Unit 8 Guided

Decolonization in Ghana and Algeria: Leaders and Methods of Independence (Armed Struggle or Political Negotiation), Major Events and Nationalist parties/organizations that assisted in Independence, Legacy & Outcomes (What occurred after independence? What were the successes and/or struggles of the nation? How have they dealt with the legacy of colonialism?ALGERIA (France) AND GHANA (Great Britain)

Negotiations led by the United Nations helped bring about Ghana's independence in 1957. Nkrumah was responsible for numerous public works and development projects, such as hydroelectric plants. However, some critics accused him of running the country into debt and allowing widespread corruption—an economic pattern that often happened in later African dictatorships. In 1964, Nkrumah claimed dictatorial powers when the voters agreed to a one-party state, with him as party leader. Nkrumah strongly advocated Pan-Africanism. These Pan-Africanists rejected intervention by former colonial powers. In keeping with his vision of Pan-Africanism, Nkrumah founded the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in 1963. Algeria: In northern Africa, the French colony of Algeria endured far more violence than Ghana before becoming independent. Mounting social, political, and economic crises in Algeria resulted in political protests. In 1991, violence again surfaced in Algeria, this time in reaction to one-party rule. A bloody Algerian Civil War followed. In 2011, the military state of emergency, in place since 1992, was finally lifted in response to protests in the wake of major uprisings in nearby states, including Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya. As in other countries in North Africa and the Middle East, a growing right-wing Islamist movement that was willing to use violence challenged the power of mainstream Muslims. In 1992, an Islamist assassinated Algeria's president. As in Egypt and Turkey, the military responded by repressing Islamic fundamentalists. In 1997, Algeria banned political parties that were based on religion.

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1968: The Year of Revolt: List the countries that revolted in 1968. What caused many of the protests and revolts in 1968? France: Describe the student movement in France in 1968. The United States: What were people protesting for in the United States in 1968?

1968: The Year of Revolt Events in Czechoslovakia were just one of many upheavals in 1968: • In Yugoslavia. students marched against authoritarian government. • In Poland and Northern Ireland, people protested over religious issues. • In Brazil, marchers demanded improvements in public education and fairer treatment of workers. • In Japan, students protested both university financial policies and government support for the United States in the war in Vietnam. In many countries, protests took place on university campuses. Tensions started building up after World War II, when higher education had opened up for more people in Western society and facilities were crowded. As a result, discontent was high among the student population by the 1960s, resulting in a call for university reforms. Student grievances mounted as civil rights, women's rights, workers' rights, and the war in Vietnam commanded attention. France: In 1968, the student movement reached epic proportions in Paris, France. Hundreds of thousands of students took to the streets, resulting in violence when police forces moved in. In sympathy, some 10 million French workers went on strike. It was the largest general strike in French history. President Charles de Gaulle called new elections in France and was able to remain in office when his party won. The United States: In the United States, students and others demonstrated for rights for women and African Americans. However, the largest and most heated protests were against the country's involvement in the war in Vietnam. After members of the Ohio National Guard killed four unarmed students during an antiwar demonstration at Kent State University on May 4, 1970, students and faculty at hundreds of U.S. colleges and universities went on strike.

Land Reform in Asia and Africa: Vietnam & Ethiopia, Who ended up rising to power? What did he order? And what did he declare the government of Ethiopia as now? India: Timeline of land reform in India and Pakistan.

Vietnam was an agricultural society. A few people controlled most of the land. Communists vowed to seize land from the large landowners and redistribute it among the peasants. This pledge won them great support among peasants. When Communists took power in the north, they carried out their policies—sometimes violently. In South Vietnam, the government was slow to implement land reform, which was one reason it remained unpopular. Ethiopia had remained an independent country, but it suffered problems similar to those of many colonies. Selassie was unable to effectively implement land reforms in Ethiopia. By the 1960s, the country was souring on his leadership. Many people saw him as a pawn of U.S. imperialism. In 1974, a group of military and civilian leaders deposed Selassie. One of the primary figures was Mengistu Haile Mariam, an Ethiopian native and major in the military. He ordered the assassination of 60 former regime officials. The new government declared itself socialist and received aid and weapons from the Soviet Union and other communist countries. Famine, failed economic policies, and rebellion marred Mengistu's leadership India: Southern Asia had been under British rule since 1858. That changed in 1947. Mahatma Gandhi had led the independence movement against England since the 1920s, but it wasn't until after World War II that India became independent. India was partitioned in 1947, creating two countries: Pakistan and India. Pakistan was overwhelmingly Muslim, and India was largely Hindu. • 1960: The state passed land reform, but they were overturned by courts. • 1963: Tenant won the right to purchase land from landowners. • 1969: New laws allow tenants to become full owners of land. • 1974: Laws provide for fixed hours of work and minimum wages.

Advances During the War: What were some of the advancements in universities in the US that were invented during the wartime period? The Start of the Cold War: There were obvious tensions between the Soviet Union and the US, but why would they not fight each other militarily?What did they do instead? What did they both create?

Among the items that were developed for, improved, or used more widely by the military were air pressure systems for airplane cabins, refrigeration for food, stronger plywood for construction, and a variety of plastics for many uses. One of the most important advances was the spread of the use of penicillin, which saved the lives of thousands of wounded soldiers. Each of these advances would be adapted for civilian use, thereby improving the lives of millions of people. The Start of the Cold War: The U.S.-Soviet tensions evident at Tehran, Yalta, and Potsdam made conflict likely. However, the high costs of the war meant that neither superpower wanted a full-scale war with the other. Rather, they settled into a cold war, a conflict does not involve direct military confrontation between two or more rival states. The Cold War between the superpowers played out in propaganda campaigns, secret operations, and an arms race. The deadliest results of the Cold War occurred outside the lands of the two superpowers. The U.S.-Soviet rivalry led both countries to arm opposing sides in conflicts around the world, thereby transforming small civil wars and regional conflicts into much larger events. This increased the death tolls and level of destruction in these wars. In the early 1950s, the United States and Soviet Union each developed a hydrogen bomb that was much more powerful than the atomic bombs dropped on Japan at the end of World War II. Before he left office in 1961, President Dwight Eisenhower expressed his concerns about the U.S.- Soviet competition for supremacy in nuclear armaments. He warned against allowing the military-industrial complex, the informal alliance between the government and the large defense contractors, to gain too much power.

Breakdown of Empires: What did many of the colonies of major countries believe in after WWII and during the Cold War? Which two empires crumbled? What was the result of their crumbling?

Breakdown of Empires: After World War II, efforts resumed to undermine colonialism. The start of World War I had marked the high point of colonial empires. The British, the French, and other Europeans had colonized almost all of Africa, India, and Southeast Asia, and they dominated China. Empires based in Austria, Turkey, and Russia were multiethnic states, but each was dominated by one group, leaving others feeling discriminated against. After World War I, the demand for self-determination, the idea that each country should choose its own form of government and leaders, was spreading. The Austro-Hungary Empire and the Ottoman Empire crumbled, restructured into multiple new countries. However, in China, India, and throughout Africa, Europeans generally maintained their power, even expanding it over territories that had been part of the Ottoman Empire. During World War II, the leading colonial powers focused on stopping Hitler. As a result, the anti-colonial movements probably grew stronger, but actual independence made little progress. However, after World War II, the foundation was set for the dismantling of colonial empires: • In the colonized world, movements for self-determination grew. Often, they included both advocates of greater self-rule and proponents of full independence. • World War II had so weakened Great Britain, France, and the other colonial powers that they had fewer resources to resist independence. • The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union gave anti-colonial activists two superpowers to recruit as supporters.

Cooperation Despite Conflict: The United Nations: Despite ideological differences, what did ALL the Allies agree upon? Explain why the League of Nations failed.

Cooperation Despite Conflict: The United Nations: Despite ideological differences, the Allies shared a commitment to building a new organization to promote peace and prosperity to replace the League of Nations. The League had failed for two significant reasons: • It lacked the support of all the world's powerful countries, particularly the United States. • It lacked a mechanism to act quickly to stop small conflicts from escalating into large ones. In 1943, leaders of the United States, Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China discussed the idea of the United Nations (UN). The UN was established in 1945.

Emigration from Newer Countries to Older Ones: What were some major "hot spots" in the world that became "metropole"? Why did citizens of newly independent countries emigrate to their former colonizing country (example: Algeria -> France)?

Emigration from Newer Countries to Older Ones: People from these newly independent countries sometimes moved to the former colonial powers. For example, large numbers of refugees and immigrants from Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh moved to London after the chaos of World War II and other conflicts. London was a metropole—a large city of a former colonial ruler. Similarly, Vietnamese, Algerians, and West Africans migrated to Paris and other cities in France, and Filipinos migrated to the United States. Many migrants found jobs in the medical field. Others worked on railroads, in foundries, and in airports. In this way, economic and cultural ties between the colonial power and newly independent countries remained strong.

An Age of Terrorism: What replaced most of the large-scale open-conflict (war) between sovereign states after the Cold War? Conflict in Northern Ireland: What denomination of Christianity were people in most of Ireland? What denomination of Chrsitianity were people in Northern Ireland? What terrorist acts did some members of the IRA commit in London?

An Age of Terrorism: In the post-Cold War period, large-scale open conflict between sovereign states was rare. Instead, individuals unaffiliated with any government committed terrorist acts in Western Europe, South America, the Islamic world, and the United States that intimidated and murdered civilians. Conflict in Northern Ireland: Most of Ireland, the portion dominated by Roman Catholics, gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1922. However, Northern Ireland, which was dominated by Protestants, remained part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland Catholics suffered discrimination, and many wanted their region to join the rest of the Irish Republic. Northern Ireland Protestants fiercely refused. The Catholic-Protestant conflict in Northern Ireland became more violent in the 1960s, with Catholics fighting as part of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Protestants with the Ulster Defence Association. Between 1969 and 1994, some 3,500 people died in the conflict. Some members of the IRA took their independence campaign to England by engaging in acts of terrorism, the use of violence to achieve political ends. These acts included setting off bombs in London and other cities. In 1994, the two sides reached a cease-fire. Later the IRA renounced violence and turned to politics to achieve its goals.

Canada and the "Silent Revolution" in Quebec: Explain the historical context of colonial Quebec, Canada. Explain the Quiet Revolution and what the results were of it.

Canada and the "Silent Revolution" in Quebec: Quebec is the largest of Canada's provinces, and its history is deeply rooted in French culture. France's North American colonial territory in the early 1700s spanned from Quebec to the Gulf of Mexico. By the late 1700s, England controlled what was called New France, beginning a cultural and political divide in Quebec. People in New France were mainly Catholic, while the English-speaking parts of Britain's Canadian colony were mainly Protestant. The Quebecois historically aligned themselves with France rather than England. Over the centuries, efforts to create a separate independent state have flared up—sometimes with violent results. The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s involved much political and social change in Quebec, with the Liberal Party gaining power and reforming economic policies that led to further desires for separation from the rest of British-controlled Canada. French Canadian nationalism further expanded, and splinter groups adopted extreme tactics, including terrorist bombings that began in 1963. Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, a native of Quebec, was able to preserve the country's unity. Later, in 1995, a referendum to make Quebec an independent nation failed by a narrow margin.

Communism in China: Great Leap Forward: Describe how Mao Zedong and the communists rose to popularity in China. What were the goals of the Great Leap Forward? What were the results of the Great Leap Forward

Communism in China: In China, the Communists and the Nationalists began fighting for control of the country in 1927. However, after the Japanese invaded, the two sides agreed to focus on fighting them instead of each other. Victory by the Communists: After the defeat of the Japanese in 1945, the Chinese Civil War resumed. The Communists, led by Mao Zedong, won popular support because they redistributed land to peasants, opened schools and hospitals, and punished soldiers who mistreated civilians. Peasants saw the Communists as more nationalist and less corrupt than the Nationalists. In 1949, the Communists defeated the Nationalists and set up the People's Republic of China. Mao ordered the nationalization of Chinese industries and created five-year plans based on the Soviet model. Like the Soviets, the Chinese plans emphasized heavy industry instead of consumer goods. Great Leap Forward: In 1958, China went through more land reform as part of the policy called the Great Leap Forward. Peasant lands were organized into communes, large agricultural communities where the state held the land, not private owners. Those who protested this policy could be sent to "reeducation camps" or killed. Even though failing harvests caused severe food shortages, China continued to export grain to Africa and Cuba. Mao sought to convince the outside world of the success of his economic plans. Some 20 million Chinese died from starvation. By 1960, the Great Leap Forward was abandoned.

Conflicts in International Affairs: What did each side want to do? What was the result? The USSR and Its Satellite Countries: What did the USSR make the satellite countries they had to compete with the USA? What did these actions allow the USSR to exploit?

Conflicts in International Affairs: Each side wanted to expand its system of thought throughout the world. This competition resulted in a long-running battle for influence over the opinions of people and alliance with governments. The USSR and Its Satellite Countries: The Soviets were determined to make the governments of Eastern Europe as much like the Soviet government as possible. They therefore directed the countries of Bulgaria, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania to develop five-year economic plans focused on developing industry and collective agriculture at the expense of consumer products. All political parties other than the Communists were outlawed. These actions allowed the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) to exploit the Eastern European nations to benefit the Soviets rather than to help those countries grow. The satellite countries—small states that are economically or politically dependent on a larger, more powerful state—were forced to import only Soviet goods and to export only to the Soviet Union. Moreover, the governments of these countries were just as dictatorial as the Soviet government.

Cultural Revolution: What was Mao attempting to do with the Cultural Revolution?Explain the significance of the Red Guard and reeducation camps. Relations with the Soviets: Describe the relationship between China and the USSR? Hostile or Peaceful. What events led to this relationship?

Cultural Revolution: In 1966, Mao attempted to reinvigorate China's commitment to communism, an effort called the Cultural Revolution. In practice, the Cultural Revolution silenced critics of Mao and solidified his hold on power. Its impact on China was similar to the impact of Stalin's purges in the Soviet Union. Mao ordered the Red Guards, groups of revolutionary students, to seize government officials, teachers, and others and send them to the countryside for reeducation. Reeducation involved performing hard physical labor and attending group meetings where Red Guards pressured them to admit they had not been revolutionary enough. Relations with the Soviets: Although China and the Soviet Union were both communist states, they were often hostile to each other. From 1961 onward, the two countries skirmished over their border. They also competed for influence around the world. For example, Albania, a Soviet satellite, took advantage of the split by allying with China against the Soviet Union, thereby receiving more autonomy and additional financial aid from China.

Struggles and Compromise in Egypt: Explain who Nasser was and what his goals were. Explain the Suez Crisis and the results of it.

In 1952, General Gamal Abdel Nasser, along with Muhammad Naguib, overthrew the king and established the Republic of Egypt. Naguib became its first president; Nasser its second. Nasser was a great proponent of Pan-Arabism, a movement promoting the cultural and political unity of Arab nations. The Suez Crisis: Built by Egyptian laborers—thousands of whom died while working on the project—with money from French investment between 1859 and 1869, the Suez Canal had been under lease to the French for 99 years. To the Egyptians, this lease symbolized colonial exploitation, which Nasser pledged to fight. In addition, the British owned interests in the canal, which they administered jointly with the French. In 1956, Nasser seized the canal, and Israel invaded Egypt at the behest of Britain and France. The two European countries then occupied the area around the canal, claiming they were enforcing a UN cease-fire. However, the United States and the Soviet Union opposed British and French actions and used the United Nations to broker a resolution to the Suez Crisis. The removal of foreign troops was followed by an agreement for the canal to become an international waterway open to traffic of all nations under the sovereignty of Egypt. The UN deployed peacekeepers to the Sinai Peninsula in Egypt. Britain, France, and Israel were not happy with the interference of the United States in the Suez Crisis, but U.S. efforts led to a peaceful compromise. The incident also was an example of a nation maintaining a non- aligned position between the United States and the Soviet Union—the two superpowers in the Cold War.

Two ways nations started to decolonize and gain independence: India and Angola

In the 20th century, nationalist groups and leaders challenged colonial rule not only through land reform but also through political negotiation, as in India, and armed struggle, as in Angola. Struggles for independence after World War I and the failure of many independence movements added to anticolonial sentiments during World War II. Empires became po nlitically unacceptable. European powers struggled to hold onto their colonies. Notions of freedom born of World War II rhetoric helped speed up decolonization. That process coincided with the Cold War and the development of the United Nations. Nguyen Cao Ky, a South Vietnamese military and political leader, noted that his country's war was part of the Cold War.

Independence and Civil War in Nigeria: What was the Biafran Civil War? What did the Igbos seek? What was the result of the Igbos' secession?Explain what the government did to prevent tribalism.

Independence and Civil War in Nigeria: The western African country of Nigeria, the most populous state on the continent, gained independence from Britain in 1960. The Biafran Civil War began in 1967 when the Igbos, a Westernized, predominantly Christian tribe in the southeastern oil-rich Niger River Delta area, tried to secede from the northern-dominated government. The Igbos sought autonomy because of targeted attacks against them by the Hausa-Fulani Islamic group in the north. They declared themselves an independent nation called Biafra. The Igbos' secession movement failed, and Biafra ceased to exist when the war ended, in 1970. Nigeria granted amnesty to a majority of Igbo generals, but civilian government did not return. A series of military coups with generals in command of the government continued until the 1999 election of Olusegun Obasanjo, who presided over a democratic civilian government called the Fourth Republic of Nigeria. In an effort to prevent tribalism from destroying the country, the government established a federation of 36 states with borders that cut across ethnic and religious lines. However, friction continued between Christian Yoruba, Igbo groups in the south, and Islamic groups in the northern states. The constitution of Nigeria permitted states to vote for a dual legal system of secular law and shariah. Eleven states voted for this option. In an additional effort to discourage ethnic strife, the constitution encouraged intermarriage among the ethnic groups. Problems remained in the Niger River Delta, which had rich oil deposits. Citizens complained that the national government exploited oil resources without returning wealth to the region. Also, they contended that the oil companies had polluted their lands and rivers.Militants set fire to oil wells and pipelines in protest.

India and Pakistan Become Separate Countries: In 1947, the British divided colonial India in 2 countries:India, which was mostly.. and Pakistan, which was mostly..How many people moved between India and Pakistan at this time? Describe Pakistan and India's relationship after partition. Kashmir Conflict: Describe the Kashmir Conflict

India and Pakistan Become Separate Countries In 1947, the British divided colonial India into two independent countries: a mostly Hindu India and a mostly Muslim Pakistan. India's population was about 10 times larger than Pakistan's. In both countries, women had the right to vote. The partition of the colony was chaotic, and violence broke out along religious lines. At least 10 million people moved: Hindus and Sikhs fled their homes in Pakistan to resettle in India, and Muslims fled India for Pakistan. In the political turmoil, between 500,000 and one million people died. After partition, Pakistani-India distrust grew. While India became the world's largest democracy, Pakistan had both elected leaders and authoritarian military rulers. Moderates in both countries confronted powerful conservative religious movements that opposed compromise with the other country. Kashmir Conflict One persistent tension between India and Pakistan was over Kashmir, a border region in the mountainous north. At the time of partition, most people in Kashmir were Muslims, but its leader was a Hindu. Therefore, both Pakistan and India claimed Kashmir. At times the rivalry there broke out into armed conflict. The tension between the two countries became more significant after each began developing nuclear weapons. Eventually, India controlled about 45 percent of the Kashmir region, Pakistan controlled about 35 percent, and China controlled about 20 percent.

Intensified Conflict In Uganda Under Idi Amin: Describe Idi Amin's time as president of Uganda? The Military-Industrial Complex: Conflicts around the world intensified because of .. and...Describe a military-industrial complex

Intensified Conflict in Uganda under Idi Amin: Few countries in the 1970s suffered as much as Uganda, a small country in eastern Africa ruled from 1971 to 1979 by Idi Amin, a military dictator so brutal he was known as the "Butcher of Uganda." Although he was aligned with Western democracies early on, he was later backed by the Soviet Union and East Germany. He declared himself president for life and set policies that worsened ethnic tensions, denied people basic human rights, and undermined economic stability. Amin was unpredictable. He was for a time the chairman of the Organization of African Unity and even a member of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. But in 1972 he forcefully expelled 60,000 Asians from Uganda, most of whom were of Indian descent, and turned over their businesses to his supporters. He is believed to be responsible for up to 500,000 deaths among targeted ethnic groups during his reign. When he threatened neighboring Tanzania with attack, Ugandan nationalists joined forces with Tanzanian troops and forced Amin into exile. The Military-Industrial Complex: Conflicts around the world intensified because of fear and economic pressure. Countries that felt threatened, including the United States and the Soviet Union, built strong militaries to defend themselves. These military forces required large factories to build planes, tanks, and other goods.

Shifting Balance of Power: Why were Europe and Asia not leaders after WWII. What did a lot of countries "flee" to? Which major countries were devastated the most? What did countries like France and Great Britain lose during the war? What were 3 factors that positioned the United States to become one of the most powerful countries in the world in the aftermath of WWII?

Massive Destruction in Europe: Wartime losses were not evenly distributed throughout Europe. In general, East and Central Europe suffered greater losses than did Western Europe. Worst hit were the Soviet Union, Poland, and Germany. Each lost between 10 and 20 percent of its population. Countries such as Great Britain and France, despite their losses, maintained strong traditions of democracy and the rule of law. They still had strong educational systems, including outstanding universities. However, because of the massive physical destruction and population loss in victorious and defeated nations, Europe became less influential and powerful in the rest of the world, while the United States and the Soviet Union became more powerful. The U.S.-Soviet Rivalry: In 1945, then, the United States was poised to become the most powerful country in the world. Of all the major countries involved in the war, the United States suffered the least. Heavy fighting occurred on U.S. soil, in the Philippines, but the U.S. mainland was untouched by attacks. Its industrial base and infrastructure not only remained intact but also grew stronger through government-funded military contracts. Further, the loss of life in the United States was far lower than in Europe. The relative prosperity of the United States allowed it to provide financial aid to European countries after the war. This aid program, called the Marshall Plan. The United States also had developed atomic weapons and used them during the war, making the country even more formidable. The Soviets successfully tested an atomic bomb of their own in 1949. By the end of the 1940s, only the Soviet Union could challenge the United States in military might and political influence.

Movements for Autonomy: India and Pakistan: What were the independence tactics of the Indian National Congress? What did the Muslim League advocate for? When Britain failed to follow through on promises for more rights for Indians, what did Indian people do? Example? What resulted in the division between the Muslims and the Hindus of India?

Movements for Autonomy: India and Pakistan: The drive for Indian self-rule began in the 19th century with the foundation of the Indian National Congress. Its leader in 1920 was Mohandas Gandhi. Hindu and Muslim groups, united by their desire to get rid of the British, supported the independence movement in South Asia. The National Congress's tactics included mass civil disobedience, and it remained a powerful governmental force after Indian independence. The Muslim League, founded in 1906, advocated a separate nation for Indian Muslims. Not all Indian leaders agreed with Gandhi's nonviolent, noncooperation movement or his call for unity between Muslims and Hindus. However, they put aside their differences until after World War II. Then leaders again demanded independence. After the war, Britain grew weaker as India's fighting abilities grew stronger. When Britain failed to follow through on promises for more rights for Indians, Indian people increased their protests for full independence from British rule. The Royal Indian Navy: Revolt in 1946 was instrumental in bringing Britain to the realization it could no longer rule India. As a result of economic pressures from India and from its own sluggish postwar recovery, Britain was ready to negotiate independence in South Asia. Division and Conflict: Muslims feared living in an independent India dominated by Hindus. Distrust between Muslims and Hindus dated back centuries to the 8th century, when Muslims invaded Hindu kingdoms in northern India. Muslims campaigned for an independent Muslim country— Pakistan. India and Pakistan both gained independence in 1947.

Multiple Wars: Which countries supported Israel? Which countries supported Palestine? What was the result of the Six-Day War? Israeli-Egyptian Peace: Why did Palestine and several Arab states reject the Camp David Accords? What were the goals of the PLO?

Multiple Wars: War broke out immediately between Israel, which had support from the United States, and the Palestinians, who had support from neighboring Arab countries. Arab forces from Syria, Jordan (then called Transjordan), Lebanon, and Iraq invaded Israel. After several cease-fires, the Israeli army won, and an armed truce was declared. Immediately after the truce, about 400,000 Palestinians became refugees, living in camps near the Israeli border. Three other Israeli-Palestinian wars followed: • In 1956, Israel, with support from France and Great Britain, invaded Egypt's Sinai Peninsula, in part to liberate the Suez Canal, which the Egyptian government had nationalized under Gamal Abdel Nasser's economic programs. Following international protests, Israel and its allied forces were ordered to withdraw from Egypt. • In the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel fought on three fronts at once. Israel gained the Gaza Strip from Egypt, the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria. • In the Yom Kippur War of 1973, Israel repelled a surprise invasion by Egypt and Syria. Israeli-Egyptian Peace: After 30 years of conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbors, U.S. President Jimmy Carter mediated the Camp David Accords, a peace agreement between Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel and President Anwar Sadat of Egypt. However, the Palestinians and several Arab states rejected the 1979 peace treaty. The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and its longtime leader Yasser Arafat wanted the return of occupied lands and the creation of an independent nation of Palestine.

Nationalism and Division in Vietnam: Who was the Vietnamese Communist leader?What was the result of the Vietnamese war of independence? Who came into aid the French troops? Who were the Viet Cong? What resulted in the US taking over fighting in the Vietnam War?

Nationalism and Division in Vietnam: World War II interrupted France's long colonial rule in Indochina, but France reoccupied the southern portion of Vietnam when the war ended. A bloody struggle began against the forces of Ho Chi Minh, the communist leader of North Vietnam. He appealed to nationalist feelings to unite the country under a single communist government. France responded by attempting to reestablish its colonial rule, sparking a Vietnamese war of independence that lasted until 1954. The peace treaty split the country into North and South Vietnam, with elections planned for 1956 that would reunite the country. However, many in South Vietnam, along with the United States, opposed the Communists and feared Ho would win the election. No election took place. War broke out between the communist North and the South. U.S. military troops supported the South. South Vietnamese who supported the Communists, known as Viet Cong, fought a guerrilla war against U.S. troops. As the Vietnam War worsened, American military involvement and casualties grew. In response, the antiwar movement became more vocal. President Richard Nixon began to withdraw U.S. troops in 1971; the last troops left in 1975. North Vietnam quickly gained control of South Vietnam. It is estimated that the Vietnam War resulted in between one million and two million deaths, including about 58,000 Americans. It also destabilized Southeast Asia. Communists soon won control of Laos and Cambodia, but the spread of communism stopped there. Beginning in the 1980s, Vietnam introduced some market-based economic reforms. In following years, Vietnam and the United States reestablished trade and diplomatic relations.

Negotiated Independence in French West Africa: What countries were involved in French West Africa? Why was France reluctant to give up colonies in this area? What resulted in the independence movements?

Negotiated Independence in French West Africa: As Britain negotiated independence with its African colonies, France did the same with its colonies in French West Africa. These included Senegal, the Ivory Coast, Niger, Upper Volta, and other territories. France had controlled them since the late 1800s with small military forces. France used indirect rule, which relied on local chiefs, existing governments, and other African leaders to maintain stability. Over the years, France invested in West Africa, building railroads, advancing agricultural development, and benefitting in trade revenue that grew substantially. But by the mid-1950s, various African political parties (democratic, socialist, and communist) and leaders arose in French West Africa. By 1959, many of the French West African countries had negotiated their independence from France.

New Challenges: Explain the challenges that occurred as a result of the fall of the Soviet Union and end of the Cold War. What caused the end of the Cold War

New Challenges: The decline of a superpower presented opportunities and several challenges. Political alliances changed, and economic interactions among nations expanded. With this new openness, particularly with regard to trade, the world became more interconnected than ever before. This interconnectedness produced greater wealth for some but hardships for others. The post-Cold War world had to grapple with new democracies, vast economic inequality, ethnic conflict and genocide, terrorism, environmental degradation, and global epidemics.

Nonviolent Resistance as a Path to Change (Country they changed, How were they NON-Violent and how did that lead to change?): Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Nelson Mandela

Nonviolent Resistance as a Path to Change: Despite the frequent wars and violent protests of the 20th century, movements around the world also used nonviolence to bring about political change. Three of these movements were particularly large and effective, in part because of their visionary leaders. Mohandas Gandhi described how Mohandas Gandhi led nonviolent marches, boycotts, and fasts to oppose British colonial rule in India. In 1947, India became independent. Martin Luther King Jr. The most prominent of African American civil rights leaders in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s was a Baptist minister, the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. The civil rights movement used various tactics to achieve its goals: • Court decisions, such as Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, that banned forced racial segregation of schools in the United States • A year-long boycott of public buses in Montgomery, Alabama (1955-1956), which ended segregation in public transit • Massive marches, such as the 250,000-person March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1964 These efforts provided the foundation for the movement's biggest successes, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1965,. Nelson Mandela: In South Africa, the white-minority government codified a system of racial segregation, called apartheid, into law in the 20th century. Leading the black resistance to apartheid was a socialist lawyer, Nelson Mandela (1918-2013). Though early in his life he sometimes supported sabotage and other forms of violence, he was known for leading nonviolent protests.

NATO, The Warsaw Pact, and Other Alliances: Who was involved in NATO and what were the goals of it?What was the Soviet's response to NATO? What was created? What is SEATO? Who was involved?What is CENTO? Who was involved?

Out of a desire to coordinate their defenses in case of a conflict with the Soviets, several Western nations created the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in April 1949. The treaty pledged mutual support and cooperation within the alliance against conflicts and wars. Its original members were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United States. Membership in this Brussels-based organization expanded considerably in the decades after its founding. The Soviet Union's response to NATO was the Warsaw Pact, created in 1955. Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the Soviet Union were the original members. Warsaw Pact nations combined their armed forces and based their army leaders in Moscow, the capital of the Soviet Union. These nations were known as the communist bloc. Two countries with communist political systems successfully resisted Soviet control, Albania and Yugo Other treaty organizations formed in an attempt to halt the spread of communism in other regions: • In 1954, Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States formed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). • The Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) was an anti-Soviet treaty organization formed by Great Britain, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, and Turkey to prevent the spread of Communism in the Middle East. The United States was not a full member, but it joined CENTO'S military committee.

Challenges to Soviet Power in Eastern Europe: Poland: Describe Wladyslaw Gomulka's time as secretary of the Polish Communist Party. Hungary: Describe Imre Nagy''s time as political leader of Hungary. Czechoslovakia: What demands of the people did Alexander Dubcek give in to? What was the Brezhnev Doctrine used for?

Poland: In 1956, Polish workers demonstrated against Soviet domination and demanded better living conditions. As a result, a new secretary of the Polish Communist Party, Wladyslaw Gomulka, came to power. He decided to pursue an independent domestic policy in Poland but continued to be loyal to the Soviet Union, allowing the continued presence of Soviet troops in Poland. The Soviet-established forced collectivization of farms ended at this time. Hungary: In that same year, Hungarian protesters convinced the country's political leader Imre Nagy to declare Hungary's freedom from Soviet control and demand the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country. Nagy vowed to support free elections in which non-Communist parties would participate. He announced Hungary's neutrality in the Cold War and the withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. Soviet leaders responded by invading Hungary, gaining control of Budapest in 1956. The Soviets captured Nagy and executed him. Many Hungarians fled to the West as refugees. Czechoslovakia: The reform movement in Czechoslovakia reached a peak in the Prague Spring of 1968. Alexander Dubcek, first secretary of the Communist Party, acceded to the demands of the Czech people by increasing freedom of speech and the press and allowing greater freedom to travel. He also agreed to make the political system more democratic. As with Hungary, Soviet leaders feared the Prague Spring's independence. Soon the armies of four Warsaw Pact nations crushed it. In 1968, the Soviet Union used the Brezhnev Doctrine, named for then-Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, to justify its actions. This doctrine stated that the Soviet Union and its allies would intervene if an action by one member threatened other socialist countries.

What were some of the examples of "proxy wars." Allied Occupation of Germany: Explain the significance of each event: Berlin Blockade, Berlin Airlift, Two Germanys (Split between East and West), Berlin Wall

Proxy wars underlined the political and philosophical divide between the superpowers. The superpowers faced off in Cuba and several other Central American countries as well as in the African country of Angola. The combination of military, economic, and nuclear influence across the globe made the world a tense place for decades after World War II—the war the two superpowers had worked together to end. Allied Occupation of Germany: The conflict among the Allies after World War II was exemplified by the debate over how to occupy the defeated country of Germany. The Allies agreed to partition the country among France, Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. The three Western Allies wanted to combine their zones into one state under democratic principles. Berlin Blockade: The Allies also decided to divide Germany's capital, Berlin, into four zones. The three Western zones would become a free city that was located within the Soviet zone of Germany. The Soviets wanted to stop these Western plans and control all of Berlin. They set up a blockade of the Western zones in Berlin to prevent the West from moving supplies into the area by land. Allies flew supplies into Western zones between February 1948 and May 1949, when the Soviets lifted the blockade. Two Germanys: After the blockade ended, Germany split into two states. West Germany became the Federal Republic of Germany. East Germany became the German Democratic Republic. The division of Europe into East and West was complete. Berlin Wall: As citizens of East Germany saw the prosperity and democratic lifestyle of West Germany, many wanted to move to the West. Between 1949 and 1961, about 2.5 million East Germans fled. However, the East German and Soviet governments were determined to keep people in East Germany so they made a wall

Rivalry in Economics and Politics: What did the "Iron Curtain" represent? Explain the key differences between the USA's capitalism and the USSR's communism. Explain the key differences between the USA's democracy and the USSR's Authoritarianism. Explain the similarities between the two superpowers.

Rivalry in Economics and Politics: The existence of the United Nations did not prevent tensions from growing worse between the Soviet Union and the West. Winston Churchill's March 1946 speech symbolized the Cold War. Churchill said that "an iron curtain has descended across the continent" of Europe. The metaphor of the Iron Curtain described the split between Eastern and Western Europe. Capitalism and Communism: One difference between the United States and the Soviet Union was how they organized their economies. • In the United States, Western Europe, and other capitalist countries, economic assets, such as farms and factories, were mostly owned privately. Hence, private interests determined economic decisions. People had the freedom to act in their self-interest. • In the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and other communist countries, economic assets were owned by the government. The system emphasized equality and fairness. Democracy and Authoritarianism: A second difference was how the rivals organized their political systems. In the United States, people attacked the Soviet system for restricting the rights of people to speak and worship freely, to elect their own representatives, and to allow businesses to operate efficiently. Soviets accused the United States of giving poor people the "freedom to starve" and for discriminating against African Americans and other minorities. The Soviet Union also stressed its emphasis on women's equality as a difference between its system and that of the United States.

Ongoing Violence: Who were the Fatahs? Who were the Hamas? What was Palestine angry about in regards to Israel? Cambodia Gain Independence and Survives Wars: What did Khmer Rouge do in Cambodia? What were the results of the peace agreement between Cambodia and Vietnam in 1991?

Security concerns led the Israeli government to implement tighter border controls on the West Bank and on Gaza. Israel further angered Palestinians by approving new settlements on lands it had occupied during previous wars, lands Palestinians considered theirs. Without a peace process, violence continued. Between 2000 and 2014, over 7,000 Palestinian and over 1,000 Israelis were killed. Many countries in the Middle East remained hostile to United States over its support of Israel. Cambodia: Gains Independence and Survives Wars: After World War II, Vietnam's neighbor Cambodia pressured France to grant it independence in 1953. Following the Vietnam War, a communist guerrilla organization called the Khmer Rouge, under the leadership of Pol Pot, overthrew the right-wing government of Cambodia. Once in power, Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge imposed a ruthless form of communism, following the Chinese model of "cultural revolution" that targeted intellectuals and dissenters. The slaughter and famine that followed took more than two million lives—about one-quarter of the country's population. Mass graves of victims from the "killing fields" of Cambodia continued to be discovered in the countryside and jungles for decades afterward. In 1977, Vietnamese troops invaded Cambodia to support opponents of Pol Pot and the Khmer Rouge. At the end of the ensuing war, the Vietnamese took control of the government in Cambodia and helped the country to regain some stability, even as some fighting continued and hundreds of thousands of refugees fled the country. In 1989, Vietnamese forces completed their withdrawal from Cambodia.

Separatists in Spain: Who were Basque Homeland and Freedom (ETA)?What was ETA's goal? Peru's Shining Path: What was the Shining Path's goal? Islamic Terrorism: What are the names of the Islamic terrorist groups in the section? Which Islamic terrorist group was the the deadliest? How were they funded?

Separatists in Spain: Another group that used terrorist tactics to advance a political agenda was the Basque Homeland and Freedom (ETA) organization Peru's Shining Path: During the 1970s, former philosophy professor Abimael Guzmán built a revolutionary organization called Shining Path based on the ideas of Mao Zedong and Cambodia's Khmer Rouge. In 1980, the Shining Path began decades of bombings and assassinations in Peru in order to overthrow the existing government and replace it with a communist one. Shining Path's 20 years of terrorism caused an estimated 37,000 deaths. Guzmán was arrested and sentenced to life in prison in 1992, though the Shining Path continued its attacks through the late 1990s. In 2011 one of the group's top leaders admitted defeat and began negotiations with the Peruvian government. Islamic Terrorism: Several small groups used a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam, one widely condemned by mainstream Muslims, to justify terrorism. Among these groups were the Boko Haram in West Africa, al-Shabaab in East Africa, the Islamic State of Iraq, the Levant (ISIL) in the Middle East, and the Taliban in Afghanistan. Most victims were Muslims. Some high-profile attacks occurred in European cities such as Madrid, London, and Paris. One of the deadliest groups was al-Qaeda. Financed by Saudi billionaire Osama bin Laden, al-Qaeda carried out attacks in many countries, including one in the United States on September 11, 2001.

Soviet-Afghan War: How did the Soviet-Afghan war contribute to the fall of the Soviet Union? Reagan and Gorbachev: What did Reagan do in the 1980's to upset the Soviet Union?What was the purpose of the Strategic Defense Initiative? How did Soviet Union respond to the SDI?

Soviet-Afghan War: The Soviets invaded Afghanistan to prop up that country's communist government against Muslim fighters. Estimates of Afghan civilian deaths vary from 562,000 to two million. Millions of Afghans fled to Pakistan and Iran, and many within the country became homeless. Ultimately, the Soviet army could not conquer the guerrilla groups in the rough terrain of Afghanistan. Reagan and Gorbachev: During the presidency of Ronald Reagan (1981-1989), tensions between the Americans and the Soviets increased even further. Reagan referred to the Soviet Union as the "evil empire" and sent military aid, including weapons, to support the Afghans. The Soviet Union resented this overtly militaristic move. In addition, by the early 1980s, the United States and the Soviet Union had more than 12,000 nuclear missiles, each one pointed at the other side. Not only would the superpowers destroy each other with a nuclear exchange, but the rest of the world would also be destroyed—seven times over. In light of this growing tension, Reagan declared that the United States would create a missile defense program he called the Strategic Defense Initiative, or SDI. Dubbed "Star Wars" by critics, the system would supposedly destroy any Soviet nuclear missiles that targeted the United States or its allies. Lacking such a system, the Soviets would be unable to keep U.S. missiles from hitting targets in the Soviet Union. The Soviets saw this move as the beginning of an arms race in space. While it was not an immediate threat that required a quick response, it worried liberal and moderate Sovietswho wanted reforms. They saw it as a long-term economic concern and one that strengthened the hand of Soviet conservatives. The Soviets objected loudly to Reagan's plan.

The Space Race and the Arms Race: Space Race: What was the first artificial satellite called? Who built it? What did it make the other superpower do? Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD): What did both countries figure out would happen if each of them set off their ICBM's?

Space Race: In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, called Sputnik, into orbit around Earth, inaugurating what became known as the Space Race. The United States launched its first satellite in January 1958. The two nations competed to become the first with a manned satellite orbiting Earth and, later, the first to land a human on the moon. Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD): Early in 1959, the Soviets tested the first intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) capable of delivering a nuclear warhead into U.S. territory. The United States tested a similar missile later that same year. Both countries realized that they had become so powerful that they had reached a point of mutual assured destruction. That is, regardless of who started a war, both would be obliterated by the end of it.Since neither side could win a nuclear war, neither side had an incentive to start one. As long as both sides kept improving their technology, the balance of terror between them would keep the peace—everyone hoped.

Women Gain Power in South Asia (Female Leader and Accomplishments): Sri Lanka, India, Pakistan. Tanzania Modernizes: What did the Arusha Declaration of 1967 summarize?What were some of Nyerere's successes as president of Tanzania?

Sri Lanka The world's first female prime minister was Sirimavo Bandaranaike. She won that position in 1960 in Ceylon (later Sri Lanka). Her husband was assassinated in office in 1959, and Bandaranaike ran for office to fill his seat. She continued her husband's socialist economic policies. India: In 1966, two years after the death of India's first prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, his only child, Indira Gandhi, became India's leader. War with Pakistan took a toll on the economy, though India won the conflict with the help of military support from the Soviet Union. Indira Gandhi became a revered leader in India, though further economic strife would undermine her popularity in the ensuing years. High inflation and growing poverty threatened her rule. She declared a national emergency in 1975 and jailed many opposition leaders. Pakistan: Pakistan elected Benazir Bhutto prime minister in 1988. Her father had also served as prime minister. She was the first elected female leader of a majority Muslim country. Bhutto struggled to improve Pakistan's economy and reduce its poverty. Corruption charges. Tanzania Modernizes: Tanganyika gained its independence from Britain in 1961, later becoming the United Republic of Tanzania. Its first president, Julius Nyerere, instituted African socialist political and economic ideas—summarized in the Arusha Declaration of 1967. It was an egalitarian approach based on cooperative agriculture. Literacy campaigns, free education, and collective farming were key components of what Nyerere called ujamaa (Swahili for "familyhood"). He also advanced the country's economic independence away from foreign aid.

Terrorism in the United States: Aside from 9/11, who was responsible for the majority of the terrorist attacks in the United States? Response of Militarized States: The Franco Dictatorship in Spain: Why did the United States support Francisco Franco in spite of his human rights violations?What did Spain do when Franco died?

Terrorism in the United States: While the September 11 attack was the deadliest act of terrorism in the United States, it was not the only one. Acts of terrorism in the United States come from different sources and groups, including domestic groups, some of which are associated with white-nationalist or extreme right-wing views. One of the largest of these occurred when two anti-government extremists bombed a federal building in Oklahoma City in 1995, killing 168 people. Other attacks targeted Muslims, Jews, and blacks. Response of Militarized States: States in which military dictators ran the government tended to respond to internal conflicts in ways that made the conflicts even worse. Spain under Franco and Uganda under Idi Amin are two prominent examples. The Franco Dictatorship in Spain: The dictator Francisco Franco ruled Spain from 1939 to 1975. He had come to power by overthrowing a popularly elected government that included many leftists. Franco's fervent anti-communism made him an ally of the United States. It also led his government to execute, imprison, or send to labor camps hundreds of thousands of political dissenters. However, opposition to his authoritarianism remained. When Franco died, Spain took the opportunity to move toward democracy.

Explain the significance of each:Test-Ban Treaty, Angola, Contra War. Anti Nuclear Weapon Movement: What is it? Who was involved in the movement?

Test-Ban Treaty: People worldwide worried about deaths and environmental harm from nuclear war or nuclear testing. In 1968, the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty called on nuclear powers to prevent the spread of military nuclear technology and materials to non-nuclear countries. Angola: The Portuguese colony of Angola in southwest Africa won its independence in 1975, after 14 years of armed struggle. The borders of Angola, like those of many newly independent African countries, had been set by European colonial powers with little regard for traditional regions. Rival ethnic groups were thrown together under one government. Angola was more a multiethnic empire consisting of three distinct cultural groups than a nation-state in which everyone shared a common culture. Each group had fought for independence. Each wanted to control the country's lucrative diamond mines. And each was supported by other countries: • The USSR and Cuba backed the Mbundu tribe. • South Africa backed the Ovimbundu tribe. • The United States backed the Bankongo tribe. Upon independence, civil war broke out. In 2002, after 27 years of fighting, the rivals agreed on a cease-fire. However, threats of violence from militant separatist groups remained. Contra War: In Nicaragua in 1979, the 43-year dictatorship by the Somoza family was ended by the rebel Sandinistas, who called themselves socialists. Two years later, conservative opponents of the Sandinistas, known as Contras, tried to overthrow them. The war ended after the signing of the Tela Accord in 1989 and the demobilization of the Contra and Sandinista armies. Antinuclear Weapon Movement: The nuclear arms race spawned a reaction known as the antinuclear weapons movement.

The Bay of Pigs Crisis: After Cuba nationalized businesses, what was the US's response? After the US's response, what did the Cuban government do? What did JFK end up doing in response to a communist government set up 90 miles away from the coast of Florida? What effects did the Bay of Pigs have on US relations with Cuba?

The Bay of Pigs Crisis: Fidel Castro and other communist revolutionaries overthrew the Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1959. Castro soon set up a dictatorship in Cuba. On August 6, 1960, the new government started to nationalize foreign-owned industries, which was a common communist strategy. Cuba nationalized businesses and properties of the national telephone and electricity companies; Texaco, Esso, and Sinclair oil companies; and 36 sugar mills owned by U.S. firms. As a result of these economic losses for its citizens, the United States broke off trade with Cuba and cut diplomatic ties. Castro in turn accepted Soviet aid and aligned Cuba's foreign policy with that of the Soviet Union. In 1961, newly elected U.S. President John F. Kennedy had grave concerns about the presence of a communist country located only 90 miles from the coast of Florida. Before Kennedy took office, a group of Cuban exiles who opposed Castro had asked for U.S. government backing to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro. Kennedy gave his support. The resulting Bay of Pigs invasion was a total failure. Even worse for the United States, it cemented the Cuba-Soviet alliance.

What did most socialists or communists seek to make more of? Most communist/socialists countries used .. to make this happen.

The Cold War provided the context in which many countries wrestled with the legacies of their past. The combined heritage of feudalism, capitalism, and colonialism often resulted in societies with a small class of powerful landowners and a large class of peasants who owned little or no land. When socialists or communists sought to make more people into landowners, they got caught up in the U.S.-Soviet ideological battle. Land reform was a vital issue in China, Iran, Vietnam, Ethiopia, India, and a number of Latin American countries, including Mexico, Bolivia, and Venezuela.

The Cuban Missile Crisis: What did Nikita Khruschev do in response to the Bay of Pigs debacle? What was Khruschev's rationale? What was set up during the Cuban Missile Crisis?

The Cuban Missile Crisis: In response to the Bay of Pigs, the Soviets began to support Cuba with arms and military advisors. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, who came to power after Stalin, saw an opportunity in Cuba. In 1962 he shipped nuclear missiles to Cuba. Khrushchev felt justified in his actions because in the summer of 1961 the United States had placed nuclear missiles in Turkey, a U.S. ally that shared a border with the Soviet Union. In October 1962, U.S. intelligence learned that more missiles were on their way to Cuba. Kennedy ordered the U.S. Navy to prevent the missiles from reaching Cuba. He called his action a "quarantine" because a blockade was technically an act of war. Regardless of the term, the two superpowers were on a collision course that threatened nuclear war. Ultimately, the two leaders pulled back from the brink. Khrushchev called back the Soviet ships and removed the missiles that had been delivered to Cuba. In return, the United States pledged to quietly remove its missiles from Turkey. After this incident, leaders of both countries realized that better communication between their countries was needed. In 1963, the two countries set up a Hot Line, a direct telegraph/teleprinter link between the U.S. and Soviet leaders' offices.

The Final Decades of the Cold War: What was the fundamental disagreement between the United States and the Soviet Union? Détente and a Colder War: Define détente. What did Richard Nixon do that represented détente in Soviet Union and China. Describe the challenges the USSR faced in the 1960's and 1970's. What issues was the United States having in the 1960's and 1970's. What actions ended détente?

The Final Decades of the Cold War Era: Despite the persistent mistrust between the two countries, diplomatic relations between the United States and the Soviet Union were maintained—albeit inconsistently at times—during the last decades of the conflict. Proxy wars and support of opposing sides in international conflicts remained standard for both nations. These conflicts reinforced the fundamental disagreement between the capitalist United States and the communist Soviet Union. Agreements between the superpowers to limit nuclear weapons played a key role in ending the Cold War. However, the path to a thaw was not always steady. Détente and a Colder War: After resolving the crises of the 1960s, which included the Bay of Pigs and the Cuban Missile Crisis, the relationship between the superpowers improved in the following decade. This period of time was called détente, a relaxation of strained relations between nations. Détente served both the U.S. and Soviet needs at the time. The Soviet Union faced challenges during the late 1960s and the 1970s. • Economically, the USSR was in a crisis. It was no longer growing. Central governmental controls prevented farmers and manufacturers from deciding what to grow or make and what to charge for it. Foreign trade was extremely limited. • Eastern European Soviet bloc countries were bucking for reforms and freedom from Moscow's direct control. The Soviet military violently put down the Prague Spring, a liberation movement in Czechoslovakia.• Russia faced skirmishes with China along their shared border—a reflection of the troubled relationship between the two communist countries. The United States also faced difficulties. President Nixon was mired in the Vietnam War, a costly and unpopular conflict. The American economy was suffering as well.

The Spread of Reforms: What did Lithuania, Georgia, and other Soviet republics do as a result of the democratic reforms sweeping through Eastern Europe? What happened in 1991 in regards to the Soviet Union and the Cold War?

The Spread of Reforms: With most of the Eastern European nations caught up in democratic reforms, it was not long before the Soviet Union was also swept into the movement. Lithuania, Georgia, and other Soviet republics began to overthrow their rulers and declare independence. The Warsaw Pact dissolved. Gorbachev's reforms ultimately led to his political downfall and the end of the Soviet Union in December 1991. Among the former Soviet republics that became independent countries, Russia emerged as the strongest. The Cold War had ended.

The Iranian Revolution: In 1979, what signified the revolution? After the toppling of the shah, what new government type was instituted? What religious text was used for all law? Describe the land reform in Guatemala.

The Iranian Revolution In 1979, a revolution toppled the shah. Many Iranians supported the revolution because they vividly remembered the overthrow of the Mosaddegh government in 1953. The leaders to emerge from the revolution, though, were ones who rejected the shah's secular worldview for one that viewed Islam as a key part of the individual-state relationship. The new government was a theocracy Land Reform in Latin America: Throughout Latin America, leaders saw the concentration of land ownership as a barrier to progress. Hence, as countries freed themselves from colonialism, they considered land reform. Mexico's effort dates back to the 1930s, but much of the land reform in Latin America took place in the 1960s or later. Venezuela: In Venezuela, for example, the government redistributed some five million acres of land. Additional problems arose from illegal squatters who moved in to settle on lands that were not scheduled for land reform. Land reform efforts had political repercussions as well; those who benefitted were more willing to vote for the government instituting the reforms, while those from whom land was confiscated tended not to support the states that seized it. Land reform in Latin America varied in its details in each country, shaped partly by environmental factors, partly by a legacy from colonialism, and partly by the ideology of the rulers instituting the reforms. Guatemala: A democratically elected government under Jacob Arbenz in the Central American country of Guatemala began efforts at land reform. Feeling threatened, the United Fruit Company lobbied the U.S. government to remove the Arbenz. In 1954, he was overthrown.

The Non-Aligned Movement: Where did many of the countries come from who wanted to stay out of the US-Soviet Cold War?Explain what they wanted. Who was a part of the Bandung Conference and what came out of it? Explain some of the challenges the Non-Aligned Movement faced:

The Non-Aligned Movement: Many new African and Asian countries wanted to stay out of the U.S.-Soviet Cold War. They wanted an alternative framework for international economic, political, and social order—one not dominated by the two superpowers. In 1955, Indonesia hosted a conference, known as the Bandung Conference after the city where it was held, for representatives of these countries. Delegates from China, India, and 27 other countries—representing more than half the world's population—passed resolutions condemning colonialism. The impulse that prompted the Bandung Conference led countries to formally organize the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. However, non-aligned countries faced challenges: • Member states tried to combine support for stronger international institutions with efforts to advance their own interests. For example, Indian leader Jawaharlal Nehru supported a stronger UN, but he opposed its efforts to intervene in the conflict between India and Pakistan over control of the region of Kashmir. • Member states often became more closely allied with one superpower or the other. When war broke out between Somalia and Ethiopia in 1977, the Soviet Union supplied aid to Ethiopia, prompting the United States to supply aid to Somalia.

Proxy Wars: Korean War: How did the Korean War begin? What was the UN's response and who did they support?How did the war end? Vietnam War: What happened under US President Dwight D. Eisenhower? What happened under US President John F. Kennedy? What happened under US President Lyndon B. Johnson? What did he believe in also?

The Soviets occupied the north while the United States and its allies occupied the south. The Korean War (1950-1953) began when North Korea invaded South Korea in an attempt to reunite the country under its leadership. In response, the UN voted to defend South Korea militarily. The Soviet Union could have vetoed the resolution, but its representative was absent during the vote because the Soviet Union was boycotting all Security Council meetings in protest over a disagreement about China's seat on the Security Council. UN military forces supporting the South Koreans came from 16 member countries, but the United States provided the largest number and the overall commander, General Douglas MacArthur. The Soviet Union did not send troops, but it sent money and weapons to North Korea. The UN forces pushed back the North Koreans across the inter-Korean border and drove toward North Korea's border with China. The Chinese, allies of North Korea and concerned that the UN forces would try to invade China as well, sent Chinese troops across the border and entered the war against the United States and its allies. The war ended in a stalemate. The two parts of Korea remained divided, with a demilitarized zone in between. Vietnam War: U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, following the Truman policy of containment, sent military advisers to South Vietnam to train the South Vietnamese army and to prevent a communist takeover by North Vietnam. Eisenhower's successor, President John F. Kennedy, increased the number of advisers. However, the United States was supporting an undemocratic and unpopular South Vietnamese ruler, Ngo Dinh Diem. A military coup, with U.S. support, soon overthrew Diem. In 1964, President Lyndon Johnson sent more U.S. troops to South Vietnam. Johnson believed in the domino theory

Bringing the War to an End: Who was in the "Big Three"? There were three meetings after WWII between the "Big Three". Describe what occurred in each of the meetings: Tehran Conference, Yalta Conference, The Potsdam Conference. Explain how these meetings could "set the stage" for the Cold War.

The Tehran Conference: During the Tehran Conference in Iran in November 1943, the Allies agreed that the Soviet Union would focus on freeing Eastern Europe, while Britain and the United States would concentrate on Western Europe. In addition, Britain and the United States agreed to a Soviet demand to shift some Polish territory to the Soviet Union, which would be offset by Poland gaining territory elsewhere, mostly from Germany. The Yalta Conference: By February 1945, the Allies knew that Germany was near defeat, but they disagreed about what should happen after Germany's surrender. At the Yalta Conference, at a resort on the Black Sea, the leaders focused on plans for reconstructing Eastern Europe and for defeating Japan. • Franklin Roosevelt wanted free, democratic elections in Eastern Europe. He also wanted the Soviets to join the war against Japan. • Stalin demanded influence over Eastern Europe. Fearful that another Napoleon or Hitler would invade Russia from the West, he wanted Eastern Europe as a buffer zone. In return for Soviet help against Japan, he wanted control of islands claimed by Japan, ports ruled by China, and part ownership of a Manchurian railroad. The Potsdam Conference: The final meeting among leaders of the Big Three, the Potsdam Conference, began in July 1945 in Germany. Harry Truman, who had become president after Roosevelt died on April 12, represented the United States. Churchill started the conference but lost his position as prime minister in mid-July and was replaced by Clement Atlee. Truman insisted on free elections in Eastern Europe.

The Thaw: What is perestroika?What is glasnost?What did the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) aim to accomplish? The End of the Soviet Union: Gorbachev reduced the Soviet Union's involvement in their satellite states. What did that lead to in Eastern Europe and East and West Germany?

The Thaw: The increase in tensions during the 1980s led to other nations believing that they must choose sides between the superpowers. Non-aligned nations hoped they would not experience a nuclear holocaust that the two nations caused. In this tense atmosphere, Mikhail Gorbachev, a more progressive Communist than previous Soviet leaders, came to power in 1985. He favored perestroika, attempts to restructure the Soviet economy to allow elements of free enterprise, and glasnost, the policy of opening up Soviet society and the political process by granting greater freedom. Reagan and Gorbachev met three times in two years. The two men liked each other and, despite tough negotiations, created a working relationship that ultimately delivered results. In 1987, the Soviet Union and the United States agreed on a new nuclear arms treaty. The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) restricted intermediate-range nuclear weapons. Around the world, people could breathe a cautious sigh of relief as the world's two superpowers reduced the risk of nuclear war. The INF and other U.S.-Soviet agreements quieted some of the more bellicose Cold War supporters in both countries. With less pressure from Soviet conservatives, Gorbachev could more easily implement political and economic reforms in the Soviet Union. The End of the Soviet Union: One aspect of Gorbachev's reform program was an end to economic support for the Soviet satellites in Eastern Europe. He also implied that the Soviet Army would no longer come to the rescue of communist regimes in Eastern Europe. In effect, economic reform in the Soviet Union provided greater freedom to other communist countries.

How did the Zionist movement contribute to the birth of Israel? Birth of Israel: What did the Balfour Declaration propose for Jews? What did the Balfour Declaration intend for non-Jews? Describe how the events of 1948 led to Israel becoming its own country.

Theodore Herzl, a Hungarian Jewish intellectual and journalist, used the affair as evidence that assimilation of Jews into European society was failing to provide safety and equal opportunity. At the First Zionist Congress in 1897, he urged the creation of a separate Jewish state. Birth of Israel: Zionists hoped that the new state could be established in Palestine because that was where their ancestors had lived. In modern times, Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire, and most of its inhabitants were Arabs who practiced Islam. In a new state, Zionists argued, Jews could be free of persecution. In 1917, during World War I, the British government issued the Balfour Declaration, which favored the establishment in Palestine of a "national home" for the Jewish people. However, British Foreign Secretary Arthur James Balfour wrote that "nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine." The situation was complicated because British officer T. E. Lawrence, known as "Lawrence of Arabia," promised certain Arabs an independent state as well. The British Foreign Office hoped that Arabs would rise up against the Ottoman Empire, which would make it easier to defeat during World War I. The Balfour Declaration promised civil and religious rights to non-Jews in Palestine, but the supporters of the Arabs did not trust the British. In 1918, after World War I, Britain was given a mandate over former Ottoman lands in the Middle East. Soon Zionists began to immigrate to Palestine from Europe and from other Middle Eastern areas. In 1948, after the UN divided Palestine into Jewish and Arab sections, the Jewish section declared itself to be a new country: Israel.

Truman Doctrine: What were the main ideas of the Truman Doctrine? Where specifically did the Truman Doctrine want to be instilled in? Marshall Plan: What was the Marshall Plan? Why was the Marshall Plan created and what was it meant to stop?What did the Soviet Union also create in lieu of the Marshall Plan? What did it do?

Truman Doctrine: Kennan's reports influenced President Harry Truman. A speech in 1947 outlined the Truman Doctrine, a strong statement that the United States would do what it had to do to stop the spread of communist influence, specifically in Greece and Turkey. The Soviet Union wanted to put military bases in Turkey so it could control the Dardanelles, the strait between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. In Greece, left- wing groups controlled by Communists were close to gaining control of the government. Truman pledged U.S. economic and military support to help the two countries resist this communist domination. The Marshall Plan: After World War II, the United States was deeply concerned about rebuilding Europe. The United States provided assistance to those countries soon after the war ended. However, many U.S. leaders thought more was needed to get European allies back on their feet economically. Based on the belief that a communist revolution could happen in economically unstable nations, the new goal was to rebuild Europe into a prosperous and stable region. The Marshall Plan, enacted in June 1947, was designed to offer $12 billion in aid to all nations of Europe, including Germany. This money would be used to modernize industry, reduce trade barriers, and rebuild Europe's damaged infrastructure. The plan worked. Economic output in the countries aided was 35 percent higher in 1951 than it had been in 1938. The Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellites refused to participate in the plan. Instead, in 1949, the Soviets developed their own plan to help rebuild Eastern Europe—the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON).

Turmoil in Iran: Foreign Influence: What ended up happening to the young Iranian leader? What did the Iranian people see the leader as?What was the US & British response to this event? Land Reform in the White Revolution: Why was it called the White Revolution? What aspects were changed? The most important reform dealt with...

Turmoil in Iran: The modern country of Iran fell under foreign domination in the late 19th century. Britain and Russia fought to control the area. The competition grew even keener when oil was discovered in Iran in the early 20th century. Foreign Influence: Early in World War II, the leader of Iran considered supporting Hitler's Nazi regime. Determined not to let that happen, Russia and Britain invaded Iran. They forced the leader to abdicate power to his young son, Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi. They kept their forces in Iran until the end of the war. Iranian nationalists objected to the new shah as a puppet of Western powers. In 1951, they forced him to flee the country. Two years later, Iran selected Mohammad Mosaddegh as prime minister. He vowed to nationalize the oil companies. The United States and Great Britain engineered an overthrow of the democratically chosen Mosaddegh and returned the shah to power. The shah ran an authoritarian regime that relied on a ruthless secret police force. Land Reform in the White Revolution: Despite his harsh rule, the shah instituted several progressive reforms, known as the White Revolution because they came without bloodshed. They included recognizing women's right to vote, creating a social welfare system, and funding literacy programs in villages. The most important reform dealt with land ownership. The shah wanted to undercut the power of traditional landowners and increase his popularity among peasants. Under his plan, the government bought land from landlords and resold it at a lower price to peasants. The program helped many peasants become first-time landowners, but it failed to reach a majority of peasants. Many Iranians—both landowners who had been forced to sell their land and frustrated peasants who received nothing—opposed the land reforms.

World Revolution: What was the threat to the USSR according to them starting in 1918? What were some of the revolutions that the USSR supported? Containment: What is the policy of containment? How did many people want to take the policy of containment "a step further"?

World Revolution: Beginning with the October Revolution of 1917, the Soviet Union viewed capitalism as a threat to its power. This view was enhanced with the concept of world revolution, a belief that organized workers would overthrow capitalism in all countries. The Soviets supported revolutions and uprisings between 1919 and 1923 in Germany, Bavaria, Hungary, northern Italy, and Bulgaria. Soviet interference elevated Western suspicions about Soviet intentions. After World War II, growing revolutionary feelings became a serious threat to Western powers and to governments in Central and Southern Europe. Containment: U.S. diplomat George Kennan worked in the U.S. Embassy in Moscow during the 1930s and in 1946. Kennan believed that the Soviet Union would continue to expand its borders and its influence abroad if it could. He advocated a policy of containment—not letting communism spread farther. Some politicians criticized Kennan for accepting the status quo. They argued for a more aggressive policy of overthrowing existing regimes in order to "roll back" the spread of communism.