Unit 4 vocab

-Protestants and Catholics -1618 to 1648 -most destructive conflicts in European history with around 8,000,000 casualties -began when Ferdinand the second, who was the leader of the Holy Roman Empire tried to force Roman Catholicism to the Bohemians of Austria. In response, the Bohemians revolt against the Protestant Union (Ferdinand the 2nd and later Frederick the fifth were a part of). Ferdinand the second used funds from the Catholic League and Spanish Habsburgs to build an army. This conflict resulted in a loss of political power for Ferdinand the second. This war left Germany politically and economically devastated, weakened Austrian monarchy of the Habsburgs, and reformations slowed in the Catholic religious realm.

30 Years War

The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through 19th centuries. The vast majority of those who were enslaved and transported to the New World, mainly on the triangular trade route and its Middle Passage, were West Africans from the central and western parts of the continent who had been sold by other western Africans to western European slave traders, with a small minority being captured directly by the slave traders in coastal raids, and brought to the Americas. Connect- The South Atlantic and the Caribbean economic system centered on producing commodity crops, making goods and clothing to sell in Europe, and increasing the numbers of African slaves brought to the New World; crucial to those western European countries which, in the late 17th and 18th centuries (create overseas empires)

African slaves

Term that is used to describe native populations of the americas (Native Americans, Maya, Aztec, Inca). These were great empires or groups that were around before Europeans came to the Americas. Many of the groups were killed off using new gun technology, disease, or even slavery. Gunpowder technology revolutionized the world during the 1450-1750 era, and the Amerindian Empires were among its first victims. Disease also made a big difference. Shortly after the Spanish arrived in Tenochtitlan, a smallpox epidemic broke out in the city that killed or incapacitated the Aztec army.

Amerindian population

The network of trading links after 1500 that moved goods, wealth, people, and cultures around the Atlantic Ocean basin. American, African, and European peoples mixed through. Also deemed "triangular trade", the demand for labor in the western hemisphere stimulated a profitable commerce known as the triangular trade since European ships often undertook voyages of three legs. -1st leg: they carried horses and European manufactured goods mostly cloth and metal wares (firearms) - exchanged in Africa for slaves. -2nd leg: took enslaved Africans to Caribbean/American destination. -3rd leg: merchants sold plantations for 2 to 3x the cost on the African coast

Atlantic system

Human sacrifice was a religious practice of the pre-Columbian Aztec civilization, as well as other Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Maya and the Zapotec. Sig- The extent of the practice is debated by modern scholars. These sacrifices continued into the 1500s.

Aztec and Mexican sacrafice

The cannon was invented in China as early as the 12th century. The first cannon in Europe were probably used in Iberia, during the Islamic wars against Spain, in the 13th century; their use was also first documented in the Middle East around this time. English cannon were first used during the Hundred Years' War, at the Battle of Crécy, in 1346. It was during this period, the Middle Ages, that cannon became standardized and more effective in both the anti-infantry and siege roles. Russia -appeared around 1380 Around the same period, the Byzantine Empire began to accumulate its own cannon to face the Ottoman threat. -The first definite use of artillery in the region: -Ottoman siege of Constantinople in 1396, forcing the Ottomans to withdraw.

Cannons

a small Spanish or Portuguese sailing vessel during the Middle Ages and later, usually lateen-rigged on two or three masts of the sails. Significance: These caravels were highly maneuverable and able to sail against the wind; the key to the development of Portuguese and Spanish in Asian trade and Atlantic exploration.

Caravel

Japanese and Korean "sea bandits" were common pirates, who were working to steal Chinese goods; especially during Zheng He's travels in the 14th century Sig- The elimination of piracy from European waters expanded to the Caribbean in the 1700s

Caribbean Piracy

a large galleon developed in the 13th century and sailed in the Mediterranean as a merchantman. The Carrack was developed as a fusion between Mediterranean and Northern European-style ships. Significance: The Portuguese adopted the carrack to move goods to Africa, India, and the Spice Islands.

Carrack

A crop that has become the main crop of a region and is gathered for the market. Tobacco and cotton are two common crops in the 16th and 17th centuries. These crops were mainly grown on plantations from pressured labor and were mainly exported to Europe and the Middle East during this period. Sig- These crops aided in the financial development of middle colonies because manufactured goods/ tools were mainly from England. The supply of capital for risky ventures in America was limited, and the return on investment was crucial to the continued flow of goods and people to the New World.

Cash crops

also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel (personal property) of the owner and are bought and sold as if they were commodities. "Sig"- It is the least prevalent form of slavery in the world today. They might be abused, branded, bred, exploited or killed. Shamefully, this exact kind of slavery still exists today, mostly in the East African countries of Mauritania and Sudan.

Chattel slavery

Exams that Chinese bureaucrats passed to serve in state, based on Confucian concepts, Han origins. Sig- contributed to the stability of the Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties because it made for a highly educated group of government workers. These civil service examinations were heavily influenced by Confucian ideals such as ren, li, and xiao which focused on the fact that respect, courtesy, and filial piety could sustain a successful government and social system. This also provided a way for peasants and others with low social status to move up in the social hierarchy system. This system based on the civil service examinations was known as a meritocracy.

Chinese Examination system

China is the birthplace of silk. Sericulture (the raising of silkworms for silk production) has a history of over 6,000 years. Legend has it that Lady Hsi-Lin-Shih (wife of the Yellow Emperor Huangdi) was having tea under a mulberry tree when a cocoon fell into her cup. As she watched, the cocoon spun a strong white thread. She unwound the strand onto her finger, realizing that it could be used as weaving thread. Thus an industry was born. She taught her people how to raise silkworms and later invented the loom. Sig- Silk production reached a high level of craftsmanship during the Shang Dynasty (1600BC-1046BC)

Chinese Silk

Manchus forced Chinese to take on Manchu influence after conquering them after Ming rule. "Lose your hair or lose your head". The percentage of Manchu population in Manchu China was only about 3%. The native Chinese were around 97%. Sig- spread Manchu culture; one of the reasons why the Chinese hairstyle during the Qing dynasty shaving off hair around their foreheads and plaiting their hair on the left side was popularized

Chinese and the Manchu

A movement in the 16th century that started in Germany and Switzerland that were imperial cities. The goal of this movement was to reform the Roman Catholic Church and led to the development of Protestantism by spreading Protestant beliefs through pamphlets and other techniques. These pamphlets promised social betterment and political liberation that Catholic city dwellers were seeking since their landlords took their rights of hunting and fishing away. Connect- The city dwellers' (social status of pheasants) pamphlet advertising technique compares to the way Martin Luther King Jr and his followers peacefully spread their beliefs in the Civil War.

Christian reformation

The Columbian Exchange refers to a period of cultural and biological exchanges between the New and Old Worlds. Exchanges of plants, animals, diseases and technology transformed European and Native American ways of life. Beginning after Columbus' discovery in 1492 the exchange lasted throughout the years of expansion and discovery. The Columbian Exchange impacted the social and cultural makeup of both sides of the Atlantic. Sig- Advancements in agricultural production, the evolution of warfare, increased mortality rates and education as a few examples of the effect of the Columbian Exchange on both Europeans and Native Americans.

Colombian Exchange

The transformation of an area of a city into an area attractive to residents and tourists alike in terms of economic activity. Sig- Took place in Europe in the 18th century to try to increase nation's wealth.

Commercialization

Confucianism is the cornerstone of traditional Chinese culture as well as a complete ideological system created by Confucius, based on the traditional culture of the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties. Sig- It has dominated a feudal society that in essence has lasted 2000 years and for that reason its influence over the history (since about 500 BCE), social structure and the people of China cannot be overlooked.

Confucianism in China

Louisiana Creole people are those who are descended from the colonial settlers of Louisiana, especially those of colonial French or Spanish descent. The term creole was originally used by French settlers to distinguish those born in Louisiana from those born in the mother country or elsewhere. It is used to describe a person of mixed European and black descent.

Creoles

In Latin American colonial society, class dictated people's places in society and jobs. At the top of Spanish-American society were the peninsulares, people who had been born in Spain, which is on the Iberian Peninsula. They formed a tiny percentage of the population. Only peninsulares could hold high office in Spanish colonial government. Creoles, Spaniards born in Latin America, were below the peninsulares. Creoles could not hold high-level political office, but they could rise as officers of Spanish colonial armies. Together the two controlled land, wealth, and power in the Spanish colonies. Below peninsulares and creoles, came the mestizos, persons of mixed European and Indian ancestry. After, the mulattos, persons of mixed European and African ancestry and lastly in the society were the enslaved Africans. Indians were at the bottom of the bottom, however.

Creoles, Mestizo, Mulatto

(15th century Japan) daimyo were appointed as military governors (shugo) under the Ashikaga shoguns (hereditary military dictators), and they held legal jurisdiction over areas as large as provinces. The shugo daimyo private landholdings were quite limited, however, and these daimyo gained much of their income from levying taxes on the cultivated lands owned by civil aristocrats and religious establishments.

Daimyo in Japan

The permanent destruction of land in order to make space for other things or use the wood for other purposes. The Spanish first cut down forests in the Caribbean to make pastures for the cattle they brought, and deforestation accelerated when more areas were cleared for plantations. In North America, shipbuilding in the northern English colonies took its toll on forests. Deforestation was also taking place in Europe during this period. Timber was needed for ships, buildings, wagons, barrels, and many other items. Wood shortages were made worse by the Little Ice Age that began in Europe during the 1590s. People burned wood to keep warm, and by the mid-17th century, forests were growing scarce and wood prices skyrocketed. Sig- This wood shortage encouraged the use of coal for fuel, and since England had coal in great supply, deforestation almost certainly helped their economy grow.

Deforestation

Animals traded in the triangular trade usually going from Europe to the Americas.

Domesticated animals

A high class of a society that was often determined by income and reputation

Elites

The Encomienda was put in 1503. Its intent was to put order by the Spanish colonies and prevent rebellions from the natives. Allowed a social class division. At the top were the Peninsulares(Iberian Aristocrats), then The Creoles(descendants of the Peninsulares), Mestizos(Spanish/Native Indian), Mulattos(African/Spanish), African Slaves, Native American Indians.grant by the crown to a conquistador, soldier, official, or others of a specified number of Indians living in a particular area. The receiver of the grant, the encomendero, could exact tribute from the Indians in gold, in kind, or in labor and was required to protect them and instruct them in the Christian faith. The encomienda did not include a grant of land, but in practice, the encomenderos gained control of the Indians' lands and failed to fulfil their obligations to the Indian population. The crown's attempts to end the severe abuses of the system with the Laws of Burgos (1512-13) and the New Law of the Indies (1542) failed in the face of colonial opposition and, in fact, a revised form of the repartimiento system was revived after 1550. The fall of Encomiendas led to the rise of Hacienda which was a commercial agriculture.

Encomienda and Hacienda systems

Restructure of society: new ethnic, racial, and gender hierarchies 1) The Spanish conquest of the New World and establishment of profitable colonies led to a restructuring of the social order -Between 1492 and 1750, the Spanish created settlements along the coasts of Central and South America, each growing profitable crops or mining for precious metals -While these colonies initially grew on Native American labor (the encomienda and repartimiento systems), they later switched to importing African slave labor -Many men migrated from Spain and Portugal to the New World colonies, looking for economic opportunity (few women did) -As European men intermarried with Native Americans and Africans, they created new social classes based on race -The peninuslares (direct European migrants) were the highest social class, as were their descendants, the Creoles -The mestizos (mix of Europeans and Native Americans) and the mulattoes (mix of European and Africans) came below Native Americans, Africans, and the zambos (mix of Native Americans and Africans) were at the bottom of the social hierarchy 2) Similar intermarriage occurred in European North American colonies, where the preponderance of male colonists led to intermarriage with Native American women. -In both Spanish and British American colonies, European colonizers and missionaries imposed their beliefs on Native Americans, which led to cultural adaptations on both sides -Unlike in other European colonial outposts, New World settlers had military and economic power to impose their culture and religion on natives 3) Catholic missionaries (Dominican, Jesuit, Franciscan) studied Indian beliefs and rituals and used this knowledge in their efforts to convert Indians to Christianity -Most converted Native Americans merged indigenous beliefs with Christian ones created syncretic beliefs -Many Indian groups adopted their European captives colonists captured by Indians often refused to return to colonial life

Ethnicities

Landed gentry is a largely historical British social class consisting of landowners who could live entirely from rental income. It was distinct from, and socially "below", the aristocracy or peerage, although in fact, some of the landed gentry were as wealthy as some peers.

European Gentry

By the year 1500, many discoveries in Europe allowed them to travel further, connecting them to the Indian Ocean trade routes as well as to the new world. This was a major increase in global 'interconnectedness,' as these regions had been previously relatively isolated. Definition of Facilitated- make (an action or process) easy or easier

Facilitated- (what was facilitated by the transoceanic system)

The fluyt or fluitschip was one of the first ocean-going ships built in the late 1500s exclusively for commerce. Previously, ships tended to be built to perform the dual role of fighting battles and carrying cargo. Thus, their construction was fairly robust and they carried cannons, ammunition, and combat personnel. The Dutch did away with that. The fluyt was lightly constructed. It carried only sufficient armament to fend off pirates and the entire crew was working sailors. Sig-allowed the Dutch to dominate international maritime trade, first to the Baltic and then to India and the Far East. The fluyt was the favored vessel of the Dutch East India Company, which dominated the Far East trade for almost a century.

Fluyt

Food riots occur during times of famine or drought when an empire cannot supply enough food for its peoples. These riots destabilize the nations in which they occur, by crippling the image of the government. They usually seemed to occur in England and France in 1450-1750

Food riots

Role of Gender in Empire 1) Women secondary status most parts of globe - patriarchal 2) China- wage earners 3)Marriage remained primarily economic arrangement -Method of gaining/transferring wealth and property -Ensured inheritance of goods/assets by legitimate heirs -With Protestant Reformation gained more marriages based on love 3) Europe gained limited awareness of injustices toward women -Europe - limited access to small # of women -Noble/aristocratic women -From emerging middle class -Gained education -Active in business -Make scientific discoveries -Become artists/writers 4) Women discovered/developed ways to gain influence/advance desires -Advising husbands/sons -Educating children -Running/help running business -Managing household finances 5) Generalizations -Higher up in social class - more freedom to be involved in education/arts - servants did work -Lower down social scale - more time spent w/ family, in fields, tending livestock 6) Cities opened up opportunities for women for crafts/engage in commerce -Higher status of women negatives -Less value to contribution -More need to be protected 7) Women more valued in lower class - contribution more needed -Urban/commercial vs. rural/agricultural vs. hierarchical/decentralized China -Confucianism governed relationship of women to families -Obey fathers and brothers and then husbands -Always of subservience -Influenced Japan -Women obeyed fathers, husbands, and if widowed, sons Muslim world -Harem shows how culture defines roles -Initially, Arabic women had freedom/rights -Eventually adopted new ideologies -Veiling from non-Arab converts -Wealthy Muslims separated women in their households by -placing in harems -Special sections of house for all female members, young sons, servants

Gender

The trend toward increased cultural and economic connectedness between people, businesses, and organizations throughout the world. Sig- Another way Europe tried to increase their economic success in the 18th century

Globalization

It is the earliest known chemical explosive. It is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate invented in the 9th century in China. This discovery led to the invention of fireworks and the earliest gunpowder weapons in China. Gunpowder weapons began appearing in the Muslim world, Europe, and India. The technology spread from China through the Middle East or Central Asia, and then into Europe. Sig- The spread of gunpowder across Asia from China is widely attributed to the Mongols.

Gunpowder

The Imperial expansion is when an imperialistic country expands by taking over other territories or countries. 1) The Ottoman Empire formed in 1453 thanks to military might and the use of gunpowder weapons. -The Ottomans first originated in the 1300s as a group of semi-nomadic Turks in northwest Anatolia, who replaced the Mongols as the dominant political power using military power. -In 1453 the Ottomans were able to capture Constantinople, end the Byzantine Empire, and form their own empire. 2) Previous Ming authority collapsed in China in the early 1600s, and the powerful, aggressive Manchus took control to establish the Qing dynasty. -The Manchus expanded their empire with military conquest, and they reorganized their army into a powerful unit. 3) By the 18th century, Europeans had standardized gunpowder, cannons, and handguns, and made them more efficient. -They fought wars using huge standing armies with a professional officer corps and effective artillery. -Europeans used their gunpowder weapons to intimidate, kill, and conquer New World empires, which could not stand up to these powerful weapons. -Hernán Cortés was able to conquer the vast Aztec empire (1519) with a small Spanish force in part because the Spanish fought to kill with their steel swords and gunpowder, while the Aztecs fought to capture with more primitive weapons. -Francisco Pizarro's Spanish campaign in the Incan empire (1532) was successful in part because the Incans were awed by Spanish horses and guns, and did not understand how to protect themselves against Spanish weapons.

Imperial expansion

The Ottomans -" the terror of Europe" -defeated the Mongols and ended the Byzantine empire -1453: they captured Constantinople -adopted firearms to defeat their rivals -developed an elite fighting force of Christian slave troops called janissaries The Russians -focused on military expansions -During the reign of Peter the Great, an army and navy were built and assisted by Gunpowder and Cannons -Russia followed western influences. The Safavids -were Shah armed troops with gunpowder weapons -used firearms against the Uzbeks at Jem during September 24, 1528

Imperial expansion

The Palace of Versailles is the central part of a complex that housed the French government, most notably its royalty. King Louis XIII of France was responsible for the Palace of Versailles, a castle in the town of Versailles. Versailles in the early 17th century was teeming with wildlife. Louis XIII, a big hunter, decided to establish a small brick and stone chateau there. When he was named lord of Versailles in the 1630s, Louis III decided to expand the chateau, purchasing more land and an estate before his death in 1643. The next French ruler who came to Versailles was King Louis XIV, also known as the 'Sun King' because of his belief in a centralized government with the king at the center. Louis XIV saw the chateau at Versailles as a small and insignificant domicile, so he planned to redesign it, adding north and south wings and other buildings on the estate grounds. Connect- After the French Revolution in 1789, it ceased to be a permanent royal residence.

Imperial palace at Versailles

Mandatory public service in the society of the Incan Empire; one of the best inventions of the Inca government. This service was an effective form of tribute to the Inca government from labor work; meaning that an Incan citizen had to work for the government for a period of time. Similar to a public works system of our time. -In Mita, people worked in building highways, construction of emperor and noble homes, monuments, bridges, temple fields, emperor fields, and mines. Inca soldiers, which consisted largely of conquered, non-Incan people returning tribune to their overlords, largely benefited from this system. Inca soldiers enjoyed the pleasure of going into wars without worrying for the health of their families and fields back home, since their fields were taken care of by their families back at home. Sig- Later on in history, the Spanish empire utilized this system fiercely to strengthen their economy. Although, this system led to a series of rebellions and conflicts from the civilian's distress of the abusive labor to family life (family members frequently assigned to secondary labor tasks that depleted the labor from the larger community). A future negative effect on the Spanish economy.

Inca Mit'a

Indentured servants were men and women who signed a contract (also known as an indenture or a covenant) by which they agreed to work for a certain number of years in exchange for transportation to Virginia and, once they arrived, food, clothing, and shelter. -first arrived America - decade following the settlement of Jamestown by the Virginia Company in 1607. "Sig"-The Thirty Year's War had left Europe's economy depressed, and many skilled and unskilled laborers were without work. A new life in the New World offered a glimmer of hope; this explains how one-half to two-thirds of the immigrants who came to the American colonies arrived as indentured servants.

Indentured servitude

In the 1600s, European explorers found cotton plants grown and used in the Americas. These newly discovered species were introduced to Africa in the 18th century and later spread to India. Sig- The British desire for cotton would change by the 17th century when the East India Company began importing rare fabrics from India and coincides with the 1793 invention of the cotton gin—that is a machine that separated the seeds from the fiber and allowed cotton to displace flax and wool during the Industrial Revolution.

Indian cotton

Spread from Europe to the Americas in triangular trade. Outbreaks occurred in the Amerindian Empires.

Influenza

A joint-stock venture established around the 1600s to sponsor new exploration where the stock was sold to high-risk shareholders or investors. VOC formed by Dutch and English merchants -profitable trade -were willing to wage war for the sake of the company Sig-This solved the problem of slowed exploration for England. A more established flow of money grew out of these companies and this idea is still present in many companies and businesses worldwide.

Joint-stock companies

A worker bound by a voluntary agreement to work for a specified period of years often in return for free passage to an overseas destination. Before 1800 most were Europeans; after 1800 most indentured laborers were Asians.

Laborers (indentured servants)

Temporary but significant cooling period between 1300-1800 CE accompanied by wide temperature fluctuations, droughts, and storms, causing famines and dislocation. Little Ice Age (LIA), climate interval that occurred from the early 14th century through the mid-19th century, when mountain glaciers expanded at several locations, including the European Alps, New Zealand, Alaska, and the southern Andes, and mean annual temperatures across the Northern Hemisphere declined. Effects in Europe and the North Atlantic region -Alpine glaciers advanced far below their previous (and present) limits, obliterating farms, churches, and villages in Switzerland, France, and elsewhere. -Frequent cold winters and cool, wet summers led to crop failures and famines over much of northern and central Europe. -In addition, the North Atlantic cod fisheries declined as ocean temperatures fell in the 17th century. Sig- The cause of the Little Ice Age is not known for certain; however, climatologists contend that reduced solar output, changes in atmospheric circulation, and explosive volcanism may have played roles in bringing about and extending the phenomenon.

Little Ice Age

A commodity, traders returning to Europe possessed after trading through the Columbian Exchange. Maize is also known as corn and is a large grain plant originally domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mexico. Maize was the staple food, or a major staple of most pre-Columbian North American, Mesoamerican, South American, and Caribbean culture. Maize was originally the bulk of Native American's diets. Sig- Eventually, maize spread north to the United States, where European colonists in America quickly adopted maize culture.The United States was one of the top ten maize producers in 2013.

Maize

a member of a Tungusic people of Manchuria who conquered China in the 17th century and established a dynasty there ( Manchu dynasty,or Ch'ing, 1644-1912).

Manchus

empires at sea - Spanish empire - purpose- exploit gold and provide population outlet; conquistadors established this empire; predominantly located in the Americas (exception is the Philippines) - Portuguese empire - Bustling trade empire built throughout the Indian Ocean. Extended control after defeating Muslim fleet and captured Goa which was made the capital of their trading empire. After this, they seized the Strait of Malacca which gave them control of the Moluccas also known as the Spice Islands. - England - had colonies in North America, India, and the West Indies. Most lands were owned by the gentry class and worked by slaves and tenants. Very patriarchal. North American colonies practiced self-government. Directed by joint-stock companies. Mainly traded tea, sugar, tobacco and later, cotton. Manipulated the markets rather than outright attacking them. Natives were wiped out by diseases. Rivalry with France. Competition with other empires. High literacy rates. Mixed religions in colonies - Dutch - Colonies on spice islands. Calvinism was dominant. Trading companies received charters from the government. Main trade was in spices. Highly commercialized society. Brutalized native population. Worked with China for a brief period of time. Profit over faith. - Ottoman Empire - A Muslim empire, based in Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), that controlled southeastern Europe, the Middle East, and most of North Africa between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries - Mughal - Advancement in firearms, loosened and tightened restrictions on Hindus and women, centralized ruling - Russia - Religiously tolerant but preferred orthodoxy, powerful military kept order and aided expansion, supported westernization - Qing - Confucian, bureaucratic techniques, controlled terms of trade, military techniques

Maritime Empires

European colonization led to the outbreak/spread of measles, and infectious viral disease that causes rashes on the skin and fever spread through coughing and sneezing. Again, outbreaks occurred in Amerindian Empires (like smallpox and influenza)

Measles

Economic system around 1600-1800 C.E. from the idea of exploration that supported the idea that power of the state could increase the nation's international power from the abundance of goods such as silver and gold. In order to create wealth for the nation, goods were exported more commonly than imported. Colbert Jean was a person greatly influenced by this ideology. Sig-This concept created money, wealth, and power for colonies. This allowed colonies to expand overseas and increased government regulation on trade, which still affects countries today.

Mercantilism

People who buy or sell commodities for a profit. Also known as a dealer or trader. An example of merchants during global interactions was the Portuguese merchants' relations with the kings of Kongo. The Portuguese supplied the Kongo's advisors and kings with a militia to protect Portuguese interests and brought trailers/shoemakers. Sig- In exchange, the kings of Kongo adopted Christianity, which established closer relations with Portuguese merchants and diplomatic relations with the Portuguese monarchy.

Merchants

Ottoman Janissaries- an elite military guard recruited from Christians, converted to Islam, converted to Islam, and trained as foot soldiers orand trained as foot soldiers or administrators to the sultan

Military elites

Power over a certain good or commodity being traded.

Monopolies

The architectural monuments of Shāh Jahān's successor, Aurangzeb(reigned 1658-1707), represent a distinct decline, though some notable mosques were built before the beginning of the 18th century. Connect- Subsequent works lost the balance and coherence characteristic of mature Mughal architecture.

Mughal mosques

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Mughal, Safavid, and Ottoman empires review- very good Possible FRQ

class of people having high birth or rank was common in 18th century Europe.

Nobility

Okra probably originated somewhere around Ethiopia and was cultivated by the ancient Egyptians by the 12th century B.C. Its cultivation spread throughout North Africa and the Middle East. The seed pods were eaten cooked, and the seeds were toasted and ground, used as a coffee substitute (and still is). Sig- came to the Caribbean and the U.S. in the 1700s, probably brought by slaves from West Africa, and was introduced to Western Europe soon after. In Louisiana, the Créoles learned from slaves the use of okra (gumbo) to thicken soups and it is now an essential in Créole Gumbo.

Okra

European rivalry in the Indian Ocean

Omani

A practice of the Ottoman empire to take Christian boys from their home communities to serve as janissaries

Ottoman Devshirme

Ottoman-Safavid War of 1623-1639 was the last of a series of conflicts fought between the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia, then the two major powers of the Near East, over control of Mesopotamia. After initial Persian success in recapturing Baghdad and most of modern Iraq, having lost it for several years, the war became a stalemate as the Persians were unable to press further into the Ottoman Empire, and the Ottomans themselves were distracted by wars in Europe and weakened by internal turmoil. Eventually, the Ottomans were able to recover Baghdad, and the signing of the Treaty of Zuhab ended the war in an Ottoman victory, with Mesopotamia, despite parts of it being briefly taken several times further on in history by the Persians notably by Nader Shah, it remained thenceforth in Ottoman hands until lost in the aftermath of World War I.

Ottoman and Safavid conflict

Ottomans were Sunni Muslims while the Safavids were Shi'ite. The Safavids were anti-Sunni to the extent that they would at times massacre Sunnis (as they did in Baghdad) when they conquered a Sunni area. Second, the Safavids were less tolerant of non-Muslims in their empire than the Ottomans were. They preferred to use Shi'ism as a unifying force in their empire. Governmentally, the main difference was that the Safavids were a bit more centralized than the Ottomans. Safavid shahs kept power more closely to themselves than Ottoman sultans did.

Ottoman and Safavid division

Ottoman miniature or Turkish miniature was an art form in the Ottoman Empire, which can be linked to the Persian miniature tradition,as well as strong Chinese artistic influences. It was a part of the Ottoman book arts, together with illumination calligraphy , marbling paper , and bookbinding. The words taswir or nakish were used to define the art of miniature painting in Ottoman Turkish. The studios the artists worked in were called Nakkashanes.

Ottoman miniature painting

was predominately Muslim they resolved to rule under that Sharia, which is Moral and Religious laws and codes in Islamic States. Under Sharia law, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Judaism are tolerated and followers of the respective religions were granted the protected status of "Dhimmis", granting them the right of residency in exchange for paying a special tax called "Jizyah". They were seen as second class citizens. Janissaries - capture and enslavement of young non-muslim boys in order to train and educate them as disciplined soldiers. Chosen boys were converted to Islam, given a formal education, and highly disciplined trained. They became highly respected in the social order as they took on positions in Ottoman administration and standing army.

Ottoman treatment of non-Muslims

A peasant is a member of a traditional class of farmers, either laborers or owners of small farms, especially in the Middle Ages under feudalism, or more generally, in any pre-industrial society. In Europe, peasants were divided into three classes according to their personal status: slave, serf, and free tenant. Peasants either hold title to land in fee simple. The Mongols gave strong support to the peasants and peasant economy of China, believing that the success of the peasant economy would bring in additional tax revenues and ultimately benefit the Mongols themselves.

Peasant labor

The 869 C.E. slave revolt was known as the Zanj rebellion centered near Basra (modern day Iraq) that lasted for 14 years. It involved the transportation of enslaved blacks from the East coast to the Middle East. This was a black-slave revolt ran by Ali Ibn Muhammed against the Abbasid caliphal empire. The Abbasids learn that some people are only fit to be slaves. The Peasant Revolution occurred between 1524 and 1525. This revolution embraced Luther's ideas that were against landlords and clergymen oppression. The peasants echoed Luther's teachings that serfdom was made by men with no basis in scripture. In the revolution, German peasants wouldn't pay taxes and they pillaged churches. Overall, about 100,000 peasants were murdered. Unfortunately, this resulted in stricter restrictions that prevented the peasants' from improving their plight. Peasants' Uprisings- The Songhay Empire fell in 1590 when it was attacked by the Moroccans, but the native people took that as an opportunity to rebel and worked towards weakening the empire for its final defeat. Those participating in the uprisings displayed feelings of discontent and eagerness for the Songhay Empire to end.

Peasant/slave revolts

These animals were introduced from Europe to the Americas as livestock. They had no natural predators (besides the humans who ate them) and reproduced quickly, destroying the landscape (hooves would pack down the dirt, killing the vegetation). Sig- Pigs were used for food, cattle were used for food as well, and horses were used as a form of transportation.

Pigs, cattle, and horses

A plantation economy is an economy based in agricultural mass production, usually of a few commodity crops grown on large farms called plantations. Plantation economies rely on the exportation of cash crops as a source of income. Prominent plantation crops included cotton, rubber, sugar cane, tobacco, figs, and rice. In the Thirteen Colonies, plantations were concentrated in the South: Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. They had good soil and almost year-round growing seasons, ideal for crops such as rice and tobacco. The existence of many waterways in the region made transportation easier.Planters embraced the use of slaves mainly because indentured labor became expensive. Some indentured servants were also leaving to start their own farms as land was widely available. Colonists tried to use Native Americans for labor, but they were susceptible to European diseases and died in large numbers. The plantation owners then turned to enslaved Africans for labor. In 1665, there were fewer than 500 Africans in Virginia but by 1750, 85 percent of the 235,000 slaves lived in the Southern colonies, Virginia included. Africans made up 40 percent of the South's population.Enslaved Africans were brought from Africa by the English and other European powers, for their Western Hemisphere colonies. They were shipped from ports in West Africa to the New World. The journey from Africa across the Atlantic Ocean was called "the middle passage", and was one of the three legs which comprised the triangular trade among the continents of Europe, the Americas, and Africa.

Plantation Economy

Portugal is a small country located in Western Europe at the western tip of the Iberian Peninsula. Beginning in the 1400s, the Portuguese, led by famous explorers like Bartolomeo Dias and Vasco de Gama and financed by the great Prince Henry the Navigator, sailed to, explored, and settled in South America, Africa, and Asia. Portugal's empire, which survived for more than six centuries, *sig* --was the first of the great European global empires. Its former possessions are now located in across fifty countries around the world. The Portuguese created colonies for numerous reasons - to trade for spices, gold, agricultural products and other resources, to create more markets for Portuguese goods, to spread Catholicism, and to "civilize" the natives of these distant places. Portugal's colonies brought great wealth to this small country. The empire gradually declined because Portugal did not have enough people or resources to maintain so many overseas territories.

Portugal

By the eighteenth century potatoes had spread from the Americas to Europe by way of the Columbian Exchange and influenced the European diet since potatoes became the main crop to be consumed in the eastern hemisphere. Potatoes were extremely important to the poor and peasants since they were easy to harvest and contained good amounts of carbohydrates to satisfy those hungry. Sig- In this way, potatoes led to population growth.

Potatoes

Portraits of Emperors during the Qing Dynasty in the years 1644-1911. These portraits were made to honor the emperors.

Qing Imperial portraits

A. Slavery 1. Justifications for slavery a. English - partially racism of Africans b. Prisoners captured in battle 1. Defeated Russians, Slavs, Germans, Poles sent to Istanbul 2. Mamluks - Turkish/Mongol slave soldiers that fought for Egypt 2. External Slave Trade a. Began around the 1100s when Africans supplied captives to Arab merchants b. Portuguese bought for European market 1. Before in East Africa, trade relatively small 2. When Portuguese left in the 1700s, trading cities of East Coast took over i. Swahili cities provided slaves to plantation islands off E. Africa a. Also to Arabian Peninsula c. Origins of slavery in Americas 1. Spanish in sugar islands of Caribbean i. Replaced Native Americans 2. 1619 Dutch ship at Jamestown dropped off slaves i. Initially treated like indentured servants, not slaves ii. But...when large numbers needed for tobacco farming, policy changed 3. 1640 - Africans went from indentured servants to slaves for life - "Durante vita" 4. Northern colonies did not keep slaves in mass numbers i. lacked farms that had a large-scale labor intensive crops a. Climate/terrain unsuitable 5. English institutionalized slavery i. needed cheap, abundant labor ii. viewed Africans with language/culture as less than human iii. Native Americans not useful a. runaways, disease, easily hide in forest iv. Indentured servitude a. runways can blend in b. only have labor for specific time v. Supply seemed limitless a. W. Africa b. Natural increase - birth 3. Largest system of slavery - came mostly from West Africa a. Plantations of the Caribbean b. Southern British Colonies 1. tobacco, rice, indigo c. Brazil 4. Plantation system a. Required cheap, abundant labor 1. Sub-Saharan Africa filled need 5. Legal rights a. No legal rights b. slave marriages are not recognized c. slaves could not own property d. little protection from cruel owner e. could be sold away from families f. illegal to teach a slave to read or write 6. Consequences of slavery a. Africa 1. depopulated - captured youngest and healthiest 2. randomness of slave raids - cross-section of society taken i. farmer, leaders, craftworker, mother, 3. Arts and technology suffered - could make money from slave trade 4. Sudanic empires lost importance - decline in interior empires i. Focus of power shifted to coast 5. Desire for more wealth, power, guns increased cycle 6. Africans seen as inferior - helped with justification i. Affected race relations to this day B. Peonage 1. Debtor provides service until debt is paid off 2. Debt bondage basis of tenant farming and sharecropping in the US after Civil War a. Slaves essentially tied to land 3. Prevalent in Latin America and still exists today C. Serfdom

Racial

Martin Luther's (a German monk) reforms are displayed in the 95 Theses that he created in response to the corrupt sale of indulgences by the church. These Theses were the foundation of Protestant teachings and were centered around the idea that salvation can be reached through faith and divine grace only... not deeds and rejected absolutist-rule, claiming that there were only two sacraments: baptism and communion.

Religious reforms

As far back as 2500 B.C., rice has been documented in the history books as a source of food and for tradition as well. Beginning in China and the surrounding areas, its cultivation spread throughout Sri Lanka, and India. It was then passed onto Greece and areas of the Mediterranean. Rice spread throughout Southern Europe and to some of North Africa. From Europe rice was brought to the New World. From Portugal, it was brought toBrazil and from Spain to Central and South America. Rice could be taken to many parts of the world due to its versatility. It is able to grow in the desert conditions of Saudi Arabia, in the wetland deltas of Southeast Asia in the flooded rice plains which we are most familiar with.

Rice

A royal document that granted rights to English settlers to form a colony and enhance their rights as English citizens.

Royal chartered

The Russian conquest of Siberia took place in the 16th and 17th centuries when the Khanate of Sibir had become a loose political structure of Vassal Ages that were being undermined by the activities of Russian explorers. Although outnumbered, the Russians pressured the various family-based tribes into changing their loyalties and establishing distant forts from which they conducted raids. To counter this, Kuchum Khan attempted to centralize his rule by imposing Islam on his subjects and reforming his tax-collecting apparatus. Connect- The Russian colonization of Siberia and conquest of its indigenous peoples has been compared to European colonization in the United States and its natives, with similar negative impacts on the natives and the appropriation of their land.

Russian Siberia

definition: a Japanese warrior who was a member of the feudal military aristocracy significance: leaders of the military emperor

Samauri

The Samurai were kicked out of their jobs by the Tokugawa government in order to reduce to amount of professional warriors. The Samurai lost their jobs, social standing, money, and honor. The Samurai became indebted and a huge part of Japanese history and culture was ended. In 1877, about 40 remaining Samurai revolted, they were killed, but it did make a statement against the Japanese imperial government.

Samurai uprising

Shi'a Islam, also known as Shi'ite Islam or Shi'ism, is the second largest branch of Islam after Sunni Islam. Shias adhere to the teachings of Muhammad and the religious guidance of his family (who are referred to as the Ahl al-Bayt) or his descendants known as Shi'a Imams.

Shiism

A split of common beliefs. A well-known example is the Christianity Sikhism of 1045 between the East Orthodox and Roman Catholic in the Byzantine Empire. Sig- This later led to the 1517 split of the Christian branch of Protestantism that brought about new groups such as the Anglicans, Baptists, Methodists, and more religious groups that are commonly known today.

Sikhism

An infectious disease that spread from Europe to the Americas through conquest/triangular trade (spread from person to person by contact with infected body fluids). Many Amerindian Empires fell victim to this disease, including an Aztec army that was nearly completely wiped out by it.

Smallpox

The Songhai Empire was a state located in Western Africa near Dahomey (what is now the Republic of Benin) and Upper Volta (Burkina Faso), and stretched to Bussa in Northern Nigeria. Its capital was the city of Gao, near modern day Zaghawa.The Songhai Empire fell at the hands of the Moroccan sultans, who had been for long aspiring to seize the empire. Songhai kings had been appointing sultans of Morocco until 1585. When the country splintered into dozens of smaller kingdoms due to internal conflicts and civil wars, the Moroccans took advantage of this opportunity to achieve their long ambitions in the empire. This was how the Marrakech invasion of the Songhai Empire happened. In the years that followed, the Muslims in West Africa became estranged to Islam, hence diverse myths, superstitions, innovations, and delusions spread among them. However, because Allaah the Exalted Protects His True religion, He Chose certain people to renew and revive Islam in this country. The resurgence was achieved through a number of Islamic movements that were led by a number of pious Muslim scholars and Mujtahids.

Songhay and Islam

(1492-1898) - Spain led European global exploration and colonial expansion in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Trade flourished across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Toppling the Aztec and Inca civilizations, Spain laid claim to vast territories in North and South America. The Spanish Empire became the foremost global power, dominating the oceans as well as European battlefields. Spain enjoyed a cultural golden age in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when silver and gold from American mines increasingly financed a long series of European and North African wars. Until the eighteenth century, the Spanish empire was the largest in the world, although it suffered fluctuating military and economic fortunes. Sig- Confronted by the new experiences, difficulties, and suffering created by empire-building, Spanish thinkers formulated some of the first modern ideas on natural law, sovereignty, international law, war, and economics—even questioning the legitimacy of imperialism.

Spanish

Aztecs Hernan Cortes (Spanish leader)'s overthrowing of Moctezuma II led to an Aztec rebellion in which they took prisoners for sacrifice and forced the spanish to flee. Inca Francisco Pizarro (Spanish leader) wanted Inca riches and killed Atahualpa for it. Olmec Best known today for their carved colossal heads, the Olmecs were an important early Mesoamerican civilization which had much influence on later cultures such as the Aztecs and the Maya.

Spanish republic de Indios

Islamic mysticism; Non-Muslims often mistake Sufism as a sect of Islam. Sufism is more accurately described as an aspect or dimension of Islam. Sufi orders can be found in Sunni, Shia and other Islamic groups. Sufis are emphatic that Islamic knowledge should be learned from teachers and not exclusively from books. Through the centuries Sufis contributed hugely to Islamic literature, for example, Rumi, Omar Khayyám and Al-Ghazali's influence extended beyond Muslim lands to be quoted by Western philosophers, writers and theologians. Sig- Sufis were influential in spreading Islam particularly to the furthest outposts of the Muslim world in Africa, India and the Far East.

Sufism

The people of New Guinea were probably the first to domesticate sugarcane, sometime around 8,000 BC. However, the extraction and purifying technology techniques were developed by people who were living in India. After domestication, its cultivation spread rapidly to Southeast Asia and southern China. India, where the process of refining cane juice into granulated crystals was developed, was often visited by imperial convoys (such as those from China) to learn about cultivation and sugar refining. By the sixth century AD, sugar cultivation and processing had reached Persia; and, from there that knowledge was brought into the Mediterranean by the Arab expansion."Wherever they went, the (medieval) Arabs brought with them sugar, the product and the technology of its production." Spanish and Portuguese exploration and conquest in the fifteenth century carried sugar southwest of Iberia. Henry the Navigator introduced cane to Madeira in 1425, while the Spanish, having eventually subdued the Canary Islands, introduced sugar cane to them.In 1493, on his second voyage, Christopher Columbus carried sugarcane seedlings to the New World in particular, Hispaniola.

Sugar

Sunni caliphs were political and military leaders - selected by all Muslims. Shia: leadership in Islam should be from blood-line of Muhammad. Sunni: religious authority - scholars "ulama." Shia: leaders "Imams" - religious authority. Sunni: Umayyad family - ruled as caliphs.

Sunni and Shia

a white marble mausoleum in central India, in Agra on the Jumna River: built (1632-43) by the emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal Sig- regarded as the finest example of Mughal Architecture that combines Persian, Ottoman, Indian, and Islamic styles

Taj Mahal

*Tobacco has a long history in the Americas. The Mayan Indians of Mexico carved drawings in stone showing tobacco use. These drawings date back to somewhere between 600 to 900 A.D. Tobacco was grown by American Indians before the Europeans came from England, Spain, France, and Italy to North America. Native Americans smoked tobacco through a pipe for special religious and medical purposes but didn't smoke daily. Sig- Tobacco was the first crop grown for money in North America. In 1612 the settlers of the first American colony in Jamestown, Virginia grew tobacco as a cash crop as a main source of their money. Tobacco helped pay for the American Revolution against England. Also, the first President of the U.S. grew tobacco. By the 1800's, many people had begun using small amounts of tobacco. Some chewed it. Others smoked it occasionally in a pipe, or they hand-rolled a cigarette or cigar. On the average, people smoked about 40 cigarettes a year.

Tobacco

During 1300 to 1800, the transoceanic was a global trading system that runs across the Atlantic Ocean between the Americas, Europe, and Africa. Sig- This was the first route overseas between these three main continents that each continent relied upon one another for resources; in a way, expanding the import and export of goods.

Transoceanic

Commercial ports that were greatly important in the trade monopoly for the influential imperial states, these ports increased trans-regional trade and global trade networks and also facilitated the spread of religion.

Urban commercial entrepreneurs

also known as voodoo, black religious cult practiced in the Caribbean and south. U.S. that combines Roman Catholic ritual with traditional African magical and religious rites; was characterized as sorcery and spirit possession; development of cultures

Vodun

in India, a holder or occupier of land. The root words are Persian, and the resulting name was widely used wherever Persian influence was spread by the Mughals or other Indian Muslim dynasties. The meanings attached to it were various. In Bengal the word denoted a hereditary tax collector who could retain 10 percent of the revenue he collected. In the late 18th century the British government made these zamindars landowners, thus creating a landed aristocracy in Bengal and Bihar that lasted until Indian independence (1947) - sig In parts of north India, a zamindar denoted a large landowner with full proprietary rights. More generally in north India, zamindar denoted the cultivator of the soil or joint proprietors holding village lands in common as joint heirs. In Maratha territories the name was generally applied to all local hereditary revenue officers.

Zamindars in the Mughal empire

Empires expanded and conquered new peoples around the world, but they often had difficulties incorporating culturally, ethnically, and religiously diverse subjects, and administrating widely dispersed territories. Agents of the European powers moved into existing trade networks around the world. In Africa and the greater Indian Ocean, nascent European empires consisted mainly of interconnected trading posts and enclaves. In the Americas, European empires moved more quickly to settlement and territorial control, responding to local demographic and commercial conditions. Moreover, the creation of European empires in the Americas quickly fostered a new Atlantic trade system that included the trans-Atlantic slave trade. Around the world, empires and states of varying sizes pursued strategies of centralization, including more efficient taxation systems that placed strains on peasant producers, sometimes prompting local rebellions. Rulers used public displays of art and architecture to legitimize state power. African states shared certain characteristics with larger Eurasian empires. Changes in African and global trading patterns strengthened some West and Central African states — especially on the coast; Sig- this led to the rise of new states and contributed to the decline of states on both the coast and in the interior.

state consolidation