Unit 6 IDs - APUSH

Muckrakers

"Muckrakers" was a derogatory term first coined by Theodore Roosevelt to describe "the use of journalistic skills to expose the underside of American life" (Foner 546)**. Lewis Hine published photographs of child laborers to represent the increasing number of children even under the age of fifteen working for wages as well as the conditions under which these children worked. Lincoln Steffens' The Shame of the Cities, published in 1904, exposed the political corruption in many cities. Most well know was Upton Sinclair's The Jungle, of 1906, which revealed the dangerously unhygienic processing system and sale of meat, resulting in the Pure Food and Drug Act as well as the Meat Inspection Act of 1906. Although muckrakers may have caused disruptions in the economy, they also shed light on important topics that many people had not thought of before.

"Muscular Christianity" -> Salvation Army, YMCA/YWCA

"Muscular Christianity" was a term used to describe the spreading popularity of a more aggressive approach to spreading Christianity. Rather than allow it to spread naturally, Christian missionaries began spreading their faith by volunteering or helping those in need while also requiring that they listen to their spiel about God. One example was the Salvation Army; in fact, the name itself suggests "Muscular Christianity" because "Salvation" has a Christian connotation, while "army" suggests forcefulness. Also, the YMCA, or "Young Men's Christian Association," housed young people in the south while also educating them about Christianity.

Stalwarts, Mugwamps, and Half-Breeds

"Stalwarts" were a group of republicans in favor of the reelection of President Grant in the 1880 election. Ironically, this group was closer to the left wing than other conservatives. In opposition to the Stalwarts were the "Half-Breeds." The Half-Breeds were in favor of James G. Blaine as a candidate for the presidency and were a moderate party. The biggest difference between these two groups was that the Stalwarts liked the spoils system and political machines while the Half-Breeds worked based on a merit system. The Mugwumps came along during the election of 1884. They were a group who seceded from the Republican Party during this election to support Grover Cleveland, a democratic candidate. These small parties were all very short-lived and showed how confused people were by everything going on in the government. This helps support the reasons why the businessman were the political bosses during the period of time following this.

Ashcan School, "The Eight"

A group of Realist artists set themselves apart from and challenged the American Impressionists and academics. The first group of men to do this formed the first generation of the Ashcan School, termed by a drawing captioned Disappointments of the Ash Can. The Ashcan School was not an organized school, they all united under the common motto - "art for life's sake" as opposed to "art for art's sake." Their most famous showing was of The Eight at Macbeth Galleries in February 1908, which included five of their most prestigious painters. These Ashcan artists documented the American transition from a rural nation to an urban one. The artwork presented during this time encompassed the difficulties of immigration and urban poverty while shining a positive light on the era.

Redeemers in the New South

After Populism failed in the South, "Redeemers" imposed a new racial order. Redeemers were merchants, planters, and business entrepreneurs who "dominated the region's politics after 1877." They called themselves Redeemers because they believed they had "redeemed" the South from "misgovernment" and "black rule" (Foner 556). Their goal was to reverse Reconstruction as much as possible. They decreased state budgets and taxes and closed public facilities like asylums and hospitals. Public school systems suffered (especially black schools as the difference in budget got wider and wider). These new laws led to increased arrests and harsher punishments for small crimes. Prisons became overpopulated, and and convicts would be "rented out" to businesses as cheap labor working on railroads, mines, or lumber. Redeemers created harsh laws and practices that further institutionalized racism in the South.

Panama Canal

After the US assisted Panama in their war for independence, Panama gave us a 99-year lease over the Panama Canal zone. Between 1903 and 1914, America finished building the Panama Canal (which cost 400 million dollars), creating a passage from the Atlantic to Pacific Ocean without having to sail around North or South America. However, a shorter trip was not the only advantage of the Panama Canal: the US could control international trade. First, ships had to pay to go through the canal and America could control this fee. Second, the US can control who can and cannot go through the canal.

The Jungle by Lewis Sinclair

The Jungle was a novel written by muckraker Lewis Sinclair in 1906. It depicted the hard lives of Immigrants living in Chicago. The book evoked many important questions from the public, particularly about his exposure of safety and health violations in the American meatpacking industry. The book portrayed the working class of industrialized cities in a new way, focusing on their lack of support, harsh living conditions, and seer numbers. This book woke up the public to the issues of the working class, and is often compared to Uncle Tom's Cabin, the book that informed public about slavery.

Keating-Owen Child Labor Act, Payne-Aldrich Bill

The Keating-Owen Child Labor Act was passed in September of 1916 to help regulate and control child labor. The Act prohibited the distribution or sale of any products created in a shop, factory, or other place of work by a child under 14, or under 16 in a mine. It also stated that children under the age of 16 could only work between the hours of 6 a.m. and 7 p.m., not for more than eight hours a day, and no more than six days a week. The Payne-Aldrich bill was passed in 1909 by President Taft, and it lowered tariffs by 5% on goods other than necessary resources like coal and iron ore, which actually had their rates raised. Numerous newspapers mocked the Republican Party for their attempt at a new tariff policy, which really did nothing for the people.

Statue of Liberty

The Statue of Liberty was a gift from France to the United States. It was dedicated in 1886 and still stands today as a national symbol of pride. Edouard de Laboulaye charted the idea for the state in 1865 following the end of slavery and the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. The statue took over the tabloids. Emma Lazarus wrote a poem about the statue that characterized the statute and the relevance of it that has sustained for years. Lazarus described the scene as "huddled masses yearning to breathe free." Because of this quote, most people see the statue as a symbol of how many immigrants were coming over; however, it is actually talking about slaves being freed.

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire

The Triangle Shirtwaist fire took place in March of 1911 in Greenwich Village, New York City. While 500 of its female workers, who were mostly Jewish or Italian immigrants, were working, a fire broke out of the 8th, 9th, and 10th floors. Women ran from their sewing machines to the doors, but the doors had been locked by the company's managers to prevent stealing and unsanctioned bathroom breaks. As a result, the women ran to the windows only to find that the firetruck ladders only reached up to the 6th floor. In desperation, young women began jumping out of the windows. Ultimately, 100 women died in the fire and 46 died from jumping out of the window and hitting the pavement. As a result of this incident, attention was brought to the labor laws and the change that the Industrial revolution had brought. More women were leaving their homes to work in conditions such as these, and later President Roosevelt would refer to this incident as a reason why labor regulations needed to be created for companies.

U.S. legacy in WWI

The US declared war on Germany in 1917, siding/working with the Allies while claiming neutrality. The US made huge contributions of supplies, raw materials, and money, and they played a large role in the victory of the war in 1918. The US government at the time expanded so that it could harness the war effort and increase the size of the military. Woodrow Wilson was president during the time, and the war signifies a sort of culmination of the Progressive Era in that America tried sought to expand its democracy to the rest of the world.

War Industries Board and Bernard Baruch; National War Labor Board and Samuel Gompers

The War Industries Board overlooked all elements of war production from the distribution of raw materials to the prices of manufactured goods. This board was headed by Bernard Baruch, a Wall Street financier at the time. The War Industries Board also standardized equipment to increase efficiency. For instance, there were only three shoe colors permitted: black, brown, and white. At the same time of the WIB's creation, the National War Labor Board began pushing for minimum wage, an eight-hour work day, and the right to form unions. During the war, wages increased and working conditions improved. Both of these agencies were formed during the war as part of the wartime state and quickly disappeared after the end of World War I.

Cowboy: Myth v. Reality

The West during this era represented a place of freedom and individuality. People commonly romanticized the West, thinking of small town saloons and brave cowboys who were reckless and adventurous. However, the reality was far from this perception. Cowboys were just the men who conducted cattle drives across the Great Plains. Instead of fighting criminals and riding off into the sunset, cowboys lived a hard life. They worked long hours doing hard labor and we paid extremely low wages. The cowboys declined in the mid-1880s, as more fences were built on the plains which made it difficult for cowboys to easily travel. Nonetheless, cowboys till became a symbol of the romantic West.

Plight of the Buffalo (and environment)

The plight of the Buffalo refers to the US's attempt to exterminate buffalo herds in hopes of exterminating Native Americans from settler's lands. Indians used elements of the buffalo in over fifty ways, the opposite of the one way settler's used them: for fur. Thirty million buffalo roamed the plains of the MidWest in 1800, but only one thousand remained after 1900. The main era of buffalo extermination lasted from 1974 to 1884 from 1874 and 1884 and was intended to wipe out the existing Native population for white settlers. Other environmental problems included species and habitat loss; as the Buffalo began to go extinct, other animals who the buffalo fed on became over populated, and animals who ate buffalo as a food source began to die off with their prey.

Wild West meanings (romanticized, American Exceptionalism)

The romanticism surrounding the Wild West really began when people started moving to the West after Lincoln's 1862 Homestead Act, which stated that anyone who moved west would be given a piece of land and if they could successfully work the land for five years, the land was theirs. People started moving westward, and the romantic idea of open land, small towns, saloons, gunfights, and cowboys spread. Frederick Jackson Turner's Frontier Thesis especially contributed to these stereotypes, because Turner claims that American morals came from life on the frontier. This romantic idea of the West disintegrated by the 1880s as farmers began to section off their land with barbed wire, dividing the once wide plains of the frontier.

Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments

The sixteenth amendment states that congress has the power to set and collect taxes on income and was ratified in 1913. Congress intended to levy and income tax, and many Americans agreed with the amendment after it was passed. The seventeenth amendment states that senators will be chosen based on the popular vote and will hold office for six years. The amendment was ratified in 1913 as well, and superseded a clause of the Constitution that stated were elected by state legislatures.

Jay Gould and Railroads/Speculative Investing

The term "Robber Barron" which became a widespread nickname for corrupt industrial corporation owners. He earned his hatred through breaking down rival businesses by manipulating stock, and then rebuilding them in order to help himself. He is also notorious for bribery. He bribed Grant's brother in law to find out the status of gold sales from the government. He also bribed the NY state legislature when he was arrested for illegal activity to change the law which most incriminated him. Gould was involved in the great fight for control over the Eerie railroad with Commodore Vanderbilt, and he was sending troops to fight Vanderbilt's men illegally. He invested in hides, railroad stocks, and helped to secure the telegraph industry's success. He is an excellent example of a rags-to-riches story, but he is quite hated because of his shameless corruption.

Political Machines (kickbacks, block voting, government services)

The term "political machine" describes a system in which an economic power, such as a corporation or an individual, uses its economic influence to control politics. The most famous political machine was William "Boss" Tweed's Tammany Hall in New York. Leaders of these political machines, such as Boss Tweed, would offer government services to minorities (usually immigrants). This was like a private welfare system, providing food, fuel, and jobs in hard times. By helping the immigrants, the leaders were able to ensure that the candidates they wanted were elected because immigrants made up a block of voters who, because Boss Tweed and other heads helped them out, would support the candidates that the leaders supported. Because these leaders had so much control, they would often raise taxes and collect a portion of the money for themselves. The extra money would then be given to those who supported these illicit transaction, also called "kickbacks."

Triple Alliance/Central Powers v. Triple Entente/Allies

The triple Alliance or Central powers and the triple Entente or Allies were two "sides" that had an alliance before and during World War I. The triple Central powers consisted of the countries Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman empire (modern day Middle East). The Allies consisted of Britain, France, Russia, and Japan. After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austro Hungary in 1914, the battle between the Central Powers and the Allies began. Austria-Hungary called war on Serbia, whose nationalist murdered Archduke Ferdinand. After this incident, these European powers began making alliances with one another, preparing for the coming war.

Frontier Life (gender, race, ethnicity)

There were 250,000 Native Americans spread out across millions of western acres. After the different tribes merged, there were 28 tribes total, including the Cheyenne, Comanche, Kiowa, Sioux, Navaho, Apache, Blackfoot, and others. Before the invention of refrigerated train cars, cowboys were important in the movement of animals. Cowboys were diverse ethnically with white, black, and Mexican men. The job was thought of as exclusively male; however there were some female cowboys. With the mass movement westward, African-Americans looking for jobs and northern workers who had been replaced traveled to the western coast. Whites often destroyed Native American villages and culture. This surge of migration, settlement, and displacement led to land disputes and inter-ethnic conflicts that changed the culture of the American frontier. The romanticism of the West alludes to a male-dominated frontier; however women were vitally important to the creation of settlements across the west.

Thomas Nast

Thomas Nast is known as the Father of American Cartoon for his political cartoons in the late 19th century addressing slavery and crime. Drawing cartoons for Harper's Weekly, he popularized the donkey and elephant that we now know to represent the republican and democratic parties. More importantly, Nast was able to take down William "Boss" Tweed and his so-called "Tweed Ring" by exposing his criminal activity through cartoons. Tweed was so afraid of Nast that he offered a $500,000 bribe, but when Nast turned down this bribe and continued with his exposing cartoons, Tweed fled the country to avoid trouble.

Boss Tweed/Tammany Hall

Boss Tweed was an extremely powerful political and financial figure of the mid 1800s. He was potentially the first influential person that immigrants encountered after arriving in New York at Ellis Island. He would support the immigrants by supplying them with food and jobs in exchange for their votes, allowing Tweed almost full control of elections taking place. He sold and controlled the flow of most of the money in New York, some millions of dollars, was constantly doing favors for others, keeping him well-liked and in power socially, and took advantage of the support of minority groups needing a leader/guidance. He possessed characteristics that somewhat reflected that of a mob boss as well as special interest. Despite maintaining a constant flow of immigrant/New York citizens for support through techniques that often times involved bribery, theft, or pressure, Boss Tweed managed to serve as a leader of the Tammany Hall - the political organization that aided these incoming immigrants, especially the great number of Irish that arrived in the US. Tweed exerted his power as a persuasive, promising, and influential leader of New York by harnessing the support of immigrants, granting him control over the city and its money.

Chief Joseph (Nez Perce)

Chief Joseph became chief of the Nez Perce tribe after the death of his father in 1871. When the US government discovered gold in Oregon, they were persistent in pursuing the Nez Perce lands in northern Idaho. Seeing their entrance as an intrusion, members of the tribe killed 20 settlers which ultimately led to a mass flee of the tribe into Canada, a 1,700 mile journey. A mere 40 miles shy of Canada, Chief Joseph was forced to surrender to O. O. Howard in 1877. The tribe was then moved to a reservation in Oklahoma. Perhaps his most notorious moment as chief occurred two years after the surrender; Chief Joseph gave a speech in Washington DC to a disguised audience where he condemned the policy of Indian reservations and spoke of his freedom. "Treat all men alike. Give them the same law... Let me be a free man - fight no more forever

Interstate Commerce Commission (1887)

Congress established the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1887 after a series of public outcries against railroad companies' corruption. Most of the protesters were farmers who argued that railroad companies charged farmers too much to transport their goods. The ICC ensured that farmers were charged more fair rates and that railroad companies did not favor any producer over another. The ICC was "the first federal agency intended to regulate economic activity" but it lacked the power to establish fair rates (the ICC only had power to sue railroad companies in court). Therefore, it had little impact on actual railroad practices. Roosevelt later strengthened the ICC with the Hepburn Act in 1906 that allowed to ICC to examine railroad companies' records and set reasonable rates, majorly strengthening the act's influence over the economy. The Interstate Commerce Commission and the Interstate Commerce Act, although they were weak, made a point to American monopolists that the government had the power to regulate the economy in order to protect the public.

Cornelius Vanderbilt and Ships/Railroads

Cornelius Vanderbilt was born in 1794 and made his fortune working with railroad companies and shipping, and he is one of the richest men to have ever lived. He worked as a steamship captain, earning the nickname Commodore, before going into the business in the 1820s as a steamship operator. In the 1860s, he changed his focus to the railroad industry, helping to make shipping more efficient. He was known to be ruthless and extremely competitive, which is no doubt one reason why he was so successful. He founded the New York Central Railroad company and also the Accessory Transit Company. Before his death, he gave the grant to create Vanderbilt University, although he never saw it completed before he died. At his death, he was worth over $100 million.

Coxey's Army

Coxey's Army was a worker rebellion during the Gilded Age led by a businessman named Jacob Coxey in Chicago. This rebellion was in response to the financial depression of the time. The workers marched to Washington D. C. to demand economic relief and had to be disbanded by police. This rebellion was supported by Populist senators, and they worked to create more unemployment relief and protect the protestors. This rebellion and many others are what led to the push for more rights for the unemployed and people in poverty. Because of rebellions like these, the Democratic Party saw a drastic loss of support by voters.

William Jennings Bryan, "Cross of Gold" speech

Democratic presidential candidate, William Jennings Bryan, secured his spot as the democratic nominee after giving a speech that won the hearts of the farmers. Bryan's infamous speech touched on how a city's success revolves around the success of surrounding farms. Bryan also believed in unrestricted minting of silver money and condemned the gold standard: "You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns. You shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold." He thought that by increasing the amount of money circulating in the system that farmers could increase the price of their products and ultimately pay off their debts. Bryan's campaign route was centered around rallying farmers for his support, though he lost the 1896 election to Republican candidate McKinley.

Gold Standard Act, 1900

During McKinley's presidency, Republicans passed the Gold Standard Act in 1900. Prior to the act, there was a political disagreement about the value of gold and silver. When paper money became the currency during the Civil War, there was an even larger debate over which metal to back the paper currency with. Most wanted to use silver because it was more plentiful, but up until the Gold Standard Act, paper currency was backed with both silver and gold (known as bi-metalism). After McKinley passed the act in 1900, gold became the only standard for backing paper currency until the 1930s during the Great Depression.

Edward Bellamy, Looking Backwards

Edward Bellamy's Looking Backwards was one of many popular books during the 1880s that proposed solutions for the unequal distribution of wealth in America during the Gilded Age. Bellamy wrote about Rip Van Winkle, who wakes up in a utopia in the year 2000 where citizens were required to work in an "Industrial Army" controlled by a "Great Trust". Bellamy's idea was to show a world that had both the booming industry of the Gilded Age while maintaining equality. His story inspired nationalist groups to develop, trying to carry out Bellamy's plan.

Eugene V. Debs/Socialist Party

Eugene Victor Debs is the only presidential candidate to have run his campaign while in jail, for he had been considered a labor agitator. He became a socialist in the 1890s due to the depression and organized the American Railway Union, the nation's first industrial labor union, in 1893. Debs hoped to bring Jeffersonian republicanism and Marxism into his ideal Socialist party. During the five times Debs ran for president, the largest amount of popular votes he received was 6%. The Socialist Party did not support America's efforts in WWI and as a result, Debs faced 10 more years in prison after speaking out. Eugene Debs's views on American politics were very "American" though he was very unsuccessful.

Frederick Jackson Turner's Frontier Thesis and closing of the West

Frederick Jackson Turner's Frontier Thesis was created at a meeting of the American Historical Association in 1893. It created an idealized image of the West, stating that the settling of white people in the West was and would be a vital part of America's history. It evoked a sense of nationalism, progression, materialism, and individualism. In the thesis, Turner announced the closing of the West that would take place, finally putting a boundary on an area of land that had always been considered somewhat vast and unknown. Overall, the thesis enforced American expansionism, connected the West to the evolving idea of the American character, and emphasized the importance of the land that would make up America.

Frederick Law Olmstead

Frederick Law Olmstead was a northerner, a journalist, and an architect. He is most famous for his landscape architecture, and is responsible for famous landmarks and parks such as Central Park in NYC, as well as National Parks, gardens, buildings, etc. around the country. Not only a distinguished architect, in the 1850s Olmstead was commissioned by the New York Daily Times (New York Times) to travel through Texas and the rest of the south to investigate the effectiveness and efficiency of slavery. What he found was that slaves were purposefully using "silent sabotage" to break tools, perform tasks slowly, and ultimately disrupting the flow of the work on plantations/farms. He was alarmed at the lack of education, morality, and materials offered in the deep south. Between travels, Olmstead also served as an editor for Putnam's Magazine furthering his experience with written works which would influence his journaling. He was also a leader of the conservation movement, helping to establish and work on Yosemite Valley and other public reserves, utilizing land set aside by Congress for the public for the first time.

George Washington Carver

George Washington Carver was an American agricultural chemist and experimenter who's work revolutionized the Southern agricultural economy. Carver was born into slavery around 1861, shortly before slavery in America was abolished. He went on to receive a Bachelor in Agricultural Science and a Master of Science degree in 1896 from Iowa State Agricultural College. After receiving his master's, Carver moved to Alabama where he was hired by the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute as the director of the Department of Agriculture. Carver's experiments were aimed at improving the work of Southern farmers. For example, Carver urged farmers to plant peanuts and soybeans. A heavy cultivation of cotton had depleted the soil in the South; peanuts and soybeans restored nitrogen to the soil while also providing protein. From his experiments, the South finally decreased its dependence on cotton. Carver died on January 5, 1943 in Tuskegee, AL.

Geronimo

Geronimo was an Apache leader that teamed up with other tribes to fend off Americans who were trying to take their land after the Mexican American war. Geronimo was a very skilled leader, and because of his tactics, he had a large following; however, many refused to formally accept him as a chief. After the Homestead Act, Geronimo taunted the US army leading them on a wild goose chase all over the west coast. The small battles and disputes were on the New Mexico and Arizona territories and were later named the "Apache-American Conflict." He surrendered in 1880 and was captured and kept as a war prisoner in various different cities. Because of Geronimo's success in his chase and his anti-establishment mindset, he ended up being a national hero and even rode in Teddy Roosevelt's inaugural ceremony.

Election of 1892, Grover Cleveland's Second Presidency

Grover Cleveland is the only president in American history to serve two non-consecutive terms, the first in 1884 and the second in 1892. He was also only one of two democrats to be elected president from 1861 to 1933. In the 1892 election, Cleveland's biggest opponent was President Harrison, who had who had beat Cleveland four years earlier in the election of 1888. That year a third party, the Populist Party, also ran with James Weaver as their candidate and James Field as his VP. The election itself was described as being surprisingly civil and quiet. This was because Harrison's wife was dying of tuberculosis, and her death a few weeks before the election led Election Day to be a somber event for the entire country and candidates. Cleveland won the election by both the popular and electoral college votes. Soon after he became president, the Panic of 1893 struck the stock market. It did not help that there was a shortage of gold because of the increased coinage of silver. The issues were eventually resolved resulting in the end of silver as a basis for American currency. His next act was to rid the country of the McKinley Tariff. Another issue during his second presidency was the Pullman Strike, which Cleveland had to send troops to in order to calm the strikers. Most people in the government and even newspapers supported his actions, but the use of the troops made the unionists harden their views towards him.

Helen Hunt Jackson

Helen Hunt Jackson, born 1830, was an American writer and Native American activist. She became invested in activism when she noticed the treatment of Native Americans by the United States government. Jackson was also influenced by hearing a lecture in Boston by Chief Standing Bear of the Ponca tribe. The speech he delivered described his tribe being moved from other land to terrible lands with harsh climate, disease, and poor supplies. Several of her novels dramatized the mistreatment of the natives in Southern California following the Mexican-American war. Her novels were printed under a fake name, due to the fact that they would not sell if she was known to be a woman. In the late 1800s, Jackson traveled to study the Mission Indians of California. She proceeded to write a report on the lives of the natives. Helen Jackson is remembered for being blunt and straight to the point, but affective.

Henry George, Progress and Poverty

Henry George began as an anti-slavery journalist. His best-seller, Progress and Poverty, urged the government to take action against the land monopoly. Believing that all men deserve and equal chance to achieve economic independence, he proposed ways to fix the unequal distribution of wealth throughout the nation. He was an advocate for social harmony and freedom. George proposed the "single-tax," which would replace other taxes with a levy on increasing the value of real estate. His goal was to make the tax make land available to businessmen seeking to become farmers. He spoke around the nation, inspiring people to advocate for economic equality.

Henry Grady

Henry Grady, 1850-1889, was a journalist who pushed for industrialization in the South, and he helped realign the confederate states with the Union after the Civil War. He worked for many different magazines and newspapers, such as the New York Herald. He pushed for the idea of a "New South" that focused on industry and prosperity, while the "Old South" had built its foundation in agriculture and slavery. He was also known as an orator who promoted a hopeful future for the south during the Reconstruction Era.

U.S. v. E.C. Knight Co. (1895)

In 1895, the Supreme Court interpreted the Sherman Antitrust Act, issued in 1890. Originally, the act was created to limit the growth of a corporate monopoly. The act stated that any person who attempted to monopolize trade was considered a felon. The case involved the American Sugar Refining Company, which had purchased four separate sugar refineries. This purchase increased its control to 98%. The United States responded by accusing the ASRC of violating the Sherman Act. In an 8-1 decision, the court ruled that the government lacked the power under the Constitution to enforce the Sherman Act against a company's manufacturing. The Constitution states that Congress has the power to regulate trade but not manufacturing. In an attempt to reconcile Congress's power, the Commerce Clause was issued. However, this clause only permitted federal regulation of buying, selling, and transporting goods between states. This proved to be an obstacle to the New Deal reforms put in place during the Great Depression and was overturned by the late 1930s.

Election of 1896 and McKinley's Presidency

In 1896, the economy was the center of political turmoil in the United States. The republicans, represented by William McKinley, wanted to keep gold as the main form of currency, but William Bryan and the Democrats wanted to move towards a more cash based system. This race is often referred to as the first modern election. Political machines churned out pamphlets, posters, and campaign buttons in order to sway voters. Eastern banks and industrialists poured money into McKinley's campaign, raising $10 million. The candidates also attempted to connect with their constituents. McKinley would give speeches from his front porch. In the end, Bryan received votes from the South and West while McKinley swept the Northeast and Midwest.

International Workers of the World

In 1905, extremists against the policies of the American Federation of Labor met in Chicago to form the International Workers of the World. IWW formed under a mutual interest in uniting the United States working class, and they nicknamed themselves "Wobblies". Their motto was, "an injury to one is an injury to all." IWW differed from other union organizations of its time because its leaders believed that a union should include all people of a certain social class instead of a certain trade. IWW also stood out because it included immigrants, people of all races, and women.

Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act

In 1913, Congress created the Federal Reserve System, which was a set of twelve banks overseen by a central board which could issue currency, help failing banks, and influence interest rates for economic growth. This law couldn't be passed until after the Panic of 1907 when several financial companies failed and the banking system nearly collapsed. In 1914, The Federal Trade Commission was created by President Woodrow Wilson. The FTC was meant to "investigate and prohibit "unfair" business activities" (Foner 618), like price-fixing and monopolies. Both the FTC and the Federal Reserve System show the growth of the federal government's role in the economy during this time.

Great Railroad Strike 1877

In Pittsburgh in 1877, a group of workers blocked off railroads while protesting a recent pay cut. Federal troops were in the north already because Hayes ordered them out of the south. After trying to reconvene on the protest, they ended up shooting 20 people. The protesters fired back by burning all of the city's railroads which caused millions of dollars of damage. This was important because it showed "both a strong sense of solidarity among workers and the close ties between the Republican party and the new class of industrialists."

Wabash v. Illinois (1886)

In Wabash (Railroad) v. Illinois, the ruling of the US Supreme Court completely reversed the outcome of Munn v. Illinois (1877), which had granted the state government's power over the federal government for the state to control its own laws and regulations concerning labor. In Wabash v. Illinois, the Court denied the state's ability to regulate interstate commerce, and gave the power to the federal government. It also, in addition to Munn v. Illinois (1877), led to the formation of the ICC or Interstate Commerce Commission. The ruling was important in that it showed another example of the Supreme Court handling legal issues involving labor regulations, in this case favoring the federal government.

Bridges and Skyscrapers -- Urbanization and population growth 1860-1910

In addition to the advancements railroads through steel, it also resulted in the building of skyscrapers, creating the image of a city that most people think of today. As the population grew through immigration, certain areas became urbanized and were flooded with people who needed places to live and work. The population of New York nearly tripled between 1860 and 1900, causing a major demand for buildings or bridges that would allow so many people to live and move around within the city. The Brooklyn Bridge, completed in 1883, provided a convenient mode of transportation between New York City and Brooklyn, specifically when the Brooklyn River froze over and caused more interruption in daily life.

Social Gospel Movement

In response to Social Darwinism/ Survival of the Fittest mentality, the Social Gospel Movement connected good works and salvation. They blamed the wage gap on democratic corruption and greed. While before, people had seen wealth as "God-ordained," with this movement, ministers began encouraging Christians to forget about their earthly desires and help the needy. Ministers argued that Jesus was not wealthy, and he surrounded himself with the lower classes. This movement led to many reforms, such as settlement housing for the poor, which also included education and low-cost health care.

Knights of Labor and Dept. of Labor

In the 1880s, labor unions became very popular. One of the most successful was called the Knights of Labor, which 800,000 people had joined by 1886. In this year, the labor movement exploded, and the Knights of Labor became even more popular. The group was originally made of nine tailors led by Uriah S. Stephens. Unlike other unions, the Knights of Labor sought to unite skilled and unskilled laborers as well as blacks and women. The group fought for an eight-hour work day, end of child labor, and many other worker-benefitting reformations. When the group failed to win strikes such as the Haymarket Square Riot, however, the ideas of the Knights of Labor began to be considered too "radical". The Department of Labor started in 1884 with the Bureau of Labor Act to collect data on the economy of the working class. This department eventually helped with workers' rights.

Election of 1880, Garfield Assassination/Arthur

In the Election of 1880, James Garfield and Winfield Hancock split the popular vote almost evenly, but Garfield won the electoral college by a lot, making him the twentieth president of the United States. Less than four months into his presidential term, Garfield was assassinated by Charles Guiteau, the second of four presidents to be shot and killed.Garfield's vice president, Chester Arthur took over and was president until 1885.

John D. Rockefeller and Standard Oil

John D. Rockefeller was an embodiment of the American dream, for he rose through the ranks of being a clerk to dominating the oil industry. He began his rise to wealth with "horizontal" expansion where he would buy out competing oil companies. Rockefeller then fixed prices and production quotas across the industry, enabling him to establish a monopoly. By the 1880s, his Standard Oil Company controlled 90% of the drilling, refining, storage, and distribution of oil. Rockefeller, like Carnegie, gave away much of his wealth and created foundations that supported education and medical research.

Captains of Industry or Robber Barons (concept, examples, and other men besides big five)

Largely because of the lack of personal or corporate incomes taxes, many business leaders were able to gain large fortunes and create economic empires. Depending on what class a person was in, the leaders of the businesses were either called captains of industry, whose business was pushing the economy forwards towards the future, or robber barons, who acted as dictators within their businesses and had no regard for the wellbeing of their workers. Most of these CEOs came from modest backgrounds and encapsulated the American Dream. Many feared them, for they typically used repressive labor policies and exercised their power without any regulation by the government. Examples of these leaders include Carnegie with his steel factories, Thomas A. Scott from the Pennsylvania Railroad, and Rockefeller from Standard Oil.

Ellis Island, Angel Island

Located in the Upper New York Bay, Ellis Island served as the principal immigration reception center from 1892 to 1924. Before this, however, it was owned by Samuel Ellis, a Manhattan merchant during the 1770s. In the early 1800s, New York sold the island to the U.S. government who turned it into a major immigration station. Here, an estimated 17 million immigrants passed through the island where they were processed and given official permission to enter the country. The immigration station was moved to New York City in the 1940s, so the island became a detention center until the 1960s when it was added to the jurisdiction of the Statue of Liberty (essentially making it part of the monument). From 1910-1940, Angel Island in the San Francisco Bay served as the immigration station for immigrants in the West such as Australians, Canadians, Mexicans, South Americans, Russians, New Zealanders, and Asians. While the immigrants on Ellis Island were given a warm welcome, immigrants in San Francisco were typically met with racism and long processing procedures. Upon their arrival in San Francisco, European or wealthy passengers were immediately processed and given permission to enter America. However, other nationalities were typically sent to Angel Island for further processing. This was due to the sharp racism in America during this period that arose when the economy slumped, causing Americans to blame certain ethnic groups.

Lochner v. New York; Muller v. Oregon

Lochner v. New York was a case fought in 1905 that overturned a law created by New York that established ten hours per day or sixty per week as the maximum hours of work for baker. It was argued that the law interfered with the right of contract between employer and employee and violated individual freedom. The word "Lochnerism" came from this trial and became a way to describe the liberty of contract decisions. Muller v. Oregon was a landmark case in 1908 that dealt with how to treat women in factories. It was argued that because women had less strength and endurance than men, longer hours of labor were dangerous for women. Also, because women bear children, the government took special interest in their care, so the Supreme Court unanimously agreed to allow Oregon to set a maximum working hours for women. Some women appreciated this new law while other saw it as a violation of their freedom.

Munn v. Illinois (1877)

Munn v. Illinois was a US Supreme Court Case ruling that took place in 1877. The ruling continued to uphold a Granger law (a previous law supported in Illinois) which would give the state of Illinois the ability to maintain and regulate grain elevators as well as eliminate "railroad rate discrimination and set maximum charges". At this point in time, the Supreme Court would support this ruling declaring that states had the right and could efficiently set restraints on working conditions and regulations, only to reverse it in another case, Wabash v. Illinois, 9 years later. This ruling, of Munn v. Illinois favored state government over the federal government's rule and was important in that it impacted the lives of common laborers.

Lusitania and German U-Boats; Zimmerman Note, U.S. enters WWI

Once war officially broke out between England in Germany in 1914, Woodrow Wilson declared that America would stay neutral; however, Germany and England made this difficult. England began blocking on imports from the Americas to Germany. In response, the Germans sunk the Lusitania which was a British Liner. This sinking killed 1,198 people, including some Americans. This incident fired up the Public, and the support from those who thought the US should intervene in the war strengthened. Roosevelt decided to prepare American in case of entry by issuing a policy of "Preparedness". Once the war was in full swing, in 1917, British troops decoded the "Zimmerman Note" by German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman which said that Germany would help Mexico take back its land that it lost in the Mexican War if they aided the attack against America. These two events were big reasons in why America joined the fight for Democracy in World War I.

Little Big Horn/General Custer

One of the greatest defeats by an Indian tribe during this time period was by Sitting Bull in June 1876 at Little Big Horn and Crazy Horse. Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse with the help of the Sioux and Cheyenne warriors defeated General Custer. This battle was to defend native territory in the Black Hills of the Dakota Territory. This land had been reserved for them by an 1868 treaty that was supposed last for "as long as the grass shall grow,". These warriors killed George Custer and every one of the 250 men he brought with him. This was one of the last victories enjoyed by an Indian tribe as the demand for gold and land in the West by the white people continued to go.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896); Jim Crow laws

Plessy v. Ferguson was a defining for the 14th Amendment. In Louisiana 1896, the court decided that state laws required separate facilities for whites and blacks. This was a result of a law in Louisiana that required railroad companies to have separate cars for black passengers. This further plays into the idea of "separate but equal". The Citizens Committee was created by black citizens to challenge the new law. This law about the train car plays into the Jim Crow laws. Jim crow laws were local laws that enforced and regulated segregation in the South. These laws were a loophole in "separate but equal". Both races would have the same items, such as bathrooms, but the African American bathrooms would mostly likely be worse than the white bathrooms.

Pragmatism, William James, and John Dewey

Pragmatism is a philosophical movement which began in the 1870s. The movement, lead by William James and John Dewey, focused on putting logic above feelings. They preached that thought and ideas should be used in sophisticated ways to help solve problems and better the world. Workability and Innovation were the key components. It was believed by Dewey and James that ideas were nothing more than the plans for action. Pragmatism was truly a philosophy that reflected its time, when everything in the United States was focused on innovation and expansion.

Robert "Fighting Bob" La Follete

Robert "Fighting Bob" La Follete was the leader of the Progressive Movement, a Wisconsin governor, and a US Senator. He convinced legislature to put a property tax on railroads. He developed the "Seamen's Act" (1915), giving merchant marines labor rights similar to the rights of factory workers. La Follete openly opposed the power of big businesses over the government. He fought strongly for labor rights. He was beaten for the Republican nomination by Theodore Roosevelt.

Eugenics; Social Darwinism

Social Darwinism is an idea that emerged in the United States and Western Europe in the 1870s. Its basic concept is the idea of survival of the fittest. Social Darwinists used this concept to explain why some people are wealthy while others are poor. The wealthy, they believed, were simply stronger and had greater determination than those who were poor, and that is why they were able to achieve great success. Eugenics is a set of beliefs geared towards racial superiority and became popular in the early 1900s. People would use biometric tests to prove which race was better adapted to what in order to form a racial hierarchy. Tests were performed on all ethnic groups and ranged from head size to athletic abilities. Eugenics eventually died out, especially once it began being associated with Hitler and the Nazis.

Teddy Roosevelt and the Square Deal

Teddy Roosevelt emerged as a war hero after the Spanish-American war. It is ironic, however, because his regiment did not do most of the fighting during the war for which he is most famous. His Calvary was called the "Rough Riders" which was composed of white, black, and native men, but the black men and natives were sectioned off into a different regiment. People loved Teddy Roosevelt because they saw him as a true American cowboy. The Rough Riders' most notorious battle was at San Juan. The black and natives regiment had almost finished the battle, and Roosevelt came in with his men to finish it off. Even though his regiment hardly fought, Roosevelt still got all of the credit. After his rise to fame, he was place on McKinley's presidential ballot at VP. McKinley dies within a few month, and Roosevelt became the youngest US president. As president, he was half-democrat and half-republican. The best way to characterize this is through the New Deal. It was a plan to reserve natural resources and help the working class avoid bad "trusts." Roosevelt also helped implement Big Stick Diplomacy and finished the Panama Canal.

Teddy Roosevelt and the Rough Riders

Teddy Roosevelt was the 26th president of the United States and served as president from 1901 to 1909. He was the leader of the Republican party and an avid supporter of the Progressive movement. Roosevelt gained his popularity during the Spanish American War at the battle of San Juan Hill with his Rough Riders, the only regiment of three, created specifically for the war with Spain, to see action since the conflict lasted only months.

Terrence Powderly

Terence Powderly, born in 1849, was an American labour leader and politician during the late 1800s and early 1900s. His family left Ireland for America while he was a kid, settling down in Pennsylvania. His union career began in 1871 when he joined the Machinists' and Blacksmiths' Union. In 1874 he joined the Knights of Labour, a secret organization, and rose to the top ranks. He was promoted to the Union's highest post, grand master workman, in 1870, and was elected mayor of Scranton, PA in 1878 as part of the Greenback-Labor Party. Powderly viewed the unions as devices to improve the current wage labor standards. The Knights of Labor flourished under his leadership until the late 1880s when public scrutiny overwhelmed the group. Powderly resigned in 1893 and went on to practice law, business, and serve in certain political posts. Shortly after he resigned, powderly published his book, Thirty Years of Labor, in 1889. He died on June 24, 1924 in Washington, D.C.

New South

The "New South" was a plan for salvaging the economy in the south after the Civil War and, more specifically, life without slaves. It encouraged "prosperity based on industrial expansion and agricultural diversification" (Foner 517)**. Even so, plantations suffered without slaves despite the increase in wage workers and sharecropping. As a result, industry hardly advanced, and the South continued to depend on the North for capital and manufactured products. Ultimately, the "New South" was a failure in that the region did not find nearly as much success in reconstruction as the North in industry nor was it able to hold on to its plantation based economy.

"Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion", Election of 1884, and Grover Cleveland's First Presidency

The 1884 election brought a Democrat, Grover Cleveland, to the presidency for the first time in over 25 years. Cleveland ran against James Blaine, who served in both the House and the Senate for the state of Maine. During the election, Blaine went to a Protestant church where the minister gave a sermon criticizing the Democratic party for being rooted in "rum, romanticism, and rebellion." It was discovered that Blaine was in attendance and put into many newspapers and journals. This cost Blaine the presidency. Cleveland's first term as president included many important events, such as the dedication of the Statue of Liberty in 1886; the creation of the ICC (Interstate Commerce Commission) to make railroad policies uniform; the Dawes Act, which split up Native American land into individual plots; and the Chinese Exclusion Act.

Workers Compensation Act, Adamson Act

The Adamson act and Workers compensation Act were established by Wilson in the 1910s as he moved to aggressively assert his version of Progressivism into American Laws. The Adamson act established an 8 hour workday on the nation's railroads. The Worker's compensation Act was a kind of insurance that helped workers who became disabled on the job. Both these acts helped workers overcome some of the horrific living conditions that had plagued the gilded age factory workers.

Early Labor Movement: Formation of the AFL

The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was founded on December 8, 1886 as a national federation of labor unions in the United States. Samuel Gompers was elected the president of the organization at its founding and served every year but one until his death in 1924. He did not want a radical restructuring of America, for he was in favor of keeping things simple. Under his leadership, the AFL mainly sought higher wages and better working conditions. The AFL also was not against calling for a strike, and even offered relief for their members when involved in a work stoppage. It eventually merged with its rival the Congress of Industrial Organizations to form AFL-CIO.

Battle of Wounded Knee (last armed resistance)

The Battle at Wounded Knee was the last armed attack of white settlers on the native population. This battle was a response to the Ghost Dance movement in native society, where natives spoke of days to come when white people would no longer encroach on their rights. Americans saw this movement as a threat, and they feared an uprising, so in 1890 they opened fire on Ghost Dancers at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. Nearly 200 natives were killed, most of which were women and children.

New innovations -- refrigerated cars and Bessemer process

The Bessemer Process, created by Henry Bessemer and William Kelly in 1856, created a system for producing steel by taking iron, expanding it, and adding oxygen. Andrew Carnegie would later make steel his method for making billions of dollars with the Carnegie Steel Company. Steel, which was much stronger than iron ore, began to be produced and used on a large scale during the Reconstruction Era, and was extremely important for new innovations including railroad lines and skyscrapers.These steel made railroad tracks created a transcontinental travel system and shipping across the country. Refrigerated railroad cars allowed for a new network of food trade, specifically with meats, dairy, and produce. The refrigerated car marked the end to the need of cowboys.

D.W. Griffith's Birth of a Nation

The Birth of a Nation was a silent film directed by D.W. Griffith in 1915. The film followed the lives of and relationship between two families in reconstruction era America. The Stonemans were pro-Union and the Camerons were pro-Confederacy. The film romanticised racism, showing black-men as unintelligent and aggressive while showing the Klu Klux Klan. Many Black Americans chose to boycott the film, but president Woodrow Wilson still allowed it to be shown in the White House. Birth of a Nation is credited with inspiring the rebirth of the Klan. The film was used to recruit new members. Today, Birth of a Nation is recognized as a historically significant film by the National Film Registry.

Bureau of Indian Affairs (Assimilationist Policy)

The Bureau of Indian Affairs was created in 1824 by Monroe's Secretary of War, John C Calhoun. During the Gilded Age, the main purpose of the Indian Bureau was to encourage assimilation in Native youth. The Indian Bureau funded boarding schools where Natives could receive a European-style education. The children were discouraged from speaking in their Native languages or practicing any religion other than christianity. Many of the children were asked to change their names. After they graduated from these schools, the Natives either went back to their reservations or attempted to integrate into the "civilized" workforce. Unfortunately, racism still posed a problem for the natives, no matter how well educated they were. Many of them struggled to find jobs, leaving them with nowhere to go but the reservations where they had become outcasts.

Committee on Public Information (CPI) and George Creel

The CPI was created to influence public opinion during WW1. George Creel was chosen by Wilson to be the leader of this group. Creel was a muckraker from Missouri. Artists donated their time and artwork to this cause to help stir patriotic fervor for the war. The result of this group's efforts can be seen as patriotic images that are still linked to the memories of WW1 today.

Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)

The Chinese Exclusion Act was passed in 1882 by President Arthur and prohibited all Chinese laborers from entering the United States. This law was the first of its kind to prevent a certain ethnic or racial group from entering the United States, and was not repealed until 1943. A widespread dislike of the Chinese swept through America, and specifically California, as Chinese laborers took jobs from white immigrants for cheaper wages. When the act was repealed, it did not remove all restrictions on Chinese and removed no restrictions on other Asian immigration, but did allow one hundred and five immigrants a year and was the first step towards re-opening America's immigration to all.

NAACP and the Crisis (newspaper)

The Crisis was a newspaper founded by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, or NAACP. It was founded by W. E. B. Du Bois in 1910 and became one of the most prevalent journals about race in the country. At its peak, the circulation was about 100,000 copies across the country. The Crisis reported on race relations between blacks and whites, the dangers of racial prejudice, and more. Each month, it published accounts about African American achievements and did its work to correct racial stereotypes that had been ingrained in the minds of the American people. It addressed other topics too that pertained to blacks in America such as education, women's rights, labor, and the war. This association and this newspaper brought much-needed attention to the topic of race relations in America and beyond.

New States added 1865-1900

The Dawes Act of 1887, Homestead Act of 1862, and other political negotiations like these pushed people westward. Nebraska, Colorado, North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Washington, Idaho, and Wyoming were the new western states that were added. The railroads that criss-crossed the Great Plains allowed settlers to move around more freely as they used, and sometimes exploited, the new land. Many Native Americans were forced out of these states, and they were moved to reservations in desert areas defined by poverty. Turner's Frontier Thesis defined the recceeding American frontier as a defining characteristic of America's development as a nation.

Dawes Act (1887)

The Dawes Act was one of the last attempts by the government to negotiate with the natives. In order to "appease" both the natives and the white settlers wanting land in the west, the government broke up all of the Indian land into small sections and sold all of the remaining land to white farmers. In addition, natives were allowed the chance to become American citizens if they "adopted the habits of civilized life", or in essence behaved, dressed, and spoke like Americans. The result of the Dawes Act for the natives was a disaster: native children were forced to attend American schools and adopt the American culture, but in the end these people were neither accepted in the white society nor in their own native society. The Dawes Act had extreme benefits for white settlers, however, as 50,000 whites claimed land in Ohio in the 1890s. In all, this "negotiation" was only beneficial for the white settlers in the west.

Eighteenth and Nineteenth Amendments

The Eighteenth Amendment is known as the "Prohibition Amendment". Passed in 1919, this made the manufacture, sale, and distribution of alcohol illegal. It grew out of a fear that alcohol was ruining the lives of many Americans economically, socially, and politically. Although this was not a new movement, Prohibition gained traction with the arrival of the twentieth century. Women believed prohibition would dramatically decrease domestic abuse, employers hoped it would provide more disciplined workers, and urban reformers claimed it would promote an orderly environment. However, after the amendment went into effect in 1920, alcohol-related problems increased, so it was repealed in 1933. The Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote. After struggling for decades to have their voices be heard, the federal government added the amendment in 1920. The United States was the twenty seventh country to allow women to vote.

Wilson's Fourteen Points, League of Nations

The Fourteen Points, created by Woodrow Wilson, was the document that was used for the peace negotiations ending World War I. They were first heard when President Wilson outlined them in a speech given to the United States Congress on January 8, 1918. Most Europeans welcomed the Fourteen Points but many of the leaders of the Allied forces were unsure his ideas would prove successful. His main points included self-determination, creating the League of Nations, and fair treatment for Germany. The League of Nations was created in January 1920 shortly after Wilson's Fourteen Points were approved. The LN was the first intergovernmental organization that focused on maintaining World Peace. Unfortunately, the United States government would not allow Wilson to ally America with the other nations in the league. Russia and Germany were also not included in the league. Without these countries, three of the most powerful in the world, the League of Nations lasted only 26 years until the United Nations replaced it at the end of WWII, which included all of the major world powers.

Ghost Dance Movement

The Ghost Dance was a religious revitalization campaign that some Indians sought comfort in because it reminded them of earlier movements led by famous prophets in their history. The main message being delivered was that a day would come where the white people disappeared, the buffalo returned, and Indians were able to practice their ancestral customs without fear of misery, death, and disease. These Indians would gather in large groups for days singing, dancing, and participating in religious rituals. The government feared an uprising would come from these movements, so they sent troops to the reservations. on December 29, 1890 soldiers fired on Ghost Dancers gathered near Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota and killed between 150 and 200 Indians, most of which were women and children.

Granger Movement/Granger Laws

The Granger Movement was a group of disenfranchised white farmers who unified in the 1870s against railroad monopolies that threatened their business. During this era, railroad monopolies charged extremely high prices for farmers to transport crops. The movement pushed for the Illinois legislature to pass a bill in 1871 which set the maximum prices that railroad monopolies could charge farmers, a huge success for the movement.It became part of the Populist (Party) movement during this era and nearly won the election of 1896. The movement drove the end of the gilded age; however, it subsided with the growth of the Greenback Labor Movement and was in major decline in the 1880s.

Haymarket Square Riot

The Haymarket Square Riot in 1886 was in response to railroad-financier Jay Gould. The riot was a union uprising which stormed into the Knights of Labor led by Eugene Debs on May 1st. From then on, May 1st has been referred to as May Day and is a celebration for all labor workers. An example of one of the rebellions was by the iron moulders union in Chicago. They created a strike against wage reductions at the McCormick plant for agricultural machinery. The company was forced to make a compromise with with the union, but it soon after purchased new machinery that made the skilled moulders useless and went back to being a nonunion company. On May 3rd, 4 strikers were killed by police brutality leading to a strike against the murderers at Haymarket Square. At this rally, someone threw a bomb into the crowd, killing a police officer. This led to raids of union offices and the arrest of many innocent citizens.

Hepburn Act of 1906

The Hepburn Act of 1906 was a bill that gave more power to the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC). It was named for the Rep. of Iowa, William Hepburn who was the chairman of the House Commerce Commission. The Act was passed after railroad corporations raised their rates heavily due to inflation, which was extremely unpopular with the people. The Hepburn Act allowed the ICC to set maximum, not minimum, rates that were more reasonable. Also, it prevented railroad companies from giving free passes to employees, and also created standard bookkeeping methods. After this Act, the railroad companies were required to submit annual reports to the ICC. This Act was supported by President Roosevelt, who saw it as a great compromise for the Democrats and Republicans.

Homestead Act of 1862

The Homestead Act of 1862, signed and enacted by President Abraham Lincoln, stated that any family of American citizens had the opportunity to claim 160 acres of government land in the west as a farm and space for a home. If the family could better the land by successfully plotting and farming it for 5 years, that land would officially belong to that family. The act gave African-Americans and even women to find success in the west. Although it appeared to open up the possibility of living the American Dream, it eventually became clear to many prospective settlers, specifically those who had no experience farming or even simply surviving the brutal western climate, that being successful there was a nearly impossible feat. In the end, many families ended up declaring bankruptcy or abandoning the land. Despite the unexpected barriers that most families met, the Homestead Act did inspire much of the Eastern population to find success outside of what had become a largely urban area of America.

Andrew Carnegie and US Steel

Andrew Carnegie was born in 1835 and lived to be the 4th richest man in history so far. Andrew Carnegie made his money in the US Steel business by creating a monopoly by using vertical integration. In his prime, Carnegie Steel dominated the world's market for steel and was able to offer it at a low cost because it controlled so many aspects of it. By 1900, Carnegie profited $25,000,000 without inflation. Though he was a rich man, he was an active philanthropist seeking way to give his money away in order to better the community. Though he was generous, he ruled his factories with "an iron fist" and had them going 24 hours a day in 12 hour shifts. The only holiday his workers got off was the 4th of July. Carnegie's company was started during the reconstruction period after the Civil War. This is a key factor into why his business was such a success seeing as how steel was essential to building railroads and structurally sound buildings.

Bi-metallism, Goldbugs, Greenbacks, and Silverites

Bi-metallism is the use of metals such as gold and silver in a monetary fashion at a fixed rate. In the economic case of the United States, Republicans supported high tariffs which would protect the American industry, but the Democrats were opposed to this because they supported large bankers and companies in New York. Republicans wanted a plan the reduced government spending and would make payments towards the national debt. Republicans additionally wanted to withdraw the paper money, or greenbacks, that had begun its use by the Union during the Civil War. Eventually, in 1879, for the first time since the Civil War, America went back to the gold standard. Paper money could now be exchangeable for ounces of gold at a fixed rate. By 1896, though, the use of gold in this manner became challenged by Democrats and presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan. They claimed that by allowing money to buy ounces of silver, more money would be put into the economy, and this would increase the prices that farmers would receive for their goods, thus making it easier to pay off their farming debts. This issue ended up playing a large role in the 1896 election. Those who supported the addition of silver and Bryan's campaign were called Silveries and those who agreed with the Republican view of only allowing gold were called Goldbugs

Atlanta Compromise (Washington)

Booker T. Washington was born a slave in 1856. He became educated and the head of an Institute in Atlanta that was dedicated to preparing and educating others in preparation of a job. He strongly believed that that the best way for blacks to integrate into society would be to work for skills that would make them qualified for higher-level jobs rather than to immediately fight for political and economic equality. At the Atlanta Exposition in 1895, He carried out a speech known as the Atlanta Compromise in which he stated that blacks should try not to fight segregation but rather build up their communities and display loyalty and be dependable/trustworthy towards their white employers. His ideas were supported by the black communities, wealthy white employers, and black politicians.This speech made an impact as it came from the most prominent black leader of the late 1800s and was conveyed to the Cotton States and International Exposition.

Booker T. Washington, Tuskegee Institute

Booker T. Washington was born in 1856 and was emancipated as a young boy. He studied at the Hampton Institute in Virginia where he would gather the basis for his Hampton Model: the idea that blacks do not need to assert their social and political rights but rather focus on improving their conditions through skilled labor. The Hampton Model is also called the Tuskegee Model or the Industrial Model. Washington's most important speech was titled the "Atlanta Compromise Speech," given in 1895 following the death of Frederick Douglass.

Jane Addams/Hull House

Jane Addams was one of the most well known female figures of the Progressive Era. Addams helped found the Women's Peace Party and the American Civil Liberties Union. She helped found Hull House with Ellen Gates Starr in 1889, a settlement house in West Chicago open to European immigrants. Addams received a Nobel Peace Prize in 1931, the first American woman to receive this award.

Election of 1908 and Howard Taft's Presidency

Howard Taft was the governor of the Philippines in 1901, later becoming the President of the United States in 1909. While in office in the Philippines, he made it a goal for the Filipinos to understand what Anglo-Saxon liberty was. He brought in American authorities to begin economic modernization. The island's borders were expanded and railroads were built. Becoming President in 1909, after being the chosen successor to Roosevelt, Taft furthered the idea of the Anti-Trust Policy. In 1911, Taft persuaded the Supreme Court to declare John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company in violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. What surprises many about his presidency is the fact that he evolved into a more conservative man as his term continued.

The History of Standard Oil by Ida Tarbell

Ida Tarbell's link to the time period is mostly due to her novel series The History of Standard Oil (1904) which is an example of "Muckraking". Muckraking is the type of writing used during this time to create change and draw the public's attention to issues in their community, mainly about working conditions. Tarbell's books reveal the corruption behind Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company. She was hired by McClure's Magazine (a very popular Muckraker magazine) to write these books. Some other issues brought to the public's attention through McClure's are child labor, political corruption, and working conditions. People like Tarbell led to a lot of social change for the workers.

Ida Wells Barnett

Ida Wels Barnett called international attention to the lynching of blacks in the south during the 1890s. She was a leader of the anti-lynching crusade in both the south and in Chicago. She was an African American Journalist and one of the founders of the NAACP. Her parents were slaves, and she was born in Mississippi. She was an excellent example of a influential black woman during this period.

Roosevelt, John Muir, Conservation, and Antiquities Act

It is often joked that the most influential camping trip in history occurred with John Muir and President Roosevelt. During this three-night endeavor, Muir convinced Roosevelt to protect Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove as a part of Yosemite National Park. The impact of this trip was very evident on President Roosevelt, for he later created five national parks and used the Antiquities Act to create 18 national monuments (including the Grand Canyon), 51 federal bird sancuaries, four national game refuges, and over 100 million acres' of national forests. The relationship between Roosevelt and Muir ultimately helped conserve a majority of today's natural landmarks.

J. Pierpont Morgan and banking

J. Pierpont Morgan, or J.P. Morgan, was one of the richest men during the time of the Second Industrial Revolution. His fortune came during the Civil War when he supplied beef to the Union Army. He financed the U.S. Steel Company in 1901, which combined eight large steel companies into the first billion-dollar economic enterprise. It is said that Morgan's firm controlled around 40% of all financial capital in the United States. This includes 40% of industry. His Northern Security Company owned the stock and directed the business of three of the major railroads of the West. This company created a monopoly of transportation between the Great Lakes and the Pacific Ocean. Morgan's power stemmed from the fact that the federal government lacked a central bank. The funds necessary to assist financial institutions were left for Morgan to decide. This exemplifies the fact that the power of the entire economy rested in the private hands of its elites.

How the Other Half Lives by Jacob Riis

Jacob Riis wrote How the Other Half Lives in 1890 and in it described a shocking account of the living conditions of the urban poor. The photojournalism also included photographs of apartments in dark, airless, overcrowded tenement houses. It allowed the middle and upper class to truly see the terrible conditions the poor lived in, which most of these families were not aware of.

Margaret Sanger, birth control movement

Margaret Sanger was a feminist of the early 1900s. By 1914, Sanger had created her own public journal, which openly advised birth-control to women. She preached that women had complete control of their bodies. In 1916, Sanger opened a clinic that distributed birth-control products. She spent a month in prison for this action. She was in complete favor of the idea of women's liberation.

Tariffs: McKinley Tariff (1890) and Wilson-Gorman Tariff (1894)

Prior to his presidency, Republican William Mckinley, a member of the House of Representatives, proposed the McKinley Tariff in 1890. Being a tax on foreign goods, it encouraged growth of U.S. industries and gained support from business owners. However, the tariff in turn allowed prices on American goods to increase, raising opposition from most U.S. consumers. The Wilson-Gorman Tariff was originally created by President Cleveland and Congressman William Wilson to lower tariff rates; regardless, along with others, Senator Pue Gorman dramatically revised the act to make it raise tariffs. These tariffs represent the debate that went on during the second Industrial Revolution among producers and consumers over how best to create a successful U.S. economy.

Lincoln Steffens, The Shame of the Cities

Published in 1904, The Shame of Cities is a collection of expose articles about political machines in the most populated US cities. Lincoln Steffen wrote for McClure's Magazine, and this type of journalism is considered "muckraking journalism" because of its investigative nature into the inner workings of big business. Steffens blamed big businessmen for their corruption, but he also focused on the leniency of the American people with such corruption. He argued that the everyday Americans who let the political and economic corruption continue were just as bad as the businessmen themselves. He discussed themes such as bribery, fraud, and democracy, and attacked different powerful people, such as Tweed, and the different mayors of Chicago, Pittsburgh, and New York.

Alvin "Sergeant" York and Conscientious Objector

Sergeant York was one of the most famous soldiers of the US Army during World War I. He was part of the Church of Christ in Christian Union, which was against war, so when he was drafted he was urged to ask for conscientious objector status. If a soldier claims conscientious objector status, it means he has claimed the right to refuse to perform in military service. He was rejected because the Church of Christ in Christian Union was not actually considered a Christian sect. Although reluctant at first, Sergeant York went on to be a war hero for his bravery in battles.

Sitting Bull

Sitting Bull was the chief under whom the Sioux tribes united to fight back against the American government's attempts to continue moving westward and take Indian lands promised to them in 1868 "for as long as the grass shall grow". In 1876, he lead the last Indian victory at the battle of Little Bighorn, also known as Custer's Last Stand. In this battle, General Custer over confidently brought only 250 men to battle, and the Indians, led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse (Cheyenne leader), slaughtered every one. After several years, Sitting Bull was forced onto a reservation, then joined Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show. He was shot and killed in 1890 by the American government who feared he would lead another rebellion. He is important because of his strong resistance to the American's taming of the west and because of his vital role in the last Indian victory in battle.

Meat Inspection Act 1906

The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 was one of the many effects of the writing by Muckrakers during this time period. In particular, Upton Sinclair's The Jungle (1906) exposed the slaughterhouse conditions and rotten meat that was being sold to the public. For example, rats were found crawling on the meat and leaving excrements behind while skin, hair, stomach, and nose were ground up into head cheese. The Meat Inspection Act ensured that all meat was inspected to keep from poisoning the public. The Pure Food and Drug Act went allowed with the Meat Inspection Act also. Many were disappointed, however, that Sinclair's book didn't lead to any labor change, only quality of product.

Pancho Villa and the Mexican Revolution of 1910

The Mexican Revolution was an uprising in Mexico from 1910-1920. After President Diaz was kicked out of office, it was a time of political uneasiness. Originally, the fight was between Diaz and the people; however, after a little while, it turned into a multiple-sided, full scale Civil War. Pancho Villa emerged as a major hero during this war. He ended up being the governor to the Mexican state Chihuahua.

Bull Moose (Progressive) Party and "New Nationalism"

The Progressive Party was not an official party until 1912, but it's influence was clearly evident before then. The party is often associated with a movement rather than a political party. The Progressive Party was united under the common belief that the laissez faire, Social Darwinist outlook of the Gilded Age was wrong, for they believed that the people and government had the power to right these wrongs that were a cause of nature and the free market. New Nationalism emerged as part of the Party's movement. It was designed to restore the liberty of the oppressed with the government's power. He believed this could be achieved through heavy taxes, specifically placed on personal and corporate fortunes, and through the federal regulation of industries, such as railroads, mining, and oil.

Women's Suffrage Movement, NAWSA

The NAWSA or National American Woman Suffrage Association was created in 1890 by its president Carrie Chapman Catt. The organization was formed in order to push suffrage for native born white women. By 1917, there were over 2 million supporters/ members of the organization. Women now had rights and control over their finances and had the ability to work outside the home. With these new freedoms, women now wanted the ability to vote. Their argument was that by giving women the right to vote would help outnumber the votes of the uneducated white men but also that of black men. By 1900, some states allowed women to vote in local elections about schools, and states Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, and Utah gave women suffrage rights. In 1913, Illinois became the first state to give women the right to vote in the presidential election.

Navajo "Long Walk"

The Navajo Long Walk took place in 1865. This journey is a parallel to the Cherokee's Trail of Tears. During the end the Civil War, the Union Army set off to move the Navajo tribe in the Southwest off their lands. The army destroyed Navajo orchards, livestock, and forced about 8,000 tribe members to move to a government reservation. However, the Navajo were eventually allowed to leave the reservation and move back to a small portion of their original lands.

Niagara Movement

The Niagara Movement was led by a man named W. E. B DuBois. In 1905, DuBois and 30 other men met in Niagara Falls and basically drafted requests to the US government that they end all forms of segregation and discrimination. They were dismissed by most white people; however, most educated African Americans supported the movement. The main members of this movement later formed the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and continually fought for equality. They mainly feared that African Americans had accepted their second-class place in society. DuBois died in Ghana just before Martin Luther King Jr. led the Civil Rights Movement.

Panic of 1893

The Panic of 1893 was an economic depression that began, unsurprisingly, in 1893. It was the worst depression of the nineteenth century. The panic was caused by the economic failure of railroads, over-speculation on Wall Street, and low agricultural prices. This depression was so important due to the political changes that came out of it: first, it led to "increased conflict between capital and labor" which expanded the Populist Party vote; second, many began to think that the solution to the panic was to expand American exports, which then led to American imperialism in parts of Latin America and Southeast Asia (Foner 552).

Paris Peace Conference and Treaty of Versailles

The Paris Peace Conference was held at the end of World War I in order for Allied Victors to discuss peace terms. The main players were the Prime Minister David George Lloyd (United Kingdom), President Woodrow Wilson (United States), Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau (France), Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando (Italy). Many topics, including prisoners of war, international aviation, and war responsibility, were discussed during the Conference's 1,600 sessions. The Treaty of Versailles was one of the many peace treaties written during the Conference. The Treaty ended the war with Germany, but it also forced Germany to take full responsibility for the war. The War Guilt Clause of the Treaty forced Germany to completely disarm, give up a significant amount of land, and pay for the damages cause by the war. Many blame the Treaty of Versailles and the exclusion of Germany in the process of the Paris Peace Conference for building enough tension to start World War II.

Populist Movement (and Party); Omaha Platform, 1892

The Populist Movement is also known as the People's Party, made up of farmers. During the 1890s, the party came to be due to an attempt to protect the government from monopolizing corporations, who held the most power. In the South, sharecropping placed many farmers into poverty. India, Egypt, and Brazil were all becoming huge cotton industries, causing an influx of cotton. The prices of cotton declined rapidly. Farmers were beginning to blame their poverty on the fact that railroad prices were taking over. The Populist Party published pamphlets on political and economic questions. These questions were furthered into a document called the Populist Platform. The document was adopted at the Omaha Convention in 1892. Written by Ignatius Donnelly, a formal Radical Republican, the platform focused on political corruption and inequality among the economy. It proposed restoration of economic opportunity and the idea that the power of the government and people should be expanded against monopolies.

Progressives (as a group, goals, successes, failures)

The Progressive Party was created when Theodore Roosevelt broke away from the Republican Party when he ran for president in 1912. The Progressives sought governmental reforms in education, public health, the economy, the environment, labor, transportation, and political corruption. They disagreed with laissez-faire economics but supported capitalism. They wanted to increase government involvement in the economy and well-being of the country.

Teddy Roosevelt and Roosevelt Corollary, "Walk softly and carry a big stick"

The Roosevelt Corollary was announced by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 as an extension added to the Monroe Doctrine. It specified the foreign policy of the United States by stating that the United State's sphere of influence would now include all of the Western Hemisphere, due to the territories gained from the Spanish American War (Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines, Cuba), and that the United States could use military power to defend these areas if European powers choose to intervene. This Corollary caused the United States the exert its strength over the Western Hemisphere and act extensively as the "international police power". This would be used especially to justify US intervention in Latin America. For decades, US troops were stationed in countries of the Western Hemisphere, all powerless in comparison to the strength of the United States. With the power obtained due to the recent possession of these four territories won in the Spanish American War, the US began its shift from "a political power" to "the political power". The famous saying, "Walk/speak softly and carry a big stick" shows how American imperialism evolved. This quote, primarily depicted with Theodore Roosevelt as the subject, explains how the tactic of the US was to be delicate and careful but have the brutal military backup at all times if a threat was to be posed. The Roosevelt Corollary and quote, "Walk/speak softly and carry a big stick" both describe how the policies of the US are altered to encompass the expanding territories and power of its possessions as well as the nation as a whole.

Second Wave of Immigration

The Second Wave of Immigration represents the 550% increase of arrivals from 10 million in 1870 to 54 million in 1920. In many cases, immigrants simply wanted to make enough money to return home and better their lives in their own country instead of staying in the United States. Because they moved to cities in masses, immigrants defined the culture of urban areas and the labor population. Ethnic neighborhoods like Little Italy and Chinatown represent the divisions between immigrants and "natives." The second wave of immigration differs from the first wave because the immigrants during this time period were poorer, unskilled laborers from Southeast Europe (Polish, Italian, Austria, Hungary, Russia). Because of the terror of World War II, many Jews from Eastern Europe fled to the U.S, and the Chinese immigrated to the West Coast. Ellis Island (and Angel Island for Asian Immigrants) was the center of immigration after the federal government took control of the process in 1890.

Sedition and Espionage Acts

The Sedition and Espionage Acts restricted the freedom of speech. Both restricted criticism in newspapers and journals. The Espionage Act of 1917 prohibited and spying or interfering with the military draft process or protocol. The Sedition Act of 1918 made it a crime to advocate against the government in regard to the war effort. Essentially, journals and newspapers lost the ability to contradict or give an opinion on the war and draft, limiting the freedom of speech among citizens.

Settlement House Movement

The Settlement House Movement was designed to teach traditional American values to immigrants and the emerging middle class. Settlement Houses often provided classes in history, art, or literature and provided some public services like child daycare or public baths. It began in 1884 when Toynbee Hall in London was founded by the vicar at St. Jude's Parish. Samuel Augustus Barnett, the vicar, urged his students to join him in settling a deprived area of their town. Neighborhood Guild, now known as University Settlement, in the Lower East Side of New York City was the first example of the American Settlement Movement. It was founded in 1886 by Charles B. Stover and Stanton Coit. The Settlement House Movement was unique from other social movements because most of the leadership positions available were occupied by women. 5. Progressives (as a group, goals, successes, failures)

Sherman Anti-Trust Act, Clayton Anti-Trust Act

The Sherman Anti-Trust Act was created in 1890. It was the first law that set restrictions on monopolistic trusts and business combinations. Though the Act was intended to ban practices that restricted free trade, its language was too vague for the act to prove to be effective at the time. It did manage to establish a precedent for the federal government regulating economic actions in the interests for the public's general well being. An extension of the Sherman Anti-Trust act is the Clayton Anti-Trust act, which was created in 1914. This was one of Wilson's ways to try to implement his version of Progressivism during his presidency, backed with Democrats in control of congress. This act exempted unions from the negative effects of antitrust laws and outlawed courts from penalizing strikers. This Act proved to be more useful, and Wilson successfully used the Clayton Anti-trust act, and many other reforms to help improve the American economy.

Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 1890

The Sherman Silver Purchase Act was a compromise between the disgruntled farmers of the frontier and western miners. It was enacted in 1890, requiring the US government to buy twice as much silver as they had been in the past (4.5 million ounces). This added to the money that was to the US Treasury reserves. The Act was in response to the "Crime of '73" where the government stopped coining silver. This influx of silver caused the value of the silver to go down; thus, people were only redeeming their notes in gold. This depleted the US gold reserves, and led directly to the Panic of 1893. In order to account for the loss of value, many miners lost their jobs, and farmers went further into debt. Outbursts of violence and economic unrest followed. After the depression, Congress repealed the act.

Spanish-American War

The Spanish- American War was fought for 4 months in 1898 as the United States attempted to "free" Cuba from their oppressors (Spain). The US also wanted other Spanish colonies, such as Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Hawaii. John Hay, who later became Roosevelt's Secretary of State, described it as a "splendid, little war" because it was such an easy war, and the US ended up acquiring vital territory. 270 soldiers died when the Battleship Maine mysteriously exploded in Havana Harbor, and yellow journalists, such as Hearst and Pulitzer, enraged public opinion against the Spanish. This brought the US into the war. Teddy Roosevelt and his group of "Rough Riders" led his cavalry to Cuba, and fought the Battle of San Juan, where Roosevelt earned his title as a war hero. The Plat Amendment ensured that the US military would be removed from Cuba, but it ensured the power of the US to intervene in the Cuban government. The Philippines were annexed in order to "civilize" them, according to President McKinley.

Election of 1888, Benjamin Harrison's Presidency

The election of 1888 witnessed a peculiar outcome where the candidate with an electoral college majority did not also have the popular vote. This was advantageous for Benjamin Harris, who won the presidency despite not being the popular choice in the country. Harrison lost favor with the american public more and more throughout his presidency. He supported raising tariffs, which eventually increased the price of consumer goods, which hurt the american economy. He also signed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, which was designed to eliminate industrial combinations (aka trusts). His foreign policy was simply average. He tried to annex Hawaii but couldn't do it, and he also tried to build a canal in Nicaragua. Both the annexation of Hawaii and the construction of a canal (this time in panama) would be handled by presidents to come. Overally, Benjamin Harrison's name fits into a list of forgotten presidents, but he did contribute to the changes in America seen in the Gilded age.

Election of 1912

The election of 1912 directly addressed the relationships of the State and corporations through the differing ideas of the four candidates, Taft, Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Eugene V. Debs. Taft believed that economic individualism was the foundation of the social system as long as the government and the elite were cooperative in addressing social issues. On the other side of the spectrum, Eugene V. Debs, a socialist, supported the abolition of the capitalist system as a long term goal, through his short term goals were more reasonable such as making Railroads and banks publically owned, giving government assistance to the unemployed, and laws establishing work conditions. The other battle took place between Wilson and Roosevelt, and this battle was centered on the conflicting stances on the role of the federal government. Both men represented competing strands of progressivism. Wilson supported less government intervention to increase economic success, whereas Roosevelt wanted the federal government to play a larger role in controlling the economics of the nation. Wilson won this election, primarily due to the split in the republican party.

Prohibition, WCTU, Anti-Saloon League

The goal of Prohibition was to eliminate the administration and consumption of alcohol. It was initially forced for many reasons beginning in the early 1900s; it was believed that by prohibiting alcohol, the labor force would be more focused on its tasks, the nation would be more orderly and calm, it would reduce domestic violence among couples and friends, and would impose "American values on immigrants". The most prominent organization leading Prohibition was the Anti-Saloon League. The WTCU, or Women's Christian Temperance Union, was founded in 1874 and served as the largest female organizaiton of the era. The organization, with hundreds of thousands of members, would prove a vital asset to prohibition in addition to striving for reform in economics and politics, including the right to vote. These prohibitionists, as well as others, quickly won support from states of the US and in December of 1917, Congress passed the Eighteenth Amendment, favoring Prohibition and denying the production and sale of intoxicating liquor. The Amendment was ratified in 1919 and finally was put into effect in 1920. However, over time many Americans thought this to be a violation of freedoms, leading to the formation of illegal speakeasies and alcohol supplied by bootleggers. These caused distress among political figures as well as the police as some chose to turn a blind eye. Although Prohibition would stop working and finally end in 1933, its initial success and testament to individual freedoms make it important to our history.

Native American Education (ex. Carlisle School)

The goal of the carlisle School was to make native americans like white americans. There were many schools that did this, but the most notorious was the Carlisle School in Pennsylvania. Native American children ages 6-7 were involuntarily taken from their houses and sent to a boarding school in the east. they were given christian names, western clothes, and a western style education. When they graduated from the school, they were still rejected from white society because of the color of their skin. The sad irony was that when they returned to their reservations, they were rejected by their native tribes because they were so different because of the school's influence. Americans making an effort to "americanize" a group that they have decided is "different" is first exemplified here through the Carlisle School, and returns when America becomes involved with other nations in its immediate surroundings, such as Puerto Rico or Hawaii.

Sanford Dole (fruit/sugar), Queen Lilly, and Hawaii

The idea of the United States annexing Hawaii was suggested by President Benjamin Harris' Secretary of State, James G. Blaine, after being influenced by Alfred Mahan's book The influence of Sea Power upon History in 1890. Already an independent nation ruled by Queen Liliuokalani (Lilly), the majority of Hawaiians were opposed when American planters organized a revolt to overthrow their government and proposed an annexation treaty in 1893. That revolt was led by the Sanford Dole and the rest of a committee working to protect Hawaiian sugar interests and American allies. After the rebellion, Dole set up the Republic of Hawaii, making himself president and continuing to advocate U.S. annexation. Later, in 1898, the U.S. sent marines to Hawaii to help protect American business interests. However, hawaiians viewed this as aggressive and rebelled, leading to the U.S. sending more marines, jailing Queen Lilly, and officially annexing Hawaii.

Walking City to Public Transportation

Transportation during the years changed. Because more people were moving into cities, there was a necessary increase for public transportation besides simply walking. Because of the increase in railroads, more people who had the money were able to travel using railroads, but railroads were used for more outer city travel. The creation and use of cars by Henry Ford made inner city travel much easier. Created in 1886, gasoline powered cars were created and used throughout major cities as means of transportation, however only the rich or well off would have the capabilities of using this new invention.

W.E.B. DuBois, Souls of Black Folk; "Talented Tenth"

W.E.B. DuBois was a civil rights activist who lived from 1868 until 1965. He experience the racism after slaves were freed, and he witnessed the civil rights movement in the 60s. Although from Massachusetts originally, he attended university in Germany, later returning to America to finish his education at Harvard. He was also the very first black man to receive a doctorate. Dubois was a founder of the NAACP and a leader in the Niagra Movement. The group strived for equal education, citizenship, and treatment for black people. This group was also called the "Talented Teeth" by DuBois. Dubois was also a successful political writer. In 1935, he published a collection of essays entitled The Souls of Black Folk. Not only was DuBois instrumental in gaining civil rights for African-Americans, but he proved that black men could do great things - just as white men.

Immigrant Quota Act 1924

When President William Harding was elected as president, he called congress intro session to discuss immigration. Immigrants from Europe and Asia were flooding American borders because of all of the new opportunities here. America had been previously admitting 3% of the immigrants from each country; however, in the Immigrant Quota Act of 1924, that percent dropped to 3%. This act also banned all immigration from China and Japan. The Japanese took special offense to this. This poor relationship was a factor in the bad feelings between the US and China during WWII.

Horizontal v. Vertical Integration

When a company wishes to grow through horizontal integration, they are looking to widen their monopoly over a certain field or product. They will continue to buy up companies similar in size and operations to their own. When a company wishes to grow through vertical integration, they are looking to reduce their product cost or strengthen their supply chain. They will buy up companies above or below them in the supply chain process.

Teddy and Taft as Trustbusters

While Roosevelt was in office, he fought the Northern Securities Company by using the Sherman Antitrust Act. The Northern Securities Company had monopolized three of the western railroad companies between the Great Lakes and the Pacific Ocean. Roosevelt succeeded in getting J.P Morgan's company dissolved in 1904 with the Supreme Court. This was all a part of Roosevelt's bigger plan called the Square Deal which distinguished between "good" and "bad" corporations and attempted to resolve the economic issues because of these companies. However, Theodore Roosevelt did not run in the 1908 election. Instead he was succeed by federal judge William Taft (who had served as a governor in the Philippines after the Spanish-American War). Taft ran against William Jennings Bryan, and Bryan lost for a third time in the presidential election. Taft also believed in the antitrust policies and attempted to fix them too. In 1911, Taft convinced the Supreme Court that Rockefeller's Oil Company, which ironically was a "good" trust in the eyes of Roosevelt, violated the Sherman Antitrust Act and therefore needed to be disassembled. Unlike Roosevelt who had distinctions between each business, Taft believed that all big businesses were corrupted and went against the Sherman Antitrust Act.

Railroad expansion 1860 to early 1900s, Transcontinental railroads

With the invention of steel by Henry Bessemer came the rapid spread of railroads. Steel was a much more practical resource to build railroad out of because it is cheaper to make, lasts longer, and doesn't rust. In addition to these benefits, the Bessemer process allowed railroads to be built quickly and efficiently. Railroad expansion opened up easier transportation of people who wished to settle in the West as well as of goods or meat, which was able to be shipped because of refrigerated train cars, to be sold or traded. By the 1890s, there were five transcontinental railroads, which meant that merchandise could be sold or traded all across the country. It also turned cities such as Philadelphia and Chicago into major cosmopolitan urban areas that specialized in the manufacturing and exporting of certain materials.

Woodrow Wilson's presidency: "New Freedom" Plan, Election of 1916, "He kept us out of war."

Woodrow Wilson won the presidency in 1912. During his first term he launched his "New Freedom" Plan, which was modeled after Jefferson's idea of an agrarian society. He attacked what he called the "triple wall of privilege", which was the tariffs, the banks, and the trusts. He attacked the tariffs with the Underwood-Simmons Act. Next, he attacked the banks with the Federal Reserve Act, making the currency more flexible. Finally, he attacked trusts with the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914. In the election of 1916, which pitted him against Republican Supreme Court Justice Charles Hughes. Wilson barely won the presidency, but was helped by his desire to stay neutral in World War I, which was tearing through Europe. His campaign slogan was "He kept us out of war."