Unit 5.1 - Introduction to Memory

How do explicit and implicit memories differ?

- Explicit memories utilize conscious EFFORTFUL PROCESSING, where encoding requires attention and conscious effort. - Implicit memories are AUTOMATICALLY PROCESSED and have no need for conscious processing. It is the unconscious encoding of incidental information.

How does the peg-word system work?

1. You first memorize the peg-word pairs. 2. Then, you visually associate the peg-words with to-be-remembered items.

How does Baddeley's model address working memory?

Alan Baddeley's (2002) model of working memory, includes visual-spatial and auditory rehearsal of new information. A hypothetical central executive (manager) focuses our attention, and pulls information from long-term memory to help make sense of new information.

What is the role of the central executive?

Baddeley's idea of a central executive is key to the new model. The central executive coordinates focused processing without which, information often fades.

How can the spacing effect impact memory retrieval?

Distributed practice produces better long-term recall.

What things must be done to remember any event?

ENCODING: input new information STORAGE: organize information RETRIEVAL: extrapolate/ pull out information

What are explicit and implicit memories?

EXPLICIT MEMORIES: the retention of FACTS and EXPERIENCES from long-term memory that one can consciously know and declare. IMPLICIT MEMORY: the retention of LEARNED SKILLS or CLASSICALLY CONDITIONED SKILLS in long-term memory, independent of conscious recollection.

What were Hermann Ebbinghaus' findings?

Ebbinghaus found that the more times he practiced the list of nonsense syllables (on Day 1), the less time was required to relearn them (on Day 2).

Describe shallow processing.

Encoding occurs on a basic level. It is based on the structure or appearance of words.

Describe deep processing.

Encoding occurs semantically (in a way that relates to the different meanings of words or other signs or symbols). It is based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

Give the synonyms for explicit and implicit memory.

Explicit memory: Declarative m. Implicit memory: Non-declarative m.

What was George Sperling's sensory memory experiment?

George Sperling (1960) flashed a group of letters to participants for 1/20th of a second. Participants could recall only about half the letters. However, when signaled to recall a particular row immediately after the letters had disappeared, they could do so with near-perfect accuracy.

What is the benefit of a large working memory capacity?

Having a large working memory capacity tends to aid information retention after sleeping and creative problem solving.

What is our short-term memory capacity?

In our short-term memory, we can store between 5 and 9 pieces of information. This is also known as the "7 +/-2" in short-term memory. This was proposed by George Miller (1956).

Why should I make material meaningful?

Learning meaningful material required 1/10th the effort, than learning non-internalized/ unmeaningful material.

Describe memory degeneration in Alzheimer's Disease.

Memory degeneration in AD starts as simply having difficulty with remembering NEW information. It progresses to an inability to complete everyday tasks.

How is memory defined?

Memory is defined as the persistence of learning over time the ENCODING, STORAGE and RETRIEVAL of information.

How do psychologists describe the human memory system?

Psychologists propose an INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL which compares the human memory system to computer operations.

How have early models of memory formation been modified?

Researchers have found that some information is transferred to and stored in our long-term memory without our conscious processing of it. This is known as AUTOMATIC PROCESSING. A lot of active processing occurs in our short-term memory stage, so it is now referred to as the WORKING MEMORY.

What is the best strategy for learning?

Retrieval practice/ testing is the best strategy for learning.

What did early models of memory formation look like?

Richard Atkinson (prof. of psychology and cognitive science) and Richard Shiffrin (psychologist and prof. of cognitive science), proposed a 3-stage model of memory.

What are two levels of processing?

Shallow processing Deep processing

How fast do short-term memories disappear?

Short term memories can disappear in as little as 3 seconds. Psychologists Peterson and Peterson asked subjects to remember three-consonant groups, such as CHJ. Without rehearsal, after 3 seconds, people recalled the letters only about half the time; after 12 seconds, they seldom recalled them at all.

How are short-term and working memory related?

Short-term memory refers to information we can briefly retain. Working memory refers to this and includes the active/ conscious processing of incoming info by our brains, and links that to stored memories.

How can the testing effect impact memory retrieval?

Testing can improve learning and memory.

How did Hermann Ebbinghaus test speed of relearning?

The memory research pioneer randomly selected a sample of nonsense syllables, practiced them and tested himself on his ability to recall them. The following day, he found that he could remember only a few of the nonsense syllables. However, they were not all forgotten.

What is one measure of memory retention?

The speed of relearning is a measure of this.

Describe the 3-stage model of memory proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin.

The three components of this 3-stage model of memory are: SENSORY MEMORY: this is the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system SHORT-TERM MEMORY: this is memory that holds a few items briefly before the info is stored or forgotten LONG-TERM MEMORY: this is the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system

What is our working memory capacity?

This capacity varies, depending on age and other factors.

What is iconic memory?

This is a fleeting sensory memory of visual stimuli.

What is a mnemonic device?

This is a memory aid. It often uses vivid imagery and organizational devices such as acronyms and acrositcs.

What is the peg-word system?

This is a mnemonic device that utilizes visual imagery and a simple jingle.

What is working memory?

This is a newer understanding of short-term memory that takes into account conscious, active processing of auditory and visual information, as well as that retrieved from long-term memory.

What is the testing effect?

This is a phenomenon that describes one effective way of distributing practice- repeated self-testing.

What is Alzheimer's disease?

This is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that affects memory, thinking, judgement and behaviour.

Define long-term memory.

This is a relatively permanent information storage system that enables one to retain, retrieve, and make use of skills and knowledge hours, weeks, or even years after they were originally learned.

What is echoic memory?

This is fleeting sensory memory for auditory stimuli. These tend to linger for 3-4 seconds.

Define relearning.

This is learning something more quickly when learned the second time or at a later time.

What is chunking?

This is organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Define recognition.

This is the identification of items previously learned.

Define short-term memory.

This is the reproduction, recognition, or recall of a limited amount of material after a period of about 10 to 30 seconds. This is activated memory that holds a few items briefly, before the information is stored or forgotten. (7 +/-2)

Define recall.

This is the retrieval of information that is currently not in one's conscious awareness, but has been learned before (at an earlier time).

Define the spacing effect.

This is the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. **massed practice = cramming

What is the self-reference effect?

This is the tendency to remember information about ourselves, more than we do others. Tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance.

What is parallel processing?

This processing involves the consideration of many aspects of a problem simultaneously.

How do we measure memory in life events?

We use the same 3 components: recall recognition relearning

How do we measure memory on tests in school?

We use the same 3 components: recall recognition relearning

How does parallel processing function?

When a person sees an object, the observe many specific aspects of it combined, that allow the person to identify that object in its entirety.

How do hierarchies aid retrieval?

When we organize words or concepts into hierarchical groups, we remember them better than when we see them presented randomly.

What group of people have the highest working memory capacity?

Young adults - when compared to children and older adults, young adults have the highest WM capacity

What are some effortful processing strategies that can help us encode and retrieve?

chunking mnemonics hierarchies

How is memory measured?

recall recognition relearning

What information do we process automatically?

space time frequency