Because Americans fall short of their servings of fruits, vegetables, and lean dairy, they are also falling short of their daily potassium needs. Adult females are consuming only 2,320 mg of potassium/day, and adult males are consuming only 3,016 mg/day - Food Sources: fruits, vegetables, dairy foods, nuts, and legumes - Aim for a diet that includes at least 41⁄2 cups of fruits and vegetables, the minimum amount you should be consuming daily, especially leafy greens. - There isn't any known danger from consuming too much potassium that occurs naturally in foods. These excesses will be excreted in your urine. However, consuming too much from supplements or salt substitutes (the sodium in some salt substitutes is replaced with potassium) can cause hyperkalemia for some individuals. - Hyperkalemia can cause irregular heart beats, damage the heart, and be life-threatening. - Those at a higher risk for hyperkalemia include individuals with impaired kidneys, such as people with type 1 di-betes mellitus, those with kidney disease, and individuals taking medications for heart disease or diuretics that cause the kidneys to block the excretion of potassium. These individuals may also need to consume less than the recommended amount of potassium daily - Hypokalemia can cause muscle weak-ness and spasms, fatigue, and, in severe situations, irregular heart beats and paralysis. - Individuals who consume high-protein diets that contain few fruits and vegetables may be depriving themselves of the buffering actions of potassium. - The breakdown of excessive amounts of dietary protein causes the formation of acids that are balanced by the buffering action of potassium. - A diet too low in fruits and vegetables is setting the stage for an imbalance of acids and bases in the blood and the increased risk of kidney stones, loss of bone mass, and high blood pressure

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for iron

-Consuming too much iron from supplements can cause organ damage (including the kidney and liver), constipation, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea - UL = 45 mg/day, as this level is slightly less than the amount known to cause these intestinal symptoms. - This UL doesn't apply to individuals with liver disease or other diseases, such as hemochromatosis, which can affect iron stores in the body. It is too high for these individuals. - Part of the oxygen-carrying transport proteins—hemoglobin in your red blood cells and myoglobin in your muscles. - Heme iron is found in meat, poultry, and fish. - Non-heme iron is found in plant foods, such as grains and vegetables. - Non-heme iron is the predominant source of the iron in your diet but isn't absorbed as readily as heme iron. - Too much iron from supplements can cause constipation, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea - A deficiency of iron in children can reduce their ability to learn and retain information. - Iron-deficiency anemia can cause fatigue and weakness. - The most abundant mineral on Earth, and the most abundant trace mineral in your body. A 130-lbs female has more than 2,300 mg of iron in her body—about the weight of a dime—whereas a 165-lbs male will have 4,000 mg of iron in his body—slightly less than the weight of two dimes. - As a key component of blood, iron is highly valuable to the body and is treated accordingly. - For the most part, iron is not excreted in the urine or stool, so once absorbed very little of it leaves the body. - Approximately 95% of your iron is recycled and reused. - Some iron is shed in hair, skin, and sloughed-off intestinal cells, most iron loss is due to bleeding. - Foods from animal sources, such as meat, poultry, and fish, provide heme iron in your diet. Heme iron is part of the protein hemoglobin in your red blood cells and the protein myoglobin in your muscles. Heme iron is easily absorbed by your body. - Plant foods such as grains and vegetables are the main sources of non-heme iron in your diet. Non-heme iron is not as easily absorbed as heme iron. This is because other compounds in foods, such as phytates in legumes, rice, and grains, the polyphenols in tea, and the protein in soy products, all inhibit its absorption. - Your body absorbs 10-15% of the iron you eat. - If your body stores are low, the amount you absorb from foods will increase. - You can enhance your non-heme iron absorption by eating a food that's high in vitamin C along with iron-rich foods. - Vitamin C and the acids in your stomach change the configuration of non-heme iron, which improves its absorption. - As little as 25 mg of vitamin C—the amount in about one-quarter cup of orange juice—can double the amount of non-heme iron you absorb from your meal, and 50 mg of vitamin C can increase the amount absorbed about sixfold. - Another way to enhance non-heme iron absorption from foods is to eat meat, fish, or poultry at the same meal as the non-heme iron-containing food. - The peptides in these animal-derived foods are thought to be the enhancing factors. - The meat in your next turkey sandwich will help enhance the absorption of the non-heme iron in the whole-wheat bread. - 2/3 of the iron in your body is in hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying transport protein in your red blood cells. - The iron-containing heme group binds with oxygen from your lungs and is transported to your tissues for their use. - Hemoglobin also picks up CO2 waste products from your cells and brings them to your lungs to be exhaled from your body. Similarly, iron is part of the myoglobin that transports and stores oxygen in your muscles. - Helps enzymes that are involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters in your brain, which send messages to the rest of your body. - Deficiency in children can reduce their ability to learn and retain information. Studies have shown that children with iron-deficiency anemia in their early years can have persistent, decreased cognitive ability. - Women, age 19-50, need 18 mg/day to cover the iron lost during menstruation. During pregnancy, a woman's iron needs increase to 27 mg/day to support her growing fetus. - After a woman stops menstruating, usually around age 50, her daily iron needs drop to 8 mg because she is no longer losing blood monthly. - Men need 8 mg/day. - These recommendations for women and men take into account a typical American diet, which includes both heme and non-heme iron sources. - Adult men consume more than twice their recommended iron needs—more than 17 mg/day - Adult premenopausal women consume only about 70% of their daily need, or 13-14 mg - Postmenopausal women consume approximately 13 mg of iron daily, so, like men, they are meeting their needs. - The needs of vegetarians are 1.8 times higher than those of non-vegetarians due to components in plant foods that inhibit iron absorption. - Food Sources: iron-enriched bread and other grain foods such as cereals. - The richest sources of heme iron are meat, fish, and poultry. - The accidental consumption of supplements containing iron has been known to cause poisoning deaths among children. - Ingestion of as little as 200 mg has been shown to be fatal. - Children who swallow iron supplements can experience symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea within minutes. - Intestinal bleeding can also occur, which can lead to shock, coma, and even death. - The FDA has mandated that a warning statement about the risk of iron poisoning in small children be put on every iron supplement label. - Excessive storing of iron in the body over several years is called iron overload and, if undetected, can damage a person's tissues and organs, including the heart, kidneys, liver, and nervous system. - Hemochromatosis, a genetic disorder in which individuals absorb too much dietary iron, can cause iron overload. - Though this condition is congenital, its symptoms often aren't manifested until adulthood. If not diagnosed and treated early enough, organ damage can occur. These individuals need to avoid iron supplements throughout their lives, as well as large amounts of vitamin C supplements, which enhance iron absorption. - Iron overload from consuming too much dietary iron has occurred in South Africans and Zimbabweans who consume large amounts of beer. - The iron content in the particular beer that they drink is high: 80 mg/liter. These individuals may also have a genetic disorder that contributes to excessive iron storage in the body. - It is not known if excessive amounts of dietary iron alone in healthy individuals could cause iron overload. Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional disorder in the world. - If your diet is deficient in iron, your body stores will be slowly depleted so as to keep your blood hemoglobin in a normal range. - Iron-deficiency anemia occurs when your stores are so depleted that your hemoglobin levels decrease - This will diminish the delivery of oxygen through the body, causing fatigue and weakness. - Premenopausal females (especially those with heavy blood losses), pregnant women (because of their increased iron needs), preterm and low birth weight infants, and older infants and toddlers are at risk of developing iron-deficiency anemia because they often fall short of the recommended dietary amounts

Name functions, food sources, and deficiency and toxicity symptoms for riboflavin (B2)

- A light-sensitive B vitamin that is abundant in milk. - One of the reasons that milk is packaged in opaque bottles or cardboard containers is to prevent its riboflavin content from being destroyed by light. Not so long ago, milk made its way to a household not via the grocery store cooler, but by way of a daily visit from a milkman in the early hours of the morning. At each delivery, the milkman placed the clear glass milk bottles inside a covered "milk box" outside the home. The milk box helped protect the light-sensitive riboflavin in the milk from being destroyed by the morning sunlight. - Sunlight destroys riboflavin quickly. - 30 minutes of midday summer sun will destroy more than 30% of the riboflavin in glass-bottled milk. - Your body needs riboflavin to turn the carbohydrates, proteins, and fats that you eat into energy, and to keep the cells in your body healthy. - Enhances the functions of other B vitamins, such as niacin and B12. - You need to consume a little over 1 mg/day to be healthy. - Men should consume 1.3 mg and females, 1.1 mg/day. - Americans typically exceed their daily needs. - Food Sources: Milk, yogurt, enriched cereals and grains - A breakfast of cereal and milk and a lunchtime pita sandwich and yogurt will meet your riboflavin needs for the day. - Your body has a limited ability to absorb riboflavin, so excessive amounts are excreted in urine. - No UL has been determined. - Because it is a bright yellow compound, consuming large amounts through supplements will turn urine as yellow as a school bus. While this isn't dangerous to your health, it isn't beneficial either - If you don't consume enough, the cells in the tissues that line your throat, mouth, tongue, and lips will be the first to signal a deficiency. Your throat would be sore, the inside of your mouth would swell, your tongue would be inflamed and look purplish red, and your lips would be dry, cracked, and scaly. - Deficiencies are rarely seen in healthy individuals who eat a balanced diet.

Dehydration

- A state in which you've lost too much, or aren't taking in enough, water. - It can result from not drinking enough fluids and/or from conditions that result in too much water (and sodium) being lost from the body, such as diarrhea, vomiting, high fever, or the use of diuretics. - If it persists, a person can experience weight loss, fever, dizziness, and confusion, as well as impaired physical coordination, and, in extreme situations, death - Just quenching your thirst will not typically provide enough fluids to remedy dehydration. This isn't a concern for moderately active individuals eating a balanced diet, as fluids from beverages and food throughout the day can eventually restore water balance. - Older adults, and individuals who are very physically active and/or who have physically vigorous jobs, such as firefighters, are at higher risk of dehydration because they don't take in enough fluid, or they lose body water copiously through sweating. - 1 way to monitor hydration is the cornerstone method, which involves measuring body weight before and after long bouts of intense physical activity or labor and noting any changes. - If you weigh less after an activity than before, the weight change is due to loss of body water, and you must replenish that water. (Alternatively, if you've gained weight, over-hydration is likely, and you need to drink less before your next activity.) - When you are dehydrated, you produce less urine due to the release of ADH. - The urine you do produce is more concentrated, as it contains a higher proportion of compounds to the smaller volume of water. This causes the urine to be darker in color. - The National Athletic Trainers Association has created a chart to help individuals assess if they are drinking enough fluids to offset the amount of water lost through sweating - If you are very physically active and the color of your urine darkens during the day, to the point where it resembles the shade of a "yield" sign or darker, you likely need to increase the amount of fluids in your diet. - Other factors, such as consuming excessive amounts of the B vitamin, riboflavin, and certain medications can also affect the color of urine.

Adult Water Content

- Adult women should ingest 9 cups of water/day, whereas adult men should drink 13 cups/day. - Those who are very active will need more water to avoid dehydration - Your body is mostly water - Muscle tissue has more water than does fat tissue - The water inside your body cells is balanced by the water outside your cells - Electrolytes help maintain fluid balance. - Water is a universal solvent that helps transport oxygen and nutrients throughout your body - It absorbs and releases heat to regulate your body temperature, acts as a lubricant through saliva and mucus, and provides a protective cushion for your brain and other organs

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for sodium

- An electrolyte in your body. - Most sodium in your body is in your blood and in the fluid surrounding your cells. About 90% of the sodium you consume is in the form of sodium chloride, commonly known as table salt. - Sodium's chief role is regulation of fluid balance. - Sodium also plays an important role in transporting substances such as amino acids across cell membranes. Salt is frequently added to foods to enhance flavor and as a preservative. - Used to reduce the growth of bacteria and mold in many bread products and deli meats. - Sodium phosphate, sodium carbonate, and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) are food additives and preservatives that perform similar functions in foods. \\ - Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is a common additive in Asian cuisines that is used to intensify the flavor of foods. - Physiological processes maintain the amount of sodium in your body at a certain level. - When your body needs more sodium, your kidneys reduce the amount that is excreted in your urine. - When you take in too much sodium, you excrete the excess. For example, when you eat salty pretzels or potato chips, your kidneys will excrete the extra sodium you take in from these snacks. - Smaller amounts of sodium are lost in your stool and through daily perspiration. The amount of sodium lost through perspiration depends on the rate at which you are sweating, the amount of sodium you have consumed (the more sodium in your diet, the higher the loss), and the intensity of heat in the environment. - As you get acclimated to environmental heat, less sodium will be lost over time in your sweat. - This built-in protective mechanism helps to prevent the loss of too much sodium from your body. - 180 mg is the bare minimum you need daily. It is based on the amount of sodium needed by individuals who live in temperate climates and those who have become acclimated to hotter environments. - Planning a balanced diet with such a small amount of sodium is virtually impossible, so the recommended sodium intake for adults up to 51 years of age is set at 1,500 mg daily. - This sodium recommendation allows you to eat a variety of foods from all the food groups so that you can meet your other nutrient needs. It also covers any sodium that is lost in sweat by moderately active individuals, or those who are not acclimated to the environmental temperature. - Those who are very physically active and/or not acclimated to heat will likely need to consume a higher amount of sodium. - This can easily be obtained in the diet. Americans currently consume more than double the recommended amount, or more than 3,500 mg of sodium daily - Sodium is so widely available in foods that you don't have to go out of your way to meet your needs. - 10% of Americans' consumption of sodium is from foods in which it occurs naturally, such as fruits, vegetables, milk, meat, fish, poultry, and legumes. - Another 5-10% gets added during cooking and to season foods at the table. - Processed foods contribute the majority of the sodium in the diet of Americans. - Comparing the amount of sodium in a fresh tomato (6 mg) with the amount found in a cup of canned tomatoes (355 mg) aptly illustrates just how much more sodium is found in processed foods. Because the majority of your sodium comes from processed foods, and a fair amount comes from the salt that you add to your foods, cutting back on these two sources is the best way to lower your intake. - When you buy processed foods, look for the terms "low sodium," "reduced sodium," or "sodium free" on the labels. - Further, bypass the salt shaker at the table and season foods with black pepper, Tabasco sauce, lemon juice, or a no-salt seasoning blend.

Water in food

- Approximately 20% of the water you consume comes from foods. - Fruits, vegetables, and cooked grains all contain a high percentage of water by weight - All foods contain some water. - Cooked hot cereals and many fruits and vegetables are robust sources of water - Beverages like caffeinated coffee, tea, and soft drinks contribute to your daily water needs. - Caffeine is a diuretic, so it causes water to be excreted, but the water loss it causes is short lived. In other words, the caffeine doesn't cause a significant loss of body water over the course of a day compared with non-caffeinated beverages. - Research suggests that individuals who routinely consume caffeinated beverages actually develop a tolerance to its diuretic effect and experience less water loss over time - However, their high calorie and sugar contents can quickly have you drinking your way into a very unbalanced, high-calorie diet. - Soft drinks also contain acids that can con-tribute to erosion of tooth enamel

Identify the water soluble vitamins and explain how they are absorbed by the body.

- B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, pantothenic acid, and biotin) and vitamin C are water soluble - Most water-soluble vitamins are absorbed in the upper portion of your small intestine, although vitamin B12 is absorbed in the lower part of your small intestine - Water-soluble vitamins are typically not stored in your body for long periods of time (vitamin B12 is the exception), and excess amounts are excreted, so it's important to consume adequate amounts of them every day. - Needed in small amounts - Absorbed with water - Enter bloodstream directly - Not stored in body - Excess amounts excreted in the urine - Low risk of toxicity, but excesses can be harmful - Food sources: Fortified grains, whole fruits, vegetables, and some animal food sources - Absorbed directly into the bloodstream from the small intestine. - Air (oxygen) exposure can destroy water-soluble vitamins. For this reason, fresh vegetables and fruits should be stored in airtight, covered containers and used soon after being purchased. - Water-soluble vitamins act as antioxidants (vitamin C), aid in nerve function (thiamin), DNA synthesis (folate), and red blood cell formation (vitamin B12). - They act as coenzymes in metabolic processes

Name functions, food sources, and deficiency and toxicity symptoms for vitamin K

- Deficiency can exacerbate the anticoagulant effects of vitamin E. - There are two forms of vitamin K: menaquinone and phylloquinone. - Menaquinone is synthesized by the bacteria that exist naturally in your intestinal tract. - Phylloquinone is found in green plants and is the primary source of vitamin K in your diet. - Bacteria in your GI tract synthesize one form of vitamin K. - It plays a major role in blood coagulation, or clotting. - Blood clotting is a complex chain of events involving substances in your blood, many of which are proteins, called clotting factors. - Vitamin K plays a role in synthesizing four of these clotting factors. - Without vitamin K, a simple cut on your finger would cause uncontrollable bleeding - Acting as a coenzyme, vitamin K aids an enzyme that alters the bone protein osteocalcin. - Vitamin K enables osteocalcin to bind with the bone-strengthening mineral calcium. Chronic inadequate amounts of dietary vitamin K may be a factor in osteoporosis. - In a study of women over a 10-year period, researchers found that a low dietary intake of vitamin K was associated with an increased risk of hip fractures. - It is unknown how much of the vitamin K made from bacteria in your intestinal tract truly contributes to meeting your daily needs. Because of this, it is hard to pinpoint the exact amount you need to consume daily in your foods. - The recommendation for dietary vitamin K is based on the current amount that is consumed, on average, by healthy Americans. - Women need 90 micrograms/day - Men need 120 micrograms/day - Food sources: green vegetables like broccoli, spinach, salad greens, brussel sprouts, cabbage - Vegetable oils and margarine are the second largest source of vitamin K in the diet. - A green salad with oil and vinegar dressing at lunch and 3/4 cup broccoli at dinner will meet your vitamin K needs for the entire day. - There is no upper intake level - Individuals taking anticoagulant (anti-clotting) medications such as warfarin (also known as Coumadin) need to keep a consistent intake of vitamin K. This medication decreases the activity of vitamin K and prolongs the time it takes for blood to clot. If these individuals suddenly increase the vitamin K in their diets, the vitamin can override the effect of the drug, enabling the blood to clot too quickly. In contrast, a sudden decline in dietary vitamin K can enhance the effectiveness of the drug. - A vitamin K deficiency severe enough to affect blood clotting is extremely rare in healthy individuals. - People with illnesses affecting absorption of fat in the intestinal tract, which is necessary to absorb fat-soluble vitamin K, may be at risk of not meeting their vitamin K needs

Identify the fat soluble vitamins and explain their storage in the body.

- Fat-soluble vitamins need dietary fat to be properly absorbed - Vitamins A, D, E, and K are fat soluble - The fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed at the beginning of your small intestine - They are packaged with fatty acids and bile in micelles, small transport carriers that shuttle them close to the intestinal wall. - Once there, the fat-soluble vitamins travel through the cells in the intestinal wall and are packaged with fat and other lipids in chylomicrons (1 of the lipoprotein carriers.) - The vitamins then travel through your lymph system before they enter your bloodstream. - Needed in small amounts - Need fat to be absorbed - Absorbed in upper part of small intestine - Stored in liver, fat, and muscle tissue - Transport through Body: Packed in micelles and chylomicrons in lymph - Can be toxic in high doses - Major Food Sources: Fortified milk, oils - Once in the small intestine, fat-soluble vitamins are packaged with fatty acids and bile in micelles that transport them into the intestinal wall. The fat-soluble vitamins travel through the cells in the intestinal wall and are packaged with fat and other lipids in chylomicrons. The chylomicrons travel through the lymph system and into the bloodstream. - Air (oxygen) exposure can destroy vitamins A, E, and K. For this reason, fresh vegetables and fruits should be stored in airtight, covered containers and used soon after being purchased.

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for sulfur

- Found in your body as part of other compounds. For example, sulfur is part of the vitamins thiamin, biotin, and pantothenic acid. - The amino acids methionine, cystine, and cysteine all contain sulfur. The sulfur part of these amino acids helps give some proteins their 3D shape. This enables these proteins to perform effectively as enzymes and hormones. - Sulfur-based substances called sulfites are often used as a preservative by food manufacturers. They help prevent food spoilage and discoloration - Foods that contain the amino acids mentioned earlier are the major dietary sources of sulfur. A varied diet that contains meat, poultry, fish, eggs, legumes, dairy foods, fruits, and vegetables will provide sulfur. - There isn't any recommendation for the amount of sulfur to be consumed daily, nor are there any known toxicity or deficiency symptoms. - Most people get plenty of sulfur in their diet.

Free Radicals

- If free radicals accumulate faster than your body can neutralize them (a condition known as oxidative stress), their effects can contribute to various health problems, including heart disease, cancer, arthritis, and Alzheimer's disease - Free radicals can damage your eyes by contributing to age-related macular degeneration and cataracts. - Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) results from damage to the macula, a tiny area of the retina that is needed for central vision (the ability to see things that are directly in front of you). - AMD can make activities such as reading, driving, and watching television difficult. - AMD is a common eye condition among those who are 50 years of age and older and a leading cause of vision loss among older individuals

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for selenium

- It acts as an antioxidant in your body and may help fight cancer. - It's a component of enzymes that help regulate thyroid hormones. - All food groups contribute selenium, including nuts, meat, and seafood. - Too much selenium can cause selenosis, the symptoms of which include brittle teeth and fingernails, garlic odor in the breath, gastrointestinal problems, and damage to the nervous system. - A deficiency of selenium may lead to Keshan disease, which damages the heart - A mineral - incorporated into a class of proteins called selenoproteins, many of which are enzymes. - Selenium-containing enzymes help regulate thyroid hormones in your body. - Selenoproteins can also function as anti-oxidants that protect your cells from free radicals. - If free radicals accumulate faster than your body can neutralize them, their damaging effects can contribute to chronic diseases, such as heart disease. - Studies have suggested that deaths from cancers, such as lung, colon, and prostate cancers, are lower in groups of people that consume more selenium. - Selenium's antioxidant capabilities, and its ability to potentially slow the growth of tumors, are thought to be the mechanism behind its anticancer effects. - Claim on food labels and dietary supplements stating that "Selenium may reduce the risk of certain cancers but the evidence is limited and not conclusive to date." Daily Needs Both adult females and males need 55 micrograms of selenium daily. - American adults are more than meeting their needs—they consume about 94-135 micrograms daily - Food sources: meat, seafood, pasta, grains, dairy foods, and fruits and vegetables can all contribute to dietary selenium. - The amount of selenium in the foods you eat depends on the soil where the plants were grown and the animals grazed. - Wheat grown in selenium-rich soil can have more than 10 times as much selenium as an identical wheat grown in selenium-poor soil. - Too much selenium can cause toxicity and a condition called selenosis. A person with selenosis will have brittle nails and hair, both of which may fall out. - Other symptoms include stomach and intestinal discomfort, a skin rash, garlicky breath, fatigue, and damage to the nervous system. The UL for selenium for adults is set at 400 micrograms/day to prevent the loss and brittleness of nails and hair, which is the most common symptom of selenosis. - Though rare in the US, a selenium deficiency is associated with Keshan disease, which damages the heart. However, some researchers speculate that selenium deficiency alone may not cause Keshan disease; the selenium-deficient individual may also be exposed to a virus, which, together with the selenium deficiency, leads to the damaged heart

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for chloride

- It is a form of chlorine, as found in bleach. - It is a powerful disinfectant that if inhaled or ingested can be poisonous. - Most of the chlorine in your body is in the nontoxic form of chloride (Cl-). - Chloride is part of hydrochloric acid, a strong acid in your stomach that enhances protein digestion and kills harmful bacteria that may be consumed with your foods. - Adults age 19 to 50 should consume 2,300 mg of chloride a day. - Sodium and chloride are outside your cells and in your blood. They help maintain fluid balance between these 2 compartments. - Chloride also acts as a buffer to help keep your blood at a normal pH - Sodium chloride, which is 60% chloride, is the main source of chloride in your diet, so the food sources for it are the same as those for sodium - Because Americans consume plenty of salt, it is estimated that they are consuming, on average, 3,400 mg to just over 7,000 mg of dietary chloride daily - Sodium chloride is the major source of chloride in the diet - UL = 3,600 mg (to coincide with the UL for sodium) - Table Salt Is Composed of Sodium and Chloride - Chloride works with sodium to maintain fluid balance as well as acid-base balance in the body. - Table salt accounts for almost all the chloride you consume. - Toxicity is rare but hyperchloremia can occur due to extreme dehydration. - Deficiency is rare and is generally caused by extreme vomiting and diarrhea, resulting in hypochloremia.

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for copper

- It is part of many enzymes and proteins that are involved in the absorption and transfer of iron and the synthesis of hemoglobin and red blood cells. - It is important for iron absorption and transfer and the synthesis of hemoglobin and red blood cells. - It helps generate energy in your cells, synthesize melanin (the dark pigment found in skin), and link the proteins collagen and elastin together in connective tissue. - It works with enzymes to protect your cells from free radicals. - It plays an important role in bone health and in maintaining a healthy immune system. - Organ meats such as liver, bran cereals, whole-grain products, cocoa, seafood, nuts, and seeds are abundant in copper - Potatoes, milk, and chicken are low in copper, but they are consumed in such abundant amounts that they contribute a fair amount of copper to Americans' diets. - Both adult women and men need 900 micrograms of copper daily. American women consume 1,200 micrograms, whereas men consume 1,600 micrograms daily, on average. - Toxicity symptoms: Vomiting, abdominal/stomach pain/cramps, nausea, diarrhea, liver damage - UL: 10,000 μg (micrograms)/day - Deficiency is rare in the US. It has occurred in premature babies fed milk formulas, malnourished infants fed cow's milk, and individuals given intravenous feedings that lacked adequate amounts of copper - Other enzymes containing copper are involved in energy production

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for manganese

- It's either part of, or activates, many enzymes in your body. - This mineral is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids. Manganese is needed for the formation of bone. - Women need 1.8 mg - Men need 2.3 mg - Americans are easily meeting their manganese needs. - Women consume more than 2 mg of manganese/day and men consume more than 2.8 mg/day from food - Food sources: whole grains, nuts, legumes, tea, vegetables, fruits such as pineapples, strawberries, bananas - A teaspoon of ground cinnamon provides just under 0.5 mg of manganese. - Toxicity, which has occurred in miners who have inhaled manganese dust, may be associated with damage to the nervous system and symptoms that resemble Parkinson's disease. - A study of individuals who drank water with high levels of manganese showed that they also experienced Parkinson's disease-like symptoms. - To protect against this toxicity, the upper level is 11 mg/day. A deficiency of manganese is rare in healthy individuals who have a balanced diet. - Individuals fed a manganese-deficient diet developed a rash and scaly skin

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for magnesium

- Large intakes from supplements can cause intestinal problems such as diarrhea (which is usually the first symptom), cramps, and nausea - There isn't any known risk in consuming too much magnesium from food sources. - Some laxatives purposefully contain magnesium because of its known purgative effect. - Because of the potential for distress to the intestinal system, the UL for magnesium from supplements, not foods, is set at 350 mg - The difference between consuming enough and getting too much magnesium is narrow. - Even though many Americans don't meet their magnesium needs, deficiencies are rare in healthy individuals because the kidneys compensate for low magnesium intake by excreting less of it. - Certain diuretics can cause the body to lose too much magnesium, and some antibiotics, such as tetracycline, can inhibit the absorption of magnesium, both of which can lead to a deficiency. - Individuals with poorly controlled diabetes or who abuse alcohol can experience excessive losses of magnesium in the urine, which could also cause a deficiency. - Severe deficiency can cause muscle weakness, seizures, fatigue, depression, and irregular heart beat - It is needed for metabolism and to maintain healthy muscles, nerves, bones, and heart. - It is abundant in leafy green vegetables, almonds, and legumes. - Deficiencies are rare, but the use of some medications can result in magnesium deficiency - While about half of the magnesium is in your bones, most of the remaining magnesium is inside the cells. - 1% is found in your blood and, like calcium, this amount must be maintained at a constant level. - Magnesium helps more than 300 enzymes produce reactions inside your cells. It is needed for the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. - Your body uses magnesium during the synthesis of protein and to help your muscles and nerves function properly. It is also needed to help you maintain healthy bones and a regular heart beat. - Studies have shown that magnesium supplements may help lower blood pressure slightly and that a plant-based diet abundant in fruits, vegetables, and nonfat dairy products, which are all rich in magnesium as well as other minerals, can also lower blood pressure. - The blood pressure-lowering DASH diet, which has been clinically proven to lower blood pressure, is rich in magnesium as well as calcium and potassium - Some studies suggest that a diet with higher amounts of magnesium may help decrease the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. - Low blood levels of magnesium, which often occur in individuals with type 2 diabetes, may be involved in insulin resistance in the body. This may lead to elevated blood glucose levels in those with preexisting diabetes and may contribute to higher than normal blood glucose levels in those at risk for type 2 diabetes. - Women age 19-30 need 310 mg of magnesium - Men 19-30 need 400 mg daily. - Women 31 and over need 320 mg; - Men 31 and over need 420 mg of magnesium daily. - Many adult Americans fall short of their magnesium needs. - Women eat only about 85% of their needs, or about 274 mg daily - Men eat 350 mg daily which is only about 85% of the amount recommended daily. - Because older adults tend to consume fewer calories, and thus less dietary magnesium, elders are at an even higher risk of falling short of their needs. - Food Sources: vegetables, whole grains, nuts, fruits, milk, yogurt, meat, and eggs - Because the majority of the magnesium is in the bran and germ of the grain kernel, products made with refined grains, such as white flour, are poor sources. It's not difficult to meet your magnesium needs. - A peanut butter sandwich on whole-wheat bread, chased with a glass of low-fat milk and a banana, will provide over 200 mg, or about half of an adult's daily needs.

Antioxidants

- Substances that neutralize harmful oxygen-containing molecules called free radicals that can damage cells. Vitamins A, C, and E and beta-carotene are antioxidants. - A group of compounds that includes vitamins E and C, beta-carotene, the mineral selenium, and certain phytochemicals. - They counteract oxidation, a harmful chemical reaction that takes place in your cells. - Antioxidants are part of your body's natural defense system to harness free radicals and stop them from damaging cells - A study conducted by the National Eye Institute (NEI) discovered that supplements containing large amounts of antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, lutein, and zeaxanthin), with the minerals zinc and copper, are effective in reducing the risk for AMD, as well as the extent of vision loss - Too much of vitamins C and E, as well as beta-carotene supplements—all of which are antioxidants—can cause health problems - Antioxidants help reduce the risk of many chronic diseases (such as cancer and heart disease) caused by free radicals - Free radicals accelerate the aging process and contribute to age-related macular degeneration and cataracts, two common eye disorders. - Diets high in antioxidant-rich fruits, vegetables, and whole grains are associated with a lower incidence of some diseases. However, these foods contain other compounds that may work with antioxidants to provide protection. - The big question that remains is if antioxidant supplements provide the same health protection as antioxidants consumed in foods - The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and the Dietary Guidelines for Americans advocate that your nutrition needs should be met primarily through foods as part of a well-balanced diet - Some vitamins, such as vitamins E and C, as well as the mineral selenium, and carotenoids, act as antioxidants because they help counteract the damaging effects of oxygen-containing molecules called free radicals. - Supplements that contain antioxidants along with zinc have been shown to delay the progression of AMD.

Beta-carotene

- Major function: Provitamin A carotenoid, antioxidant - Provitamins are substances found in foods that are not in a form directly usable by the body, but that can be converted into an active form once they are absorbed. The best-known example of this is beta-carotene, which is split into two molecules of vitamin A in the small intestinal cell wall or in the liver cells - A daily recommendation for beta-carotene hasn't been established, but the Institute of Medicine suggests consuming 3 to 6 mg/day from foods. You can obtain this easily by eating five or more servings of fruits and vegetables. This amount will provide about 50% of the recommended vitamin A intake. - Vegetarians who eat no animal foods, including vitamin A-rich milk and eggs, need to be especially conscientious about eating carotenoids and beta-carotene-rich foods to meet their daily vitamin A needs. Food sources: Sweet potatoes, carrots, winter squash, cantaloupe Toxicity symptoms: Carotenodermia - Though a diet abundant in carotenoid-rich foods is not dangerous, carotenoid supplements may be. - In a study of adult male smokers, those who consumed beta-carotene supplements were shown to have significantly higher rates of lung cancer than those who didn't take the supplements. - There is no known benefit associated with taking beta-carotene supplements. - Carotenoids are yellow-reddish pigments that give some fruits and vegetables their vibrant yellow-red color. - The carotenoid beta-carotene is a common pro-vitamin that can be converted to vitamin A in your body.

Lose excess weight

- Modifying your diet and exercise to reach and maintain a normal, healthy body weight - Your Systolic Blood Pressure* May Be Reduced by 5-20 mm Hg for every 22 lbs of weight loss

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for molybdenum

- Molybdenum is part of several enzymes involved in the breakdown of certain amino acids and other compounds. - Men and women need 45 micrograms/day - American women eat 76 micrograms and men eat 109 micrograms/day - Legumes are excellent sources of molybdenum. Grains and nuts are also good sources. - There is limited research on the adverse effects of too much dietary molybdenum in humans. - In animal studies, too much has been shown to cause reproductive problems. - Because of this finding in animals, the UL in humans = 2 mg for adults. - A deficiency of molybdenum has not been seen in healthy individuals. - Deficiency was observed in an individual who was fed intravenously for years and developed symptoms that included rapid heart beats, headaches, and night blindness

Lipoic Acid

- Needed for energy production - A vitamin-like substance - it was initially thought to be a vitamin. - It is being studied for its potential role in obesity - Carnitine, lipoic acid, and inositol are used for important body functions and overall health, but are not essential nutrients. Your body can synthesize these substances in adequate amounts, and there are no known deficiency symptoms.

Define vitamins, state their functions in the human body.

- Non-energy-providing organic essential nutrients that your body needs in small amounts to grow, reproduce, and maintain good health. - Classified as either fat soluble or water soluble, depending on its chemical structure - Vitamins were originally called vitamines. Casimir Funk, a chemist and early vitamin researcher, believed that vitamins were vital to life (he was correct) and were probably also a nitrogen-containing amine (he was incorrect). When later discoveries found that an amine wasn't present, the e was dropped from the word. - To prevent excessive intake, the Dietary Reference Intakes include a tolerable upper intake level (UL) for most vitamins. - Though some for vitamins researchers lack sufficient evidence to establish a UL, there still may be risks in taking them in megadose amounts - They are organic compounds that you need in small amounts for growth, reproduction, and overall good health. - Although they don't provide energy (calories) for your body, they are essential nutrients for your well-being - A deficiency of any one will cause physiological symptoms - There are 13 vitamins, and you get most of them by eating a variety of foods from each of the food groups, though the vitamins D, K, niacin, and biotin can also be synthesized in your body or by micro-organisms in the intestinal tract. - A chronic deficiency of any of the essential vitamins can cause a cascade of symptoms, from scaly skin to blindness. - Consuming too much of some vitamins can cause effects that can be as damaging as consuming too little.

Pantothenic acid and biotin

- Pantothenic acid and biotin aid in the metabolism of the nutrients that provide you with energy: carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. - Adults need 5 mg of pantothenic acid and 30 micrograms of biotin/day - Pantothenic acid and biotin are widely available in foods, including whole grains, nuts and legumes, broccoli, peanut butter, meat, milk, and eggs. - Most Americans easily meet their needs. - Biotin deficiency is so rare that an accurate list of the amount in foods is hard to find - In addition to its abundance in foods, biotin can be synthesized by the bacteria in your intestinal tract, providing yet another avenue to meet your needs. - There are no known adverse effects from consuming too much pantothenic acid or biotin. - A UL has not been determined for either of these vitamins. - Although a pantothenic acid deficiency is rare, if you do fall short of your needs, your symptoms might include fatigue, nausea, vomiting, numbness, muscle cramps, and difficulties walking. - During World War II, prisoners of war in Asia experienced a "burning feet" syndrome. The symptoms ranged from heat sensations and tingling on the soles of their feet to a painful burning intense enough to disrupt sleep. Their diet consisted pre-dominantly of nutrient-poor polished rice. A doctor in India who was studying an identical phenomenon in his patients discovered that when he gave them supplements of pantothenic acid, the condition stopped. - Consuming inadequate amounts of biotin can cause hair loss, skin rash, and feelings of depression, and lethargy. Though deficiency is rare, it can occur if you eat a lot of raw egg whites. - The protein avidin, found in egg whites, binds with biotin and blocks it from being absorbed in your intestine. Cooking the egg denatures and inactivates the protein, eliminating the problem

Sparkling Water

- Spring water that has carbon dioxide gas added to supply "bubbles" before bottling. - Also sold as seltzer water or club soda. - Technically considered a soft drink and does not have to adhere to FDA bottled water regulations.

Define bioavailability and explain how it applies to nutrition.

- The degree to which a nutrient is absorbed from foods and used in the body. - Not all of the vitamins consumed in foods are 100% bioavailable/able to be used by the body - The bioavailability of individual vitamins varies according to several factors, including the amount of the vitamin in the food; whether the food is cooked, raw, or refined; how efficiently the food is digested and absorbed; the individual's nutritional status; and whether or not the vitamin is natural or synthetic. - If the body needs more vitamins, a greater percentage will be absorbed. For example, a young child or pregnant woman will absorb more ingested vitamins than will a non-pregnant adult. - The bioavailability of fat-soluble vitamins is usually less than that of water-soluble vitamins because fat-soluble vitamins require bile salts and the formation of a micelle to be absorbed - Vitamins in plant foods are typically less bioavailable than those in animal foods because plant fiber can trap vitamins - Absorption of minerals from your foods can vary depending on their bioavailability. - The polyphenols in tea and coffee can inhibit your body's absorption of iron, reducing its bioavailability. In contrast, vitamin C will enhance the absorption of iron that is found in plant foods. Protein from animal foods will enhance the absorption of zinc and iron, and vitamin D enhances the absorption of calcium. All these factors affect the bioavailability of these nutrients. - The bioavailability of the form of zinc used in the lozenges may be important and play a role in its effect on fighting the common cold

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for iodine

- The iodization of salt was a significant advance for public health in the US. - Prior to the 1920s, many Americans suffered from the iodine-deficiency disease, goiter. - Once salt manufacturers began adding iodine to their product, incidence of the disease dropped. - Today, rates of the disease are very low in the US, though not in other parts of the world. - Iodine is an essential mineral for your thyroid, a butterfly-shaped gland located in your neck - The thyroid needs iodine to make some essential hormones. In fact, approximately 60% of your thyroid hormones are comprised of iodine. - Thyroid hormones affect the majority of your cells, regulate your metabolic rate, and help your heart, nerves, muscles, and intestines function properly. - Children need thyroid hormones for normal bone growth and brain development - Adult men and women need 150 micrograms of iodine daily to meet their needs. - Americans currently consume 138-353 micrograms of iodine from foods daily, depending on their age and sex. This does not include the amount that they get from iodized salt that they may be adding to their foods. - The amount of iodine that occurs naturally in foods is typically low, approximately 3-75 micrograms in a serving, and is influenced by the amount of iodine in the soil, water, and fertilizers used to grow foods. Fish can provide higher amounts of iodine, as they concentrate it from sea-water. - Iodized salt provides 284 micro-grams of iodine per teaspoon. Not all salt has added iodine. Kosher salt has no additives. - Processed foods that use iodized salt or iodine-containing preservatives are also a source. - Consuming too much iodine can challenge the thyroid, impairing its function and reducing the synthesis and release of thyroid hormones. - Because of this, the UL = 1,100 micrograms. - An early sign of iodine deficiency is goiter, which is an enlarged thyroid gland. An iodine-deficient thyroid has to work harder to make the thyroid hormones, causing it to become enlarged. - A deficiency of iodine during the early stages of fetal development can damage the brain of the developing baby, causing mental retardation. Inadequate iodine during this critical time can cause lower IQ scores. - Depending on the severity of the iodine deficiency, congenital hypothyroidism can occur. - Individuals with congenital hypothyroidism can experience abnormal sexual development, mental retardation, and dwarfism. - Early detection of an iodine deficiency and treatment in children is critical to avoiding irreversible damage.

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for chromium

- The most recent mineral to be found necessary in humans, and was identified as an essential mineral in 1977, although researchers have had an interest in chromium and its roles in the metabolism of glucose since the 1950s. - The main function of this mineral is to increase insulin's effectiveness in cells. - The hormone insulin plays an important role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and protein in your body. - Individuals who were intravenously fed a chromium-free diet experienced high blood levels of glucose, weight loss, and nerve problems—all telltale signs of uncontrolled diabetes and poor blood glucose control. - The problems were corrected when chromium was provided - 1 large systematic review suggests that chromium may help individuals who have diabetes mellitus or prediabetes (glucose intolerance) improve their blood glucose control. - 1 study suggests that a chromium supplement may reduce the risk of insulin resistance, and therefore, favorably affect the handling of glucose in the body; however, there isn't enough evidence to support the use of a chromium supplement. - Improving the body's sensitivity to insulin and maintaining a normal blood glucose level can possibly lower the incidence of type 2 diabetes in individuals at risk. - The FDA has allowed a Qualified Health Claim on chromium supplements. - The supplement label must state that the evidence regarding the relationship between chromium supplements and either insulin resistance or type 2 diabetes is not certain at this time. - Though advertisements have sometimes touted chromium supplements as an aid to losing weight and building lean muscle, the research doesn't support the claim. - A review of more than 20 studies didn't find any benefits from taking up to 1,000 micrograms of chromium daily If you are trying to become lean and mean, taking chromium supplements isn't going to help. - Adult men age 19-50 need 30-35 micrograms of chromium/day, whereas women of the same age need 20-25 micrograms/day, depending on their age. - It is estimated that American men consume 39-54 micrograms of chromium from foods, and women consume 23-29 micrograms/day - Food sources: grains, meat, eggs, poultry, some fruits and vegetables Dairy foods are low in the mineral. - No known risk from consuming excessive amounts of chromium from food or supplements, so no UL has been set. - A chromium deficiency is very rare in the US. - The jury is still out on whether individuals with diabetes who did not have a chromium deficiency would benefit by taking a supplement. More research is needed in this area.

Name functions, food sources, deficiency and toxicity symptoms for phosphorus

- The second most abundant mineral in your body. - 85% is in your bones. The remainder is in your cells and fluids outside your cells, including your blood. - Phosphorus combines with calcium to form hydroxyapatite, the strengthening material found in bones and teeth. Phosphorus is also a component of phospholipids, which give your cell membranes their structure. - Act as a barrier to keep specific substances out of the cells, while letting others in. - Helps your body store the energy generated from the metabolism of carbohydrates, protein, and fat for later use. - Your body can draw upon these stores as needed. - If your blood becomes too acidic or too basic, phosphorus can act as a buffer to help return your blood pH to normal. - Your blood pH must stay within a very narrow range to prevent damage to your tissues. - Phosphorus is part of your DNA and RNA. The instructions for your genes are coded in your DNA and transcribed in your RNA to make the proteins needed in your body. - Men and women need 700 mg of phosphorus daily. - Americans consume more than 1,000 mg of phosphorus daily. - Food Sources: animal sources such as meat, fish, poultry, and dairy products - Phosphorus is part of many food additives. - Consuming too much dietary phosphorus and its subsequent effect, hyperphosphatemia, is an issue only for individuals with kidney problems who cannot excrete excess phosphorus. - Constantly high phosphorus intake and low calcium intake can cause the loss of calcium from your bones and a subsequent decrease in bone mass. - Loss of bone mass increases the risk of osteoporosis. - Hyperphosphatemia can also lead to calcification of tissues in the body. To protect against this, the UL = 4,000 mg daily for adults age 19-50 and 3,000 mg for those over 50 - Too little phosphorus in the diet can cause its level in your blood to drop dangerously low and result in muscle weak-ness, bone pain, rickets, confusion, and, at the extreme, death. - Because phosphorus is so abundant in the diet, a deficiency is rare. A person would have to be in a state of near starvation before experiencing a phosphorus deficiency

Facts: - You need weight-resistance training to build muscle mass. The purpose of resistance training is to stress the muscle tissue so it increases its bulk. This is the only process that will result in increased muscle strength. - Consuming adequate daily calories, especially from carbohydrates and fat, are vital to building muscle. A diet adequate in all 3 nutrients—carbohydrates, fat, and protein—is a muscle must! You need adequate carbohydrates and fats to fuel your workouts so that your dietary protein will be preserved to build and repair your muscles. - The best recovery snack after your workout is one that will sup-ply both carbohydrates and protein. Carbohydrates are needed for post workout recovery to replenish your glycogen stores. Protein is also needed to aid in muscle repair and growth. Peanut butter on crackers with a glass of milk, yogurt and fruit, or chocolate milk all make excellent post workout snacks. - For best results, your recovery snack or meal should occur within 30-45 minutes of your workout. It's a fact!

Fiction - Protein intake is more important than weight-resistance training to build muscle. This is pure fiction, as regularly scheduled weight-resistance exercises are a key component to building muscle. No matter how much protein you consume, you won't build muscle without proper training. - There isn't any downside to eating a lot of protein. Excessive amounts of protein, beyond your daily calorie needs, will be stored as body fat. Also, excessive protein burdens the kidneys to excrete the excess nitrogen as urea in urine. - The protein and amino acids in supplements are more easily used by the body. Your body doesn't distinguish between sources of protein and amino acids, but your wallet does. A supplement can cost more than $25 for 12 servings. Whole foods not only provide all 3 nutrients needed to build muscle, but they are also less expensive than overpriced supplements. - It doesn't matter when you eat after your workout. Wrong again. Timing is everything, and waiting too long will diminish the body's ability to use the newly consumed carbohydrate and protein for glycogen replacement and muscle repair.