Unit 5 aphg

Southeast Asia

(10,000 years ago) Crops: Sugarcane, taro, coconut, mango, bananas, grapefruit, rice, tea

The Fertile Crescent

(10,000 years ago) AKA: The Bread Basket Crops: Barley, wheat, lentils, olives, oats, rye Animals: Sheep, goats, cattle, pigs

Central America

(5,500 years ago) Crops: Sweet potatoes, beans, maize, chiles, peppers, cotton, cassava, lima beans, potatoes, tomatoes. Animals: Llamas and Alpaca

Indus River Valley (East Asia)

(9,500 years ago) Crops: Rice, soybeans, walnuts

First Agricultural Revolution

12,000-10,000 years ago, Fertile Crescent Diffusion: Trade routes & the Columbian Exchange Subsistence farming: Farmers grow the crops for their own consumption, not for sale. Methods: Simple hand tools, manual labor

Second Agricultural Revolution

1750, Great Britain Diffusion: Through G. Britain into Europe & the US Industrial Revolution: The use of technology (mechanization) to increase production and distribution of agricultural goods. Enclosure Movement: Series of laws enacted by the British government that enabled landowners to purchase and enclose land for their own use which had previously been communal land used by peasant farmers

Market Gardening/Commercial Gardening/Truck Farming

Climate: Warm Mid-Latitude Where: Southeastern US, California, Southeastern Australia Types of Crops: Fresh fruits and vegetables, lettuce, broccoli, apples, oranges, tomatoes Intensive and Commercial

Commodity Chains

Complex network that connects places of production with distribution to consumers Due to improvements in agricultural technology, agribusiness, and globalization farmers tend to raise crops and animals far from their final markets, and consumers can purchase them at low prices

subsistence agriculture

Crops and livestock are grown to feed the family Extra products are sold Access to markets are limited Little income from farming Manual and animal labor, hand tools. Lack of infrastructure Periphery Countries: Rural Africa, parts of Asia and Latin America

Commerical Agriculture

Crops and livestock are grown to sold on the global market Purpose is to make a profit Access to markets and credit Well developed infrastructure: Banking, transportation, and agricultural supply industries Core and Semi-Periphery Countries

extensive agriculture

Fewer inputs of labor and/or capital Large plots of land located away from major population centers Examples)Shifting Cultivation, Livestock Ranching, Nomadic Herding, Commercial Grain Farming

tropical climate

High temperatures, abundant rainfall, humidity, high amounts of vegetation

intensive agriculture

Large amount of labor and/or capital Small plots of land located near areas with high population density Examples: Market Gardening, Plantation Agriculture, Mixed Crop & Livestock, Mediterranean

Economies of Scale

Large scale farming is cost effective due to lower bulk prices for farming supplies and technologies Modern equipment, fertilizers, pesticides, GMO and hybrid seeds all contribute to higher yields. $$$$ Bigger purchases due to bigger farms -> cheaper prices. When production increases, the costs of production (inputs) decrease. Results in less family owned farms

Long-lot

Long strips of land that start at a river or lake with the intention of providing all landowners with equal access to the resources (soil & water) and transportation

Dispersed settlement pattern

Major characteristic is that settlements are isolated and dispersed over the land area Township & Range Survey Methods

Metes and Bounds

Metes were used for short distances & often referred to features - such as, "from the oak tree, 100 yards north, to the corner of the barn." Bounds cover larger areas, and were based on larger features, such as streams and roads.

Von Thunen Model

Most desirable and accessible land is near the market and costs the most money

Township & Range

Pioneered by Thomas Jefferson Rectangles and grid system. Each township is 6 miles x 6 miles Keep track of land sales and purchases, utilize a uniform survey method.

Pastoral Nomadism

Practiced in semi-arid and arid climates, subsistence farming. Herders move animals seasonally to graze Results in soil erosion & desertification Process by which formerly fertile lands become infertile. Typically as a result of droughts and overgrazing

Conservation Efforts

Reduction in biodiversity - As farmers develop new crop varieties, older varieties are abandoned. The diversity of insects, animals, & organisms that depend on other varieties of plants begin to disappear when a farmer practices monocropping.

Deforestation

Rising demand for has led to the conversion of forests: Logging Industry Slash and burn subsistence farming Cattle Grazing Commercial Agriculture - Palm Oil Results in increased greenhouse gas emissions, soil erosion, loss of biodiversity

Linear settlement pattern

Settlement is organized along a LINE - typically associated with transportation system or physical feature like a river or coast Long Lot Survey Methods

Sustainability

The ability to keep in existence or maintain

Monocropping (Monoculture)

The cultivation of one or two crops that are rotated seasonally. leads to higher yields Profitable for plantations and large corporate farms. Can strip nutrients from the soil, decrease biodiversity or put small farmers out of business. Supply & demand = If there is more supply than demand, price goes down.

Domestication

The deliberate effort to grow plants and raise animals, making plants and animals adapt to human demands

The Columbian Exchange

The exchange of goods and ideas between North America, Africa, and Europe initiated by Christopher Columbus' voyage to the Americas in 1492.

Global Supply Chain

The main elements of global food distribution networks are affected by political relationships, infrastructure, and patterns of world trade.

aquaculture

The practice of raising and harvesting fish and other forms of food that live in water. Due to overfishing and increase demand for fish, people have turned to aquaculture.

Soil salinization

The process by which salts build up in the soil when water evaporates from the ground more rapidly than it is replenished. Salt interferes with the ability of plants to absorb water and strips nutrients from the soil. Rapidly increasing as more land comes under irrigation and wetlands are drained.

Bid-Rent Theory

The value of land is influenced by its relationship to the market. The price and demand for land changes as it gets further away from the market or central business district

biotechnology

This includes a range of tools, including traditional breeding techniques, that alter living organisms, or parts of organisms, to make or modify products; improve plants or animals; or develop microorganisms for specific agricultural uses.

genetically modified organisms

Through the process of biotechnology, scientists modify plants and animals by extracting genes of one species and inserting them into the DNA of another species.

Slash & Burn Agriculture

Type of shifting cultivation that permanently alters the landscape. Method: Cutting and burning forests in order to create fields for cultivation. Ash from burning provides nutrients and fertilizes crops. Results in deforestation and soil erosion Half of the world's topsoil has been lost in the past 150 years.

Terraces

Typically practiced by subsistence farmers in mountainous areas.

Irrigation

Used to supplement rainfall by bringing water from its natural sources to farm fields through systems of canals, ditches, and other methods.

Food deserts

an urban area in which it is difficult to buy affordable or good-quality fresh food. Often little to no large scale grocers in the area.

clustered settlement pattern

close proximity to one another Farmland and pasture surround the settlement Share resources & community Have to walk to farmland Metes and Bounds Survey Methods

Rural Settlement patterns

clustered, dispersed, linear

Community-Supported Agriculture

community of individuals who support a local farm operation so that the farmland becomes, either legally or spiritually, the community's farm, with the growers and consumers providing mutual support & sharing the risks and benefits of food production.

Exporting commodity

countries that ship out items benefit from increased revenue

mechanized farming

farming with machines

Local-food movements

food that is produced within a short distance of where it is consumed.

organic farming

foods grown without the use of pesticides, synthetic fertilizers & other unnatural processes.

Urban farming

growing or producing food in a city or heavily populated areas Benefit: allows communities access to fresh and locally grown produce Concern: produce is susceptible to toxins & other pollutants often found in urban spaces.

high-yield seed

introduction of seed hybridization- which is the process of breeding together two plants that have desirable characteristics Has been done with grains such as wheat and rice Lead to the creation of Genetically Modified Organisms

Fair trade

is an institutional arrangement designed to help producers in developing countries achieve better trading conditions.

Food security

measure of the availability of food and individuals' ability to access it.

carrying capacity

the amount of people the environment can sustain indefinitely

Land cover change

the changing of the way a certain area of land is used or managed.

Green Revolution

the invention and rapid diffusion of more productive agriculture has increased agricultural productivity at a global scale 1950s-1960s Diffusion- Research of MDCs spread to developing countries in Latin America and Asia

Desertification

the process by which fertile land becomes desert; usually due to drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agricultural practices

Food insecurity

the state of being without reliable access to sufficient quantity of affordable, nutritious food.

Biodiversity

the variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem

value-added specialty crops

this refers to the manufacturing processes that increase the value of primary agricultural goods, or its sale-ability.

Shifting Cultavation

Climate: Tropical Where: Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia Types of Crops: rice, maize (corn), millet and sorghum Extensive and Subsistence Slash and burn and fertilizing land

Which of the following spatial patterns is best explained by bid-rent theory? A- Concentric rings of different agricultural activities surrounding a city in the midwestern United States B- Rural-to-urban migration increasing the population density to eastern China C- Linear settlements located along a major road in a densely forested area of Brazil D- Dispersed settlement throughout a large mountainous area of Switzerland E- The conversion of agricultural land to suburbs surrounding a city in the southeastern United States

A- Concentric rings of different agricultural activities surrounding a city in the midwestern United States

Which of the following explains an impact of globalized agricultural commodity chains on consumers as compared to producers? A- Drought and depletion of groundwater sources in developing countries cause a rise in global grain prices and associated higher costs for food. B- The shift from subsistence farming to value-added agriculture by small farmers in developed countries causes a drop in profits for global agribusiness corporations. C- The imposition of government-imposed tariffs on specialty crops in order to protect domestic farmers causes a worldwide decrease in all farm products. D- Farmers in developing countries who are unable to gain access to global food markets to sell their goods protest, leading to global unrest. E- Agricultural production with a focus on monocropping cash crops creates more vulnerability in a country's exports if consumer preferences shift to a different commodity.

A- Drought and depletion of groundwater sources in developing countries cause a rise in global grain prices and associated higher costs for food.

Which of the following best explains the importance of climate to agricultural practices? A- Midlatitude climates tend to support similar agricultural crops and practices, such as wheat farming in the United States and China. B- Agricultural crops are successful only in midlatitude climates, where any crop can be grown. C- Tropical climates support plant-based agriculture, but animal-based agriculture is not successful in tropical areas. D- The sparse vegetation in arid or semiarid climates does not support animal-based agriculture. E- Cold midlatitude climates are associated with plantation agriculture and pastoral nomadism.

A- Midlatitude climates tend to support similar agricultural crops and practices, such as wheat farming in the United States and China.

Which of the following best explains the potential impact of rising global temperatures on agricultural regions? A- The wheat belt will shift northward. B- Mediterranean agriculture will expand southward. C- Polar regions will dry out, making cultivation impossible. D-Nomadic herding will end as conditions become too harsh. E- Centers of market gardening will shift to the Arctic Circle.

A- The wheat belt will shift northward.

Plantation Agriculture

Climate: Tropical Where: Latin America, Sub-Saharan, Africa, South & Southeast Asia Types of Crops: Commodity & speciality crops such as cacao, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, bananas, tobacco, tea, coconuts & cotton. Intensive and Commercial

Pollution

Chemical fertilizers, pesticides & herbicides: nitrate pollution from fertilizers and human & animal waste gets into the soil & water supply causes illness & disease in human and animal populations. Air pollution - Use of fossil fuels increase greenhouse gases that contribute to climate change. Animal waste -animals produce large amounts of waste that include gases such as ammonia, methane, & hydrogen sulfide that can pollute the air and water and cause illness.

Mediterranean climate

Climate is mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers, coastal ADDITIONAL INFO.... Where: Southern Europe & Northern Africa Pacific Coast of the US, Chile, South Africa, Southern Australia Types of Crops: Grapes, olives, dates, figs Intensive and Commercial

Why have many family farms in North America been replaced by agribusiness farms since the 1980s? A- A decrease in the consumption of meat has resulted in less demand for cattle, which are mainly raised on family farms. B- Agribusiness farms have the resources to take advantage of economies of scale. C- Little available land for pasture farming has resulted in more concentrated agribusiness operations. D- More interest in genetically modified foods has led to an increase in agribusiness farms, which have greater access to advanced technology. E- Water shortages in regions where family farms were once common have led to a rise in agribusinesses in regions with more favorable climates.

B- Agribusiness farms have the resources to take advantage of economies of scale.

Which of the following is an explanation for the similar impact of large-scale commercial agriculture in developed countries and plantation agriculture in developing countries? A- Both farming practices stimulate local economies with the influx of profits from export-oriented crops. B- Both farming practices involve the consolidation of family farms and displacement of rural communities. C- Both farming practices provide an increased standard of living in rural communities from the many jobs created to run these large farms. D- Both farming practices enable local farmers to remain on their land rather than migrating to jobs in urban areas. E- Both farming practices guarantee that long-term sustainable farming methods will be incorporated in their production processes.

B- Both farming practices involve the consolidation of family farms and displacement of rural communities.

Which of the following explains why multiple early hearths of domestication and diffusion of plants and animals arose across the world in Central America, the Fertile Crescent, the Indus River valley, and Southeast Asia? A- Domestication of plants and animals began in Central America and the process diffused to other areas through the early explorers. B- Domestication of plants and animals evolved in each hearth independently of one another as societies in each area learned and applied the process to local plants and animals. C- Domestication of plants and animals began in Southeast Asia and the process diffused to other areas as nomadic warriors conquered other cultural groups and carried the new seeds and animals with them. D- Domestication of plants and animals began in the Fertile Crescent and the process diffused as pastoral nomads migrated to other areas. E- Domestication of plants and animals began in the Indus River valley and the process diffused to other areas across trade routes.

B- Domestication of plants and animals evolved in each hearth independently of one another as societies in each area learned and applied the process to local plants and animals.

Which of the following best explains how the expansion of feedlots for raising cattle has affected environmental sustainability in rural areas? A- Concentrating large numbers of farm animals in small spaces has decreased the release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. B- Runoff from animal waste has increased the pollution in local water supplies. C- Feed grains have eliminated potentially harmful invasive plant species from farmland. D- Land development has increased the available water supply for other farming practices. E- Composted manure has introduced valuable nutrients into previously depleted soils.

B- Runoff from animal waste has increased the pollution in local water supplies.

During the Green Revolution, agricultural practices from more developed countries diffused to less developed countries in Asia and Africa. Which of the following best explains the Green Revolution's highly variable level of success in increasing agricultural yields? A- The increased yield of the Green Revolution in sub-Saharan Africa decreased the incidence of famine, but the program was unsuccessful in India because of poor soil quality. B- Small-scale farmers in Asia often lacked the resources necessary to acquire the hybrid seeds and the chemical inputs to grow them, leaving large gaps in the success of the Green Revolution outside of urban cores. C- The Green Revolution was not successful in China because the strain of rice produced was prone to widespread crop failures, and China dropped out of the program. D- Rice production surpassed all other crop production in sub-Saharan Africa, but corn production in Mexico was less successful because of the negative impact on the environment. E- Persistent famine has occurred in India since new technologies associated with the Green Revolution were implemented because only the wealthy could afford the increased cost of the improved strains of rice.

B- Small-scale farmers in Asia often lacked the resources necessary to acquire the hybrid seeds and the chemical inputs to grow them, leaving large gaps in the success of the Green Revolution outside of urban cores.

Which of the following explains the diffusion and successful cultivation of many plants and animals in new regions of the world through the Columbian Exchange? A- The plants and animals diffused only a short distance away from their point of domestication. B- The plants and animals diffused to a region with climate and geography similar to that of their point of domestication. C- Navigational technology allowed ships to travel more efficiently, enabling safe transport of plants and animals to new destinations. D- Diffusion of plants and animals filled the loss in many areas from a number of plant and animal extinctions. E- The plants and animals diffused to regions with variation in the climates between the hearth and the new region.

B- The plants and animals diffused to a region with climate and geography similar to that of their point of domestication.

Mixed Crop & Livestock

Climate: Cold & Warm Mid-Latitude Where: Midwestern United States & Canada, Central Europe Types of Crops: Corn, grains, & soybeans grown to feed to cattle & pigs. Intensive and Commercial

Nomadic Herding/Pastoral Nomadism

Climate: Drylands/Desert Where: Northern Africa, Southwest Asia, Central Asia, East Asia Types of Livestock: Cattle, Camels, Reindeer, Goats, Yaks, Sheep, Horses Extensive and Subsistence

Livestock Ranching

Climate: Drylands/Desert Where: Western North America, Southeastern South America, Central Asia, Australia, South Africa Types of Livestock: Cattle, Goats, Sheep Extensive and Commercial

Which of the following best explains the diffusion of plants and animals from their hearths of domestication? A- Animals were domesticated before plants and diffused rapidly from their hearth of domestication through contagious diffusion because they were mobile and moved easily from place to place. B- Domesticated plants spread through wind-borne dispersal of seeds from their original hearth, expanding slowly until a vast region was covered with new plants. C- Both domesticated plants and animals spread across the globe through contagious diffusion in early years by farmers and traders, and later by relocation diffusion through European exploration and colonialism. D- The diffusion of plants and animals was limited to areas close to each hearth of domestication because the newly developed plants and animals could not readily adapt to different soil types. E- The diffusion of plants and animals was dependent on nomadic traders who traveled between agricultural villages because early farmers were sedentary and did not travel to other areas.

C- Both domesticated plants and animals spread across the globe through contagious diffusion in early years by farmers and traders, and later by relocation diffusion through European exploration and colonialism.

Which of the following agricultural practices has the most significant long-term environmental impact in tropical regions? A- Clearing small patches of land to pasture dairy cows, which decreases water pollution from runoff B- Building terraces on sloping land to grow rice, which destabilizes hillsides C- Burning extensive areas of forested land to create pasture, which decreases biodiversity D- Burning small areas of forested land for subsistence farming, which increases biodiversity E- Moving livestock to higher pasture areas in the spring, which leads to soil degradation

C- Burning extensive areas of forested land to create pasture, which decreases biodiversity

Which of the following explains the role of commodity chains in the average size of farms? A- The spatial organization of agriculture has changed because of an increase in the number of farms as farmers join local commodity chains that regulate supply and demand for agricultural products and large profits can be realized. B- The spatial organization of agriculture has remained stable, but farm productivity has increased through technological innovations that are available to farmers through membership in local commodity chains. C- Commodity chains have led to changes in the spatial organization of agriculture from dispersed family farms to large corporate farms that produce, process, and distribute the products. D- Farms are increasing in size, but there is little change in the spatial organization of agriculture because of the instability of regional cooperatives and associated commodity chains that cannot meet the demand for new products desired by consumers. E- Commodity chains have had no effect on the spatial organization of agriculture because they operate only in areas of grain farming; dairy and meat products spoil rapidly and markets are too far away for safe and rapid transportation of those products.

C- Commodity chains have led to changes in the spatial organization of agriculture from dispersed family farms to large corporate farms that produce, process, and distribute the products.

In less developed countries, pesticides are typically applied by hand, whereas pesticides are typically applied by tractors or aircraft in more developed countries. Which of the following best explains the risks associated with pesticide applications? A- Crop dusters are at risk when applying pesticides with aircraft in more developed countries, whereas environmental pollution is a risk in less developed countries. B- Farm animals used to plow fields are at risk from pesticides in more developed countries, whereas environmental pollution is a risk is less developed countries. C- Farmers' health is at risk in less developed countries, whereas environmental pollution is a risk in more developed countries. D- Crops are at risk in more developed countries, whereas environmental pollution is a risk in less developed countries. E- Contract harvesters are at risk in more developed countries, whereas environmental pollution is a risk in less developed countries.

C- Farmers' health is at risk in less developed countries, whereas environmental pollution is a risk in more developed countries.

Palm oil, an edible vegetable oil used in processing packaged food products, is obtained from the fruit of the oil palm tree, grown only in the tropics. Which of the following explains how global demand for palm oil has proved beneficial and detrimental for countries such as Indonesia and Malaysia? A- Palm oil exports provided substantial corporate profits, but increased government subsidies to palm oil farmers led to increased poverty in the two countries. B- Palm oil exports provided substantial corporate profits, but the process led to high rates of unemployment for farmworkers at harvest time. C- Palm oil exports provided substantial corporate profits, but the growth in the industry resulted in heavy deforestation in both countries. D- Palm oil exports provided increased income to the governments of Indonesia and Malaysia, but the number of farmers employed on palm oil plantations decreased in the two countries. E- Palm oil exports aided in

C- Palm oil exports provided substantial corporate profits, but the growth in the industry resulted in heavy deforestation in both countries.

Sheep production in New Zealand and poultry production in Arkansas produce food animals for human consumption. Which of the following best describes the differences in the agricultural practices and land use for these products? A- Sheep production is an example of intensive agriculture requiring large amounts of fertilizer, whereas poultry production is an example of extensive agriculture practiced mainly in more developed countries. B- Sheep production and poultry production are both examples of extensive agriculture practiced on large areas of land, but requiring different climates. C- Sheep production is an example of extensive agriculture requiring large pastures, whereas poultry production is an example of intensive agriculture often practiced indoors. D- Sheep production and poultry production are both examples of intensive agriculture practiced on small areas of land but requiring different amounts of labor and capital. E- Sheep production is an example of extensive agriculture that is declining because of an insufficient supply of open land, whereas poultry production continues to be practiced on small areas of land.

C- Sheep production is an example of extensive agriculture requiring large pastures, whereas poultry production is an example of intensive agriculture often practiced indoors.

Which of the following correctly explains the placement of an agricultural product within von Thünen's agricultural land-use model? A- Beef cattle are raised close to the market because meat spoils quickly. B- Grain is grown close to the market because it is bulky to transport. C- Firewood is harvested far from the market because the best agricultural land is closer to the market. D- Tomatoes are grown closest to the market because they spoil quicker than beef or grain. E- Beef cattle are raised close to the market because land is cheapest closer to the market.

D- Tomatoes are grown closest to the market because they spoil quicker than beef or grain.

Rural survey method

Defining the boundaries of land ownership metes & bounds, township and range, & long lot.

Which of the following social or environmental impacts is most directly related to the use of chemicals in agriculture? A- A decline in insect-borne diseases and improved health at the global scale B- A decrease in the price of agricultural products due to lower labor costs associated with applying chemicals over widespread areas in one application C- An increase in the use of genetically modified crops D- An increase in profits that is limited to farmers in developed countries E- An increase in land and water pollution from agricultural runoff

E- An increase in land and water pollution from agricultural runoff

Which of the following best explains why farmers would plant both strawberries and watermelons in the same field? A- Limited farmland encourages intensive farming and monocropping to produce high yields. B- Unlimited farmland encourages intensive farming with intercropping to produce high yields. C- Unlimited farmland encourages extensive farming with intercropping to produce high yields. D- Limited farmland encourages extensive farming with monocropping to produce high yields. E- Limited farmland encourages intensive farming with intercropping to produce high yields.

E- Limited farmland encourages intensive farming with intercropping to produce high yields.

Which of the following best explains why the New England region, located in the northeastern United States, would specialize in market gardening agriculture rather than other types of agriculture, such as grain farming? A- Wheat farming would require more machinery, which conflicts with the environmental standards of many states in New England. B- Market gardening products can be easily transported to the primary market of California without spoiling. C- Farmers can specialize in market gardening products because of the rocky soil found in many New England states. D- Market gardening zones allow farmers the flexibility to grow market gardening crops along with other grain crops. E- Several large cities on the East Coast provide a growing market and shorter distances for transporting market gardening products.

E- Several large cities on the East Coast provide a growing market and shorter distances for transporting market gardening products.

In the South Asian country of Sri Lanka, tea is farmed as a monoculture. Which of the following best explains why tea plantations are common in Sri Lanka and tea exports are important to the country's economy? A- Sri Lanka's unique climate and terrain make it one of the only countries where tea plants thrive. B- Tea plantations are a traditional form of subsistence agriculture practiced by Sri Lanka's indigenous groups. C- Sri Lankans drink more tea per capita than any other nationality. D- The early hearth of tea plant domestication is located in Sri Lanka. E- Tea plantations were established in Sri Lanka by a former European colonial power.

E- Tea plantations were established in Sri Lanka by a former European colonial power.

Based on von Thünen's model of rural land use in an isolated state, which statement explains the most suitable place for a farmer to purchase a large parcel of land necessary for raising livestock? A- The ring closest to the market, because livestock are perishable goods and need to reach the market quickly. B- The ring closest to the market, because the land is more fertile for growing feed for livestock compared to other areas. C- The second ring, because livestock are heavy and more expensive to transport to market. D- The third ring, because the livestock would be closer to the suburban market areas with moderate transportation costs. E- The ring farthest from the market, because the land is less expensive and outweighs transportation costs to get the livestock to market.

E- The ring farthest from the market, because the land is less expensive and outweighs transportation costs to get the livestock to market.

Between 1950 and 1990, wheat production in India in average pounds per acre more than tripled, which allowed India to meet its population's need for food. Which of the following best explains this change? A- The elimination of poverty in India's rural regions B- The use of genetically modified seeds C- The increase in microloan programs that provide farmers with credit D- The use of large farm tractors and combine harvesters E- The use of improved plant hybrids and agricultural chemicals

E- The use of improved plant hybrids and agricultural chemicals