Unit Nine Study Guide

Formal Operational Stage

-12 years into adulthood -The adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking -Developmental Phenomena: abstract thinking, hypothetical thinking ("If babies were only born with one leg, what all would have to change in the world?"), potential for mature moral reasoning EXAMPLES: -Child is able to hypothesize (use If..., then... thinking) -Child is able to think abstractly. -A child proposes that maybe the color that you call "red" is the color that, if he looked with your brain, he would call "yellow". (abstract thinking) -A child uses his understanding of molecular movement to predict how a gas would behave in different conditions.

Elisabeth Kubler-Ross

-Psychologist who theorized the terminally ill progress of grief / death and dying through sequence of: Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression, Acceptance

X Chromosome

-The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Alzheimer's Disease

-a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning -first memory deteriorates, then reasoning. a diminishing sense of smell is also attribute with this. -a loss of brain cells and deterioration of neurons that produce acetylcholine are the main symptoms of Alzheimer's. -acetylcholine deprivation leads to decrease capacity of memory and thinking. -strikes 3% of the population by 75 -MRIs are used to help predict indicators of alzheimer's (ph 461)

Sensorimotor Stage

-in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities -The use of senses & motor abilities to learn about the world/ interact with objects in the environment -developmental phenomena that occur in this stage: object permanence, stranger anxiety, and separation anxiety. -begin to exhibit memory for objects no longer seen (object permanence) CRITICISM OF STAGE: -Piaget believed that children in the sensorimotor stage are incapable of thinking - no abstract concepts or ideas -Recent research suggests that children in the sensorimotor stage can both think and count -Babies can understand basic laws of physics and can "count," as in they understand which piles have more and such. EXAMPLES: Child acts on the environment by knocking down blocks, making sounds, finding toes. Child cries when parent is no longer present. (separation anxiety) By end of this stage, child realizes that objects still exist although the object is not longer seen. A child is given a cardboard box and she explores it by opening and closing the flaps. A child pushes a button on a toy and it makes a sound. He repeats this over and over and over and over.... A mother takes a toy from a child and puts it under a blanket. The child does NOT look for it. Upon seeing his Aunt Sally who lives out-of-town, the child cries.

Fluid intelligence

-our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood -decreases slowly (age 75 to age 85)

crystallized Intelligence

-our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age -increases up to old age

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

-physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking -in severe conditions, symptoms include noticeable face misproportions

Konrad Lorenz

-researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting -imprinting - The tendency to follow the first moving object seen as the basis for attachment -attachment throughout familiarity -lorenz's geese

Lev Vygotsky

-russian developmental psychologist -studied how a child's mind feeds on the language of social interaction -Stressed the importance of social interactions with other people, especially highly skilled children or adults, in the child's cognitive development -developed the zone of proximal development -encouraged students to talk to themselves and master new skills

Harlow's Monkeys

-to equalize the infant monkey's experiences and to isolate any diseases, he separated them from their mothers shortly after birth. He raised them in sanitary individual cages with a blanket, and when he washed the blanket, he recognized their intense attachment to it, as they became distressed. -this led to his next study. he created two artificial mothers - one a bare wire cylinder with a wooden head and an attached feeding bottle, and the other a cylinder wrapped with terry cloth -the monkey infants overall preferred the terry cloth mother and would cling to the cloth mother when anxious.

Object Permanence

-unfolds gradually in the sensorimotor stage -the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived EXAMPLE: this shows a lack of object permanence: A mother takes a toy from a child and puts it under a blanket. The child does NOT look for it.

modern researcher's view of Piaget stuff

Development is a continuous process Children express their mental abilities & operations at an earlier age Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition

Ageism

Discrimination based on age

Types of Parenting Styles

Diana Baumrind's three primary parenting styles: AUTHORITARIAN: -Demanding; not responsive -Impose rules and expect obedience -The parent demands obedience and controls the child's behavior through punishment. There is limited communication between the parent and child. This restrictive parenting style offers the child limited love and warmth. -When going off to live independently, children of this parenting type often cannot make decisions for themselves because someone else has been driving all of the decisions in the past. -Authoritarian parenting styles generally lead to children who are obedient and proficient, but they rank lower in happiness, social competence and self-esteem. EXAMPLES: -Kelly's Father wants her to be a doctor. Kelly is currently a junior in high school and would prefer to become a psychology teacher. Kelly does not mention this to her father because he believes if he is paying for her college education, he will be the one to decide he career path. -Teddy is the father of four children he sets the rules and expects them to be followed... period. PERMISSIVE / PERMISSIVE INDULGENT: -Not demanding, but responsive -Use little punishment -The parent provides few expectations and rules and allows the child to make their own decisions. There are high levels of communication as well as warmth and love. -Permissive parenting often results in children who rank low in happiness and self-regulation. These children are more likely to experience problems with authority and tend to perform poorly in school. EXAMPLES: -Ethel believes that children should not be constrained by rules and regulations, therefore, her three children have no chores or responsibilities around the house. Ethel spends much time with them and loves them very much -Maddie is fifty-years old but feels young again when she is around her children. She wants to be friends with her children rather than a parent, she allows her teenage children to throw parties at the house and to come home whenever they like. She thinks that she is being "cool" without realizing that her children need a parent not a friend. AUTHORITATIVE: = -Demanding and responsive -Exert control by establishing/enforcing rules, but they also explain the reasons for the rules - The parent establishes clear limits and provides explanations for consequences. There is open communication between the parent and child, but the parent makes the ultimate decision. This collaborative parenting style offers the child love and warmth. -APA parenting style of choice -Authoritative parenting styles tend to result in children who are happy, capable and successful (Maccoby, 1992). EXAMPLES: -Mindy will be attending the high school prom in a few weeks, her parents realize that this is a special event and that Mindy's normal curfew may not be appropriate. They seek her input and together establish a new set of guidelines for the prom weekend. -George has chores to do at home and responsibilities in caring for his younger siblings. Occasionally, he forgets to do his chores or does not treat one of his siblings with respect. If this occurs, his parents will discuss with him why they are upset and provide an appropriate punishment ADDITIONAL STYLE: UNINVOLVED / PERMISSIVE NEGLECTFUL: -Not demanding; not responsive -Egocentric Parents -Uninvolved parenting styles rank lowest across all life domains. These children tend to lack self-control, have low self-esteem and are less competent than their peers.

true or false: a child's temperament is likely to be different as an infant than as a teenager

False

Baby reflexes

Grasping reflex- an infant will grab an object when placed in their palm sucking reflex-babies will instinctive breastfeed rooting reflex- turns face toward cheek touched) startle reflex - an infant will flail their arms when hearing a noise

reference

Piaget - theory of cognitive development Erikson - Psychosocial Stages of Development Kohlberg - theory of moral development

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

TRUST VS. MISTRUST -infants learn if the world is friendly or hostile based on if needs are dependably met, infants develop sense of trust. Infant learns world basically good & can be trusted or bad & can't be relied upon to meet one's needs. -Babies with inconsistent parents, who sometimes feed them when they cry and other times yell, learn people can't be trusted. GOOD ENDING: I can rely on others (trust) BAD ENDING: insecurity and anxiety (mistrust) EXAMPLES: -Erik was orphaned at birth during a war and was raised in an overcrowded refuge facility. When he was a baby he not held or comforted when he cried because the facility was so bad. As a child a family adopts him but he is very anxious. Because his needs were not met early, he has developed mistrust. -Baby Christopher's mom feeds him every 3 or 4 hours, burps him, walks with him when he is fussy and makes sure he is dressed warmly every time he goes outside for a walk with her. Christopher's mom wants him to develop trust. Autonomy vs. Shame: -Developing a sense of control and responsibility by caring for oneself. Toddlers given opportunities to demonstrate control over their world develop a sense of independence (autonomy) and become self-assured. Parents should encourage independence with opportunities for toddlers to explore their surroundings within safe boundaries. Toddlers who fail to have success or are restricted by overprotective parents doubt their abilities, experience feelings of humiliation (shame), and act impulsively. Child develops control over bodily functions and environment such as mastering toilet training, walking, and other skills. CAN I DO THINGS MYSELF? Toddler want to pick out their own clothes, pour their own juice, etc. Parents encourage autonomy by allowing them to try. If encouraged to try they develop autonomy and if criticized they develop shame. Favorite word in this stage - "NO!" Learning to assert own desires. Shame is disappointing authority figure. GOOD ENDING: I am my own person (autonomy) BAD ENDING: helpless to change (shame) EXAMPLES: -11. Timmy's mom pours him a bowl of Cheerios and milk. She directs him to go sit at the kitchen table. Timmy reaches for the bowl of Cheerios, announcing, "I carry it!" On the way to the table, lots of milk and cereal spill on the floor. Mom quietly cleans up the mess and thanks Timmy for his "help." Timmy's mom is helping him to develop autonomy . - Lulu's parents are attempting to potty train her and it is not going well. She has been having more and more accidents. Her parents yell at her when this happens and she feels bad. The parents may be creating a feeling of shame in Lulu. -Julian proudly announces to his parents that he wants to wear his Spiderman costume today. His parents tell him that they are going grocery shopping and to the doctor and that he cannot wear his choice. Every time Julian picks out something to wear his parents tell him no. Erikson would say that the parents of Julian need to allow him to make some decisions so that he develops autonomy. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT: -Preschool children who are exposed to larger social world and plan activities (initiative) and fantasy play feel capable. If the child is supported in attempts to initiate activities, they develop confidence in their decision making. Children who are criticized or prevented by overprotective parents or adults from taking responsibility develop anxiousness and fear (guilt). If they take initiative & assert themselves socially without breaking rules and find a balance between spontaneity and restraint. AM I A GOOD OR BAD PERSON? CAN I GET WHAT THEY WANT and NOT BREAK RULES. Getting what they want responsibly increases initiative. They are now responsible for toys, behavior, pets, and this sense of responsibility increases initiative needed in adulthood to handle new situations. Children internalize values of parents & feel bad for doing wrong even if not caught. What enables us to get along with others is behaving in socially acceptable ways, not just out fear of being caught & punished but because we see ourselves as honest, fair, etc. & would not feel right behaving in opposite way. GOOD ENDING: I can make things happen (initiative) BAD ENDING: I lack self worth (Guilt) EXAMPLES - Rocco tries to engage his friends in a game of pretend but is prevented from doing this by his preschool teacher. He feels badly because he wants to be a good boy and realizes that he should not have done this while the teacher was talking. If this happens often, according to Erikson he may feel guilt. -Five-year-old Riley's pet hamster has died and she is very upset. She tells her parents she wants to hold a memorial service for fluffy in the back yard and say goodbye. Her parents allow this because they know she needs to learn to take part in planning social interactions and develop and carry out plans. She has a lot of questions which her parents patiently answer as they help her to develop initiative. - Four-year-old Kiki tries and successfully sets up a game of hide and seek with local neighborhood children. She is more likely to take the chance to set up further games in the future. This experience is helping her to develop initiative. INDUSTRY VS INFERIORITY: Developing critical social and academic skills. School-age children who master the knowledge and social skills required for success develop a sense of themselves as competent (industry), which results in high self-esteem. School-age children who have problems learning or mastering social skills may develop a sense of inadequacy and disappointment (inferiority), which results in low self-esteem. GAIN ACCOMPLISHMENT and PRIDE IN WORK. Elementary school and for many first time efforts have been praised or found wanting in comparison to an external standard. Must learn basic skills reading, writing, teamwork, and social skills in order to get approval of adults and peers GOOD ENDING: have confidence because they are capable (industry) BAD ENDING: lack self confidence (Inferiority) EXAMPLES: -It is Little League season and third-grader, Jonathan, cannot wait! Last spring he was on Junior Little League and every time he was at bat, he made a hit. He also caught three fly balls, and won the game for the team! Jonathan's coaches, friends and parents are looking forward to Jonathan playing on the Little League team this season. Jonathon is working on developing Industry. -Marshall feels bad because all the other students in his class have mastered their multiplication tables and he is still struggling. He needs support so that he can accomplish this or he might have feelings of inferiority. IDENTITY VS. ROLE CONFUSION: -Adolescents who are able to determine who they are and their individual strengths and weaknesses develop a strong sense of self (identity). Determining a strong identity provides a solid basis for future development. Adolescents who are unable to develop a personal identity develop a weak sense of self and are confused about how they fit into the world (role confusion). ADOLESCENTS DECIDE WHAT TYPE OF PERSON THEY ARE AND DEVELOP THEIR OWN VALUES. Teenagers work at refining sense of self by testing roles and integrating them to form a single identity, or become confused about who they are. Explore different possibilities for career, interests, friends, etc. Adolescents are trying different behaviors and values from what they have learned at home. May experiment with alcohol, drugs, sex, minor crimes, new religions, and new hobbies. Trying to define themselves separate from parents, although, in end, most adopt many of parents' values and behaviors as well as unique views of their own. Erikson most well-known for his writings on adolescence, particularly the identity crisis. GOOD ENDING: I know who I am as a person (identity) BAD ENDING: unclear sense of self (role confusion) EXAMPLES: -Annie's parents are doctors. Her grandparents are doctors. In fact, Annie's parents have told her that after her high school graduation, they are looking forward to her entering the same college and medical school they attended. Annie waits for just the right time to announce her plans to travel to Europe after high school to pursue her interest in drawing and painting, and to learn Italian. She loves her parents but has not intention of going to medical school. Annie has developed Identity .-Monica never found out who she was but was looking for a place to belong and joined a gang. She never explored her own interests and instead adopted the values and beliefs of the gang without question. Monica is experiencing role confusion. INTIMACY VS. ISOLATION: -Young adults who develop strong, healthy relationships that are open and warm (intimacy) resolve this crisis successfully. Young adults who are unable to establish close, loving relationships by opening up to others experience loneliness (isolation). EARLY ADULTHOOD WHERE PEOPLE ATTEMPT TO FORM LOVING LASTING RELATIONSHIPS. Young adults need healthy friendships and an intimate relationship with another for intimacy or else they will experience isolation. Struggle to form close relationships and gain capacity for intimate love, or feel socially isolated. For Erikson, intimacy must come after identity because you cannot be sure person is right for you unless you are sure who YOU are. 1st, define your interests, goals; desires and then you can know if this person fits with those values. GOOD ENDING: I can be close to others BAD ENDING: feeling alone EXAMPLES: -Samuel is tired of meeting women at parties and dating lots of different people. Sure, it can be fun sometimes, but now that he has finished college and is settled in his career he would rather have one special person to settle down with and share his life. Samuel is seeking Intimacy. GENERATIVITY VS. STAGNATION: -Finding fulfillment and providing guidance for future generations. Middle-aged adults who take an active role in society through their family or career establish feelings of usefulness and accomplishment (generativity). Individuals who successfully resolve this crisis direct their attention toward assisting the next generation. -Middle-aged adults who do not develop an investment or connection to the world and are self-absorbed experience frustration and depression (stagnation) because they have not made a difference for future generations. Struggle to be productive at home and work and contribute to next generation. TRY TO LEAVE A MARK ON OUR WORLD. Offer advice to younger people. GOOD ENDING: met goals and have purpose BAD ENDING: I do not make a difference EXAMPLES: -Liviu Librescu a Holocaust survivor, at age 76, was the head of the aeronautical engineering department at Virginia Tech. He was passionate about teaching and had no intention of retiring. He viewed his life as a success and that he still had much more to give. Tragically, he was killed in the Virginia Tech massacre shielding the door with his own body so his students could jump out of the window. According to Erikson, Professor Librescu was experiencing generativity when his life was taken. (true story) -Danton is sad because he feels his job is meaningless. He set out into his career hoping to become a well-known writer, but 20 years after college he is still working for the government rewriting training manuals that nobody reads. Right now Danton is experiencing what Erikson calls stagnation. INTEGRITY VS. DESPAIR: -Reflection and evaluation on whether or not life was meaningful and avoiding regrets. -Late adult individuals who reflect back on their life experiences and evaluate them favorably believe that life was successful and meaningful (integrity). Late adult individuals who look back at their life experiences and are dissatisfied because of regrets and missed opportunities experience anger or depression (despair) because they believe that their life was meaningless, wasted, or unsuccessful. STRUGGLE TO COME TO TERMS WITH LIFE AS A WHOLE. GOOD ENDING: wisdom - happiness with life BAD ENDING: disappointment and regret over life EXAMPLES: -Rosemary loves when her grandchildren visit. She proudly tells them of the great times she had with raising her family and making a nice home for everyone she loves. Sometimes, she wishes she went to college and worked outside the home as her husband did, but Rosemary says, "If I did that, I probably wouldn't have had the time to enjoy such a beautiful family!" Rosemary is happy with her life choices overall and most likely successfully achieved Integrity .

The amount of brain cells you are born with are the amount you will have. You do NOT develop more brain cells

The amount of brain cells you are born with are the amount you will have. You do NOT develop more brain cells

Zone of Proximal Development

The difference between what a child can do alone and what the child can do with the help of a teacher EXAMPLE: If Jenny can do math problems at a 4th grade level on her own, but can work up to a 6th grade level with the help of a teacher, her ZPD is two years If Suzy can do math problems at a 4th grade level on her own, but can work up to a 5th grade level with the help of a teacher, her ZPD is one year - not as great as Jenny's

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

Gender Role

a socially expected behavior for a male or female gender role awareness : knowledge of what behavior is socially appropriate for each gender

why don't we remember our infancy?

because of a lack of neural pathways

Intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

Secondary Sex Characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics, sch as female breasts and hips, male voice quality and body hair this development often occurs during the growth spurt

Gender Identity

one's sense of being male or female

Identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Ainsworth's Strange Situations

put kids a room with and have the mom leave, leaving the child with a stranger to see their reaction.

animism

the attribution of a soul to plants, inanimate objects, and natural phenomena. Animism. This is the belief that inanimate objects (such as toys and teddy bears) have human feelings and intentions. By animism Piaget (1929) meant that for the preoperational child the world of nature is alive, conscious and has a purpose.

Primary Sex Characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible this development often occurs during the growth spurt

Menarche

the first menstrual period

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

Menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

these are the preconventional, conventional, and post conventional stages. all listed above.

Habituation

-Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation -As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they will look away sooner -Infants pay more attention to new objects than habituated ones -Demonstrates learning -The first time a baby sees a balloon, it may closely watch it and be intrigued; the fifth time however, it might care less

cross-sequential studies

-Different participants of various ages are compared at several points in time, to determine both age-related differences and age-related changes -Combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies -Advantages -- examine multiple age groups in a short period of time --eliminates Cultural cohort differences -Disadvantage - Takes a while and participants may drop out

Developmental Psychology

-The scientific study of the changes that occur in people from conception to death -"womb to tomb" - a major concern involves continuity or stages

Attachment

-an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation -by 12 months, infants typically cling tightly to a parent when they are frightened or expect separation.

Testosterone

-the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty -the male's greater output of testosterone starts the development of external male sex organs in the seventh week

Social Learning Theory

-the theory that our social behavior (including gender roles) by observing, imitating, and being reinforced/punished -Bandura's view of human development; emphasizes interaction -There are different parts to this theory. First, we learn by observing others. Second, our mental state is important in the learning process. Third, learning doesn't mean there will be a change in behavior. -think of Bobo doll experiment

Concrete Operational Stage

-7 to 11 years old -Children become capable of logical thought processes; physical, concrete, touchable reality; lack abstract thinking -Developmental phenomena: conservation, reversible thinking, mathematical transformation -Developmental limitations: abstract thinking (freedom, peace, love, etc. ) EXAMPLES: -Child can draw conclusions from a number of specific facts, but is not able to think in hypotheticals. -Child begins to understand during this stage that objects can change shape without other changes in their characteristics (conservation). -Child understands and performs operations that go in the other direction (known as reversibility). An example is addition and subtraction. -A child can explain that 3 x 2 represents three sets of two.

Schema

-A concept or framework that organizes & interprets information -Mental molds into which we pour our experiences so that the maturing brain can continually build upon concepts EXAMPLES: -If Bob points to a picture of an apple and tells his child, "that's an apple," the child forms a schema for "apple" that looks something like the picture EXAMPLE OF SCHEMA, ASSIMILATION, AND ACCOMMODATION -two year old Gabriella learned the scheme for cow from her picture books. she sees a moose and calls it a cow, trying to assimilate this new animal into an existing schema; her mother tells her that no, it's a moose. Gabriella then accommodates her schema for large, shaggy animals and continues to modify that scheme to include "mommy moose," "baby moose," and so forth.

Teratogens

-Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm -Rubella: Blindness; deafness; heart defects; brain damage -Marijuana: Irritability; nervousness; tremors -Cocaine: Decreased height; low birth weight; respiratory problems; learning difficulties; seizures -Alcohol: FAS (intellectual disability, delayed growth, facial malformation); learning difficulties; smaller than normal head size -Nicotine: Miscarriage; low birth weight; stillbirth; short stature; intellectual disability; learning disabilities -Mercury:Intellectual disability; blindness -Syphilis: Intellectual disability; deafness; meningitis -Caffeine: Miscarriage; low birth weight -Radiation: Higher incidence of cancers; physical deformities -Water Temperature: Increased chance of neural tube defects

Cognition

-All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering and communicating

Temperament

-The behavioral and emotional characteristics that are fairly well-established at birth -Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess studied temperament in babies and found three types: -Easy babies: Regular, good-natured, easy to care for, adaptable -Difficult Babies: Irregular, moody & loud, react negatively to new situations -Slow to warm up babies: Quieter, slow to respond to new situations Jerome Kagan later added a fourth temperament: shy child - Timid and inhibited; fearful of anything new or strange Longitudinal research (Kagan, 1998) strongly suggests that these temperament styles last well into adulthood, although there is the potential for environmental influence

Puberty

-The onset of sexual maturation; marks the beginning of adolescence; lasts approximately 5 years -Primary sex characteristics reach full maturity during this period -Menarche (the first menstrual period) & Spermarche (the first ejaculation)

Embryo

-The phase lasting from two weeks until the end of the second month -once it attaches firmly to the uterus, it's called an embryo. -major organs and structures begin to develop right now -has primitive eyes, nose, lips, teeth, arms, and legs, plus a heart beat -2 weeks to 8 weeks

Autism

-a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind -strikes about 1 in 150 American children

self-concept / self concept

our understanding and evaluation of who we are

Preconventional

-typical of young children -focused on self-interest; consequences determine morality -obey rules to (1) avoid punishment or (2) gain concrete awards -people obey laws in order to gain reinforcements or avoid punishment -most children are in this stage during Piaget's preoperational stage of development TWO MAIN TYPES: -punishment avoidance: obedience to authority is considered -exchange of favors/pleasure seeking: aiming at reward in the future EXAMPLES OF TWO MAIN TYPES: PUNISHMENT AVOIDANCE: --"he shouldn't steal the drug because he might get caught and be punished" -- 4. Olga is behind in school and needs extra time to finish a major research paper. She lies to her teacher and says she was unable to finish her paper because she broke up with her boyfriend Olaf. The breakup was dramatic and Olaf did not take it well. She told her teacher that she could not get any work done because Olaf kept calling, texting, and face-timing her all weekend. Olga justifies that lying about the breakup (Olaf is still her boyfriend) is morally acceptable because she does not want to get an F on her paper. EXCHANGE OF FAVORS -Lester is taking the AP Norwegian exam and decides to copy off of the person sitting next to him. He decides that cheating is acceptable in this situation because he needs a 5 on the exam in order to receive credit from the college he will be attending. -Dana found a diamond ring outside on the ground on her way to school and turns it in to the police because she is hoping the owner will give her big reward.

Mary Ainsworth

-The "Stranger Situation" -Identified 4 distinct styles of attachment --Secure --Avoidant --Ambivalent --Disorganized-Disoriented -studied attachment differences by observing mother infant pairs at home during their 1st six months. then she observed the 1 year olds in a strange environment without their mothers.

Jean Piaget

-Piaget DID NOT believe that a child's mind was a mini-adult mind -believed that children's moral judgements build on their cognitive development -Believed that cognitive development is shaped by errors; a struggle to make sense of our experiences as children -developed different stages: --sensorimotor --preoperational --concrete operational --formal operational

Preoperational Stage

-2 to 7 years old -Children learn to use language as a means of exploring the world; however, they are not yet capable of logical thought -Too young to perform mental operations; lack conservation -developmental phenomena that occur in this stage: pretend play, animism, egocentrism, centration, irreversibility EXAMPLES: -Child starts to represent the world internally through language. - At the start of the stage, the child cannot take another point of view. (egocentric) -A child doesn't sneak a cookie when his mom outside because he thinks that she can see what he sees (egocentrism) -A child is asked to add 3 and 2. Using his fingers, he counts and answers "5". Asked to then add 2 + 3, the child uses his fingers again to get the same answer (irreversibility) -A child is given a cardboard box and pretends that it is a train. -Upon overhearing his mother mention that it is difficult for a woman to "make it to the top of a large corporation", the child asks why she can't just take the elevator. -When given one cookie for snack, the child begs for more. Her mother breaks the cookie into two pieces and the child is happy. THEORY OF MIND: 4 to 5 years People's ideas about their own and others' mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict Seek to understand... Why their playmate is angry... Why their sibling will share... Why their parent would buy a toy... CRITICISM: -Judy DeLoache (1987) found that children as young as 3 are able to use mental operations & think symbolically -When shown a model of a dog's hiding place, a 2 ½-year-old could not locate the stuffed dog in an actual room, but a three year old could...

Zygote

-A single sperm cell penetrates the outer coating of the egg and fuses to form one fertilized cell -the fertilized egg; it enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo -conception to 2 weeks

Albert Bandura

-Bobo doll experiment -studied social learning -in this unit, focus is more on his ideas surrounding development. -Discovered that even chance events can have lasting significance because they often deflect us down one road rather than another -romantic attraction for example is often influenced by chance encounters. -wrote "Psychology of Chance Encounters and Life Paths"

Erik Erikson

-Concept of "Basic Trust" --Securely attached children tend to believe that the world is predictable and trustworthy Erikson attributed attachment & basic trust to parenting -Identified eight stages of psychosocial development; first four occur during childhood; each contains a developmental "crisis" --Trust versus Mistrust (Birth-1 year) --Autonomy versus Shame & Doubt (1-3 years old) --Initiative versus Guilt (3-5 years old) --Industry versus Inferiority (5-12 years old) Also, psychosocial stage theory: -Identity versus Role Confusion (Stage 5) --The premier challenge of adolescence is the struggle to form a clear sense of identity ---Stable concept of oneself as a unique individual ---Adoption of values that provide a sense of direction ---"Who am I?" ---"Where am I going in life?" -Recognized that this struggle often extends beyond adolescence -was a neo-Freudian psychologist who accepted many of the central tenets of Freudian theory but added his own ideas and beliefs. His theory of psychosocial development is centered on what is known as the epigenetic principle, which proposes that all people go through a series of eight stages. -contended that each stage of life has its own psychosocial task, a crisis that needs resolution. -his interests were bred by his own life experience. He was dubbed an outsider by having a Jewish mother and a Danish gentile father. This spurred his interest in the adolescent struggle for identity.

Assimilation

-Interpreting a new experience in terms of an existing schema -Piaget suggested that we interpret new experiences in terms of our current understandings. -for example, toddlers may call all four legged animals cows EXAMPLE: Bob's child might see an orange & say "apple" because both objects are round

Lorenz's Geese

-Konrad Lorenz explored the rigid attachment process of imprinting by seeing if ducklings would imprint on him. They did, and followed him around everywhere. Further tests revealed that although baby birds imprint best to their own species, they also will imprint to a variety of moving objects like other animals, a box on wheels, and a bouncing ball.

Cross-sectional study

-Participants of various ages are compared at one point in time to determine age-related differences (SNAPSHOTS) -Advantages --Inexpensive --Quickly completed --Low attrition rate -Disadvantages --Different age groups are not necessarily alike --Differences may be attributed to cohort differences as opposed to age differences

Accommodation

-The process of adjusting/modifying a schema -as we interact with the world, we accommodate our schemes to incorporate information provided by new experiences EXAMPLE When Bob corrects his child, the child might alter the schema for apple to include "round" and "red"

Longitudinal study

-The same participants are studied at various ages to determine age-related changes (MOVING PICTURES) -Advantages --Detailed information --In-depth study of developmental changes --Eliminates cohort differences -Disadvantages -Expensive & time consuming -Potential for high attrition rate -Differences over time may be attributed to assessment tools, not necessarily age

Conventional

-Typical of older children, adolescents & most adults -Conformity is right; nonconformity is wrong -One upholds the law simply because it's the law -two types: Good girl/good boy and Law and Order/ authority orientation -based on gaining the respect of others and conforming to societal norms -make decisions off what parents and peers will think of them EXAMPLES GOOD BOY/GOOD GIRL: -Darton found $100 in the street and decides to give it to a charity so his friends will think he is a kind and generous. -Mark saw a classmate cheat. He decides not to tell the teacher, because he wants to be liked by his friends and classmates who would mock him as a tattletale if he reported the dishonesty. Mark determines what is right by what others believe. -Timothy volunteers at the local food bank because he wants his friends and family to think he is a responsible young man. LAW AND ORDER: -Doris refuses to join her friends on Senior Ditch Day because unexcused absences are against the school rules. Doris believes it is very important to follow all the rules and not question them. -"I don't steal cause it's against the rules"

Postconventional

-about 20% of the adult population -Moral principles determined by the individual; may disagree with societal norms -Actions are judged "right" because they come from self-defined, basic ethical principles -involves acting on own personal beliefs rather then having value on avoiding consequence Two types: -social contract: rules are open to question but are upheld for the good of the community -universal ethical principle / morality of individual principles - high value is placed on justice, dignity, and equality EXAMPLES SOCIAL CONTRACT ORIENTATION: -2. Doris is also taking the AP Norwegian exam but decides not to cheat, because she believes that to uphold the integrity of this exam she should do her best without any outside assistance. -He should not steal the drug. The druggist is unfair but mutual respect for the rights of others must be maintained MORALITY OF INDIVIDUAL: -he should steal the drug but alert authorities that he has done it. he will have to face a penalty, but he will save a life. - 7. Tessa is deeply bothered by the situation in Syria and decides that she should drop out of college and help the resistance. She begins helping smuggle refuges into the United States illegally. Her own moral code dictates that she gets involved in any human rights offenses.

G. Stanley Hall

-american psychologist who established the first psychology research laboratory in the United States and founded the American Psychological Association -one of the first psychologists to describe adolescence -believed the tension between biological maturity and social dependence creates a period of "storm and stress."

Critical Period

-an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development -in many animals, attachments based on familiarity likewise form during this period -for goslings, ducklings, or chicks, that period falls in the hours shortly after hatching, when the first moving object the see is normally their mother.

Fetus

-at this time, the fetus experiences tremendous growth -muscles begin to contract -baby moves into position -the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth -9 weeks (2 months) to birth

Egocentrism

-in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view -A child doesn't sneak a cookie when his mom outside because he thinks that she can see what he sees. EXAMPLE "John, do you have a brother?" "Yes." "What's his name?" "Jim." "Does Jim have a brother?" "No."

Gender

-in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female -a socially constructed notion of what is feminine and what is masculine Gender consistency: the realization (usually 4 or 5 and based upon genitalia) that gender does not change with age. Gender typing: the acquisition of a particular masculine or feminine role Gender stereotypes: oversimplified beliefs about characteristics that all men and women are presumed to have A Few Anecdotal Gender Differences: -Compared to the average man the average woman has 70% more fat, possesses 40% less muscle and is 5 inches shorter -Women enter puberty 2 yrs sooner -Women are more likely to dream equally of men and women, to become sexually re-aroused after orgasm, smell faint odors, express emotions freely. -Women are doubly vulnerable to depression and anxiety -Women are 10 times greater risk for eating disorders -Men are four times likely to be diagnosed with autism, color-blindness, hyperactivity, and antisocial personality disorder Gender Differences in Aggression -Men tend to behave more physically aggressive. This is found in various cultures are various ages. US male to female arrest ration for murder is 9 to 1. -Men express more support for Iraq war. 51% Men vs. 34% of Women on Bush's Iraq policy in 2005 Gallup poll there is so much more gender info then i thought and this little handout, so just go read the Gender Development handout

John Bowlby

-studied attachment and anxiety in infants -discovered that when infants, both monkeys and humans, are separated from their families, they become upset and before long, withdrawn and even despairing. -this is why courts are reluctant to remove children from their homes, as they are worried about the lasting stress of separation.

Harry Harlow

-studied attachment through contact -Role of physical contact, or "contact comfort" in attachment -university of wisconsin psychologist who bred monkeys for learning studies -to equalize the infant monkey's experiences and to isolate any diseases, he separated them from their mothers shortly after birth. He raised them in sanitary individual cages with a blanket, and when he washed the blanket, he recognized their intense attachment to it, as they became distressed. -this led to his next study. he created two artificial mothers - one a bare wire cylinder with a wooden head and an attached feeding bottle, and the other a cylinder wrapped with terry cloth -the monkey infants overall preferred the terry cloth mother and would cling to the cloth mother when anxious.

Lawrence Kohlberg

-studied moral development -As with all developmental stage theories, the sequence is unvarying --Preconventional --Conventional --Postconventional -Adolescents & adults can be found in all 3 levels -posed moral dilemmas like if you should steal life saving medicine to save the life of a loved one. -sought to describe the development of moral reasoning, the thinking that occurs as we consider right and wrong

Stranger Anxiety

-the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age -at this age, children have schemas for familiar faces; when they cannot assimilate the new face into these remembered sechames, they become distressed -sensorimotor stage

Conservation

-the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects -think of Piaget breaking crackers with children, asking which is more. -also think of the water thing, asking children which water has more. -EXAMPLE: When given one cookie for snack, the child begs for more. Her mother breaks the cookie into two pieces and the child is happy.

Y Chromosome

-the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child. to clarify: female: XX; male: XY

Adolescence

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT: -characteristics of the teenage brain: -Volume of white matter increases; significant growth of myelin sheath --Leads to enhanced conductivity & connectivity in the brain -Volume of gray matter decreases; synaptic pruning Elimination of less-active synapses -Myelination & pruning are most pronounced in the frontal lobe/prefrontal cortex --"Executive control center" --Frontal lobe development lags behind the limbic system; not thought to be complete until the mid-20s -sexual development: -Growth spurt --Girls (age 10); boys (age 12) --Puberty generally occurs (on average) two years after the initial growth spurt -Pubescence -The two-year span preceding puberty during which the changes leading to physical & sexual maturity take place Secondary sex characteristics begin to develop during this period -Puberty: -The onset of sexual maturation; marks the beginning of adolescence; lasts approximately 5 years -Primary sex characteristics reach full maturity during this period -Menarche & Spermarche COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: -Piaget's stage theory: Due to the continuing maturation of the frontal lobes, abstract and hypothetical thinking become possible -formal operational -***Not all adolescents use their formal operational thought processes equally well... -characteristics of adolescent thought: --introspection --personal fable (form of egocentrism): The belief that they (+ their experiences) are unique and therefore, they are protected from harm/invulnerable (we're just different, you don't understand & it can't happen to me, i'm special ) -Imaginary Audience (form of egocentrism) --Type of thought common to most adolescents --The belief that other people are just as concerned about their thoughts & characteristics as they themselves are -kohlberg's theory of development with preconventional, conventional, and post conventional PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT: -Identity versus Role Confusion (Stage 5) -The premier challenge of adolescence is the struggle to form a clear sense of identity -Stable concept of oneself as a unique individual -Adoption of values that provide a sense of direction --"Who am I?" --"Where am I going in life?" -Recognized that this struggle often extends beyond adolescence Jeffrey arnett with emerging adulthood: Jeffrey Arnett, Emerging Adulthood A new transitional period? Ages 18-25; attributed to a variety of demographic trends Length of education; delay of education; delay of parenthood; increasing barriers to financial independence Characteristics Exploration and instability A feeling of "in-betweenness" "Age of possibilities" (Identity formation well into young-adulthood)

4 Styles of Attachment: Secure, Avoidant, Ambivalent, Disorganized

SECURE: -Very willing to explore -Frequently "touched base" -Wary of strangers, but calm as long as the mother was nearby -When the mother left, the infant was noticeably upset; however, he or she was easily soothed upon her return -generally corresponds to secure attachment in adult hood EXAMPLES: -Neli cries when her mother leaves the room and seeks out a hug when she returns. -David's mother invites her friends over for coffee. David freely interacts with his mother's friends and tries to engage them in his play AVOIDANT / ANXIOUS-AVOIDANT INSECURE: -Only somewhat willing to explore -Did not "touch base" -Did not look at strangers -Reacted very little to mother's absence or to her return -**Generally corresponds to dismissive attachment in adulthood EXAMPLES: -Amanda shows indifference to her mother's presence. -When Phillip's father enters the house, he tries to cuddle with Phillip and give him a hug. Phillip struggles to get free and does not seem to want the contact with his father -Josie is playing when her mother leaves for the grocery store, leaving Josie's older sister in charge. Josie notices her mother leave the house but does not seem to care that she has gone AMBIVALENT / ANXIOUS-AMBIVALENT INSECURE: -Unwilling to explore; clingy -Very upset by strangers regardless of mother's presence -Very upset by mother's departure; not easily soothed -Mixed reaction to mother's return -Generally corresponds to preoccupied attachment in adulthood *** EXAMPLES: -Jorge is clingy and will not leave his mother's side -Kara's mother works outside of the home, when her mother returns, Kara will play near her, but does not attempt to make contact with her. -Andrew does not seek out independent activities seeking to remain close to his mother, when she leaves momentarily, he cries hysterically DISORGANIZED: -Subsequent studies by Mary Main & Erik Hesse (1990) -Sometimes referred to as Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment -Generally fearful with dazed and depressed expression -Unable to decide how they should react to their mother's return; little to no eye contact