US History: Freedom's boundaries at home and abroad 1890-1900
Becoming a World Power: Freedom Debated
"Republic or Empire?" Opposition to Empire - Anti-Imperialist League United writers and social reformers who wanted reforms at home, businessmen who thought overseas empire was too expensive, and racists who did not want non-whites brought within the United States Warned Americans that empire was incompatible with democracy and urged Americans to help Puerto Ricans and Filipinos gain their independence Both sides used the language of freedom 1900 - Bryan (Democrat) nominated to run against McKinley - opposed the Philippine War for military subjugating a foreign people that had demanded "liberty and self-government" Imperialists - America practiced a "benevolent" imperialism that would uplift backward cultures and spread liberty (Senator Albert Beveridge of Indiana) 1900 - McKinley won re-election benefiting from economic recovery and a swell of American patriotism following the US victory during the Spanish-American WarAmerica at the start of the 20th century Seemed destined to become the world's greatest industrial and imperial power While the US would not "outweigh any single empire, if not all empires combined" (Adams The New Empire) until after WWII, America's global strength and economic might were already present in 1900 - surpassing Great Britain, France and Germany in industrial production Stable forces - Merger movement (1897-1904) left much of the economy in the control in the hands of corporations, politics had stabilized, the North and South had reconciled (Spanish-American War) Racial lines - segregation, Chinese exclusion, Indian reservations limited the boundaries of freedom
The Philippine War
(1899-1903)Former Spanish colonies had welcomed American intervention as a means of achieving independence - but continued American control quickly led to conflict Philippines - Emilio Aguinaldo established a provisional government modeled after the US government, but with McKinley deciding to retain possession - the Filipinos rebelled War lasted from 1899-1903 100,000 Filipinos and 4,200 Americans were killed Hotly debated in the US - with accusations of atrocities against Filipino civilians - McKinley countered that the war was an effort "uplift and civilize and Christianize," but most Filipinos were already Catholic W.H. Taft - led the colonial government and modernized the islands with railroads, schools, public health officials, and modern agriculture US Policies - favored land-based elites (either native born or American) and usually created persistent poverty for the majority
Grover Cleveland
(22nd and 24th president) Democrat First Term - 1885-1889; (won popular vote in 1888, but lost electoral college to William McKinley) Second Term - 1893-1897 Wife/First Lady - Frances Folsom Vice President - Thomas A. Kendricks (1885-1889) and Adlai Stevension (1893-1897)
William McKinley
(25th President)Republican First Term - 1897-1901, Second Term - 1901 (assassinated) Wife/First Lady - Ida Saxton Vice Presidents - Garret Hobart (1897-1899); None (1899-1901); Theodore Roosevelt (1901) Passed - Dingley Tarrif of 1897 (raising rates to the highest in history) and Gold Standard Act of 1900
the peoples party
1890s - The Farmer's Alliance evolved into the People's Party (or Populists) and became the era's greatest political insurgency Base - cotton and wheat belts of the South and West, but also attracted "producing classes" (miners and industrial workers) Built a vast network and established over 1,000 local newspapers and sent traveling speakers throughout rural America Key - The Populists used the familiar language of radicalism while embracing the modern technologies that made large-scale cooperative enterprise possible
populism and labor
1894 - Populists increased their efforts to appeal to industrial workers, as the economic depression deepened - millions of voters abandoned Democratic President Cleveland 1894 - Populist vote increased But urban workers (largely Catholic) did not come to the Populist side because their core issues of the "subtreasury plan and lower mortgage interest rates" did not appeal to them Urban workers shifted to the Republicans (who favored raising tariffs) - and the Republicans won both the Presidency and one of the most decisive victories in US congressional gaining 117 seats in the House!
Debs and the Pullman Strike
1894 - strike in Pullman, Illinois by workers who made railroad sleeping cars American Railway Union - announced that it would refuse to handle trains with Pullman cars Richard Olney (attorney general to Pres. Grover Cleveland) obtained a federal court injunction ordering the strikers back to work Federal troops and US marshals occupied railroad centers and clashes led to 34 deaths Leader - Eugene V. Debs imprisoned for violating the judicial order, but was met by 100K people upon his release
Bryan and free silver
1896 - Democrats and Populists united behind William Jennings Bryan (36-year-old congressmen from Nebraska) Bryan - called for the "free coinage" of silver using biblical imagery (for which he was criticized) Bryan - increasing the amount of money in circulation would raise prices for farmers and make it easier to pay off debts Money question had been a major political question since the Jacksonian era Devoutly religious (Presbyterian) and a strong proponent of the "Social Gospel" and against "Social Darwinism" Embarked on a "stump tour" of the country seeking to rally farmers and workers to his cause (started new tradition)
The segregated South: Work and movement
Black Life in the South Black farmers were the most disadvantaged rural southerners Upper South - some factories offered some jobs to black workers, and some black farmers owned land Rice Kingdom (South Carolina and Georgia) - Plantations went to ruin, and many blacks acquired land and became self-sufficient farmers Deep South - Blacks owned a smaller percentage of land in 1900 than they had in the late 1870s Southern Cities - institutions such as schools, churches, businesses, and clubs created during Reconstruction formed the basis of dynamic black urban communities Labor Market - racially divided with black men excluded from skilled and professional occupations and black women were limited to wage work as domestic servants, and were excluded from occupations open to white women Southern Unions - excluded blacks from membership Black Life in the South The Kansas Exodus 60,000 blacks migrated to Kansas in 1879-1880 seeking political rights, safety, education, and economic opportunity Called the move "the Exodus" (Israelite flight from slavery in Egypt) Most blacks had no choice but to stay in the South Northern cities - continued economic expansion, but most employers offered jobs only to white migrants from rural areas and European immigrants During WWI - northern jobs opened for blacks, which was a main factor in the "Great Migration"
Becoming a world power: white man's burden
Citizens or Subjects? 1899 - British writer Rudyard Kipling called for the US to take up the "white man's burden" of imperialism American supporters of empire felt that white domination of non-white peoples represented the progress of civilization Debate - concerning the relationship between democracy, race, and American citizenship US system and Declaration of Independence had no provision for permanent colonies - and the right of every people to self government was a key principle Jefferson - new territories should eventually be admitted as new states resulting in an "empire of liberty" with its residents being US citizens
Redrawing the Boundaries: Unionism
The Rise of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) 1890s - dissolution of the Knights of Labor and rise of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) signaled move from broad reforms to more limited aims Unions should avoid seeking economic independence, politics, or the utopian goals of groups like the Knights (Samuel Gompers - AFL founder and president) Unions should bargain with employers for higher wages and better working conditions "Business Unionism" - Unions that used the language of business culture Embraced the idea of freedom of contract But turned it into an argument against the interference of judges with worker's rights to organize unions Union membership steadily increased in the 1890s Rejected Knight's ideal of solidarity and restricted membership to skilled workers which excluded most unskilled labors (blacks, women, new European immigrants) AFL became strong in trades with highly skilled workers (printing and construction), but work in basic industries that dominated the economy (e.g., steel)
Redrawing the Boundaries: A New Generation
The Women's Era Greater opportunities for economic independence and a role in public life Five million worked for wages by 1900 New generation of college-educated women were taking better-paid-white-collar jobs (although usually were young, unmarried, and worked in traditional women's jobs) Increased influence in politics and society (e.g., Women's Christian Temperance Union founded in 1874) Feminism moved away from demanding equal rights to claims more in line with dominant racial and ethnic norms Native-born, white, and middle class women who dominated the suffrage movement laid claim to the vote as members of a "superior race" Complained - unworthy non-whites such as immigrants had the right to vote while white women did not
the populist challenge
Depression Government and Labor Severe depression in 1893 led to increased conflict between capital and labor (opportunity for Populism to expand) Continual use of state and federal authorities to protect or put down threats against businesses 1892 - governor of Idaho declared martial law and sent militia to break a strike in the mining region of Coeur d'Alene 1894 - federal government deployed soldiers to disperse Coxey's Army (band of several hundred unemployed men led by Jacob Coxey who were converging on Washington D.C.
Drawing the global color line
Following the Spanish-American War - nationalism, democracy, and American freedom seemed aligned with ideas of Anglo-Saxon supremacy Both parties wanted to maintain possession of the new territories but wanted to avoid the consequences of incorporating "alien races" into America Foraker Act of 1900 Declared Puerto Rico an "insular" territory different than other previous American territories. Blocked a future path of Puerto Rico to statehood with the Filipinos being given the same status 1901-1904 - Supreme Court "Insular Cases" - the Constitution did not fully apply to overseas territories held by the US - the new territories had to receive fundamental rights, but could be governed freely for an indefinite amount of time Hawaii became a traditional territory and became a state in 1959 Philippines became independent in 1946 Puerto Ricans received citizenship in 1917, but remained part of the "commonwealth" Global Impact of US - inspiration for other "Anglo-Saxon" nations leading to Chinese exclusion, discriminatory laws in Canada, South Africa, and Australia (example of Jim Crow South)
the populist challenge: producers
The Farmer's Revolt Response to falling agricultural prices and growing economic dependency in rural areas Smaller farmers faced increasing economic insecurity (sharecropping) Interruption of cotton exports during Civil War led to rapid expansion in India, Egypt, and Brazil creating a flooded market and low prices Farmers blamed the railroad companies (high freight charges), bankers (high interest rates), and the government (reduction of money supply) Farmer's Alliance - largest citizen's movement of the 19th cent. Founded in Texas in the late 1870s and spread to 43 states by 1890 Attempted to improve rural conditions by the cooperative financing and marketing of crops Proposed that the federal government establish warehouses where farmers could store their crops until they were sold Subtreasury Plan - The crops would be used as collateral - which would allow the government to issue loans to farmers at low interest rates - reducing the dependence of farmers on banks and merchants
Becoming a World Power: Expansion
American Expansionism 1890s marked a major transformation of America's relationship to the rest of the world Until 1890s - US had expanded in North American Monroe Doctrine (1820s) - most Americans viewed the Western Hemisphere as the sphere of American influence Desire to acquire Cuba, Dominican Republic, and other territories Focus - expansion of trade, not new possessions Problem - American overproduction causing economic crises Solution - marketing American goods internationally American Expansionism The Lure of Empire Christian missionaries expanded American influence in the late 19th century Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions - mission was to prepare the world for Christ's second coming and enlighten the heathens abroad Josiah Strong (Congregational clergyman) - wrote Our Country - argued that "Anglo-Saxon Americans" should spread their institutions and values to "inferior races" overseas who would benefit American manufacturers through their consumption The Influence of Sea Power Upon History (1890) - Naval officer Alfred T. Mahan Nations needed a large merchant fleet engaged in international trade with a powerful navy to protect it - which required overseas bases (e.g., Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Cuba) Hawaii "acquisition" 1893 - American planters organized a rebellion which overthrew the Hawaiian government (Queen Liliukalani) 1898 - Hawaii annexed during the Spanish-American War
Becoming a World Power: Dependents
An American Empire Liberation of Cuba led to the creation of a small overseas American empire McKinley did not return the Philippines to Spain or hand it over to the Filipinos who had fought for independence (American duty was to "uplift and civilize" the Filipinos) Treaty - US acquired the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and Guam Before the recognition of Cuba's independence - required new government to approve the Platt Amendment to the new Cuban constitution US had the right to intervene in Cuba with its military when it saw fit Cuban patriots were disappointed and felt betrayed - critical part of the revolution in Cuba fifty years later Purpose of American "Empire" - not settlement or extracting resources (colonial interests), but outposts for trade 1899 - Open Door Policy (Sec. State John Hay) - demanded that European powers that had divided up China into commercial spheres of influence allow trade access to America Boxer Rebellion - Christian Chinese and foreigners targeted by Chinese nationalists - American troops quelled the uprising
the populists
Platform Nation brought to the verge of moral, political, and material ruin by political corruption and economic inequality (Ignatius Donnelly) Direct election of US Senators Government control of US currency Graduated income tax System of low-cost public financing to enable farmers to market their crops Recognition of the right of workers to form labor unions Public ownership of the railroads to guarantee inexpensive access to market crops Coalition Unification of black and white small farmers on common political and economic program In southern branches - black farmers formed their own organization - Colored Farmer's Alliance Tom Watson - worked hard to forge a black-white alliance 1894 - coalition of white Populists and black Republicans won control of North Carolina (but most of the South was fended off by Democrats who employed past tactics during the Reconstruction Women - referendums in Colorado and Idaho approved extending the vote to women - Populists endorsed women's suffrage Presidential Election 1892 - James Weaver received 1 million votes and won five western states while the party elected three governors and 15 members of Congress
Wizard of Oz
Published by Frank Baum in 1900 Thought to be a political commentary on the election of 1896 and its aftermath Emerald City (green for money) represents D.C. The Wizard of Oz represents Pres. McKinley who stays in his palace and rules by illusion The Yellow-Brick Road (color of gold) is the only way to get to the city The Wicked Witch of the East and West represent oppressive industrialist and mine owners Dorothy (ruby slippers in film), actually had silver slippers, which represents the ideals of populism
The campaign of 1896
Republicans - gold was the only "honest" currency, and abandoning the gold standard would destroy business confidence and prevent recovery from depression due to uncertainties caused by artificial inflation McKinley (Republican candidate in 1896) ran on a protectionist tariff known as the McKinley Tariff Election of 1896 "First modern presidential campaign" because of the amount of money spent on campaigns (10 million for McKinley to just 300,000 for Bryan) McKinley remained at home in Ohio, but Mark Hanna (political manager) created powerful political machine Bryan continued his "stump" tour Bryan won the South and the West with 6.5 million votes and McKinley won the Northeast and Midwest with 7.1 million votes winning the electoral college 271 to 176 Last Presidential election with extremely high turnout (as high as 90 percent in some cases). Democrats would not become the major party again until 1932
Becoming a World Power: War with Spain
The "Splendid Little War" (Spanish-American War of 1898) Cause - Cuba's long struggle for national independence from Spain From 1868 a decade of guerilla warfare, and renewal of conflict in 1895 American intervention Cuban civilians suffering in Spanish detention Accidental(?) Destruction of Maine (American battleship) in Havana Harbor killed 270 sailors Spain rejected American demands for a cease-fire (between Cuba and Spain) and eventual Cuban independence Congress approved President McKinley's request for a declaration of war Congress adopted the Teller Amendment - declaring that the US had no intention of annexing or dominating Cuba WAR! - only a few hundred Americans were killed in the "splendid little war" The most important battle occurring in the Pacific in Manila Bay in the Philippines where Admiral Dewey defeated the Spanish fleet The "Splendid Little War" Roosevelt at San Juan Hill Most publicized land battle - located outside Santiago, Cuba Theodore Roosevelt's "Rough Riders" Pro-expansion and believed war would unite the nation and its men Group was supposed to be a cross-section of America, but excluded Blacks (who actually reached the top of San Juan Hill before the Rough Riders) Exploits led to Roosevelt becoming a national hero - became New York's governor in 1888 and McKinley's VP in 1900
The segregated south: government
The Decline of Black Politics Blacks continued to hold office and vote in the South after 1877 despite the Redeemers victories and their attempts to limit black's political power and representation Black political opportunities continued to diminish in this period - talented and ambitious black men increasingly avoided politics choosing business, law, or the church Black women became political leaders pressing for women's rights and racial progress through organizations such as the "National Association of Colored Women" (1896) Some states - blacks continued to vote and Republicans stayed competitive with Democrats 1890s - Populist and Republican-led state governments (e.g., North Carolina) fell to racial violence and electoral fraud The Decline of Black Politics The Elimination of Black Voting Between 1890-1906 - every southern state enacted laws or constitutional provisions to eliminate the black vote Poll Tax - a fee that citizens must pay to be eligible to vote (popular) Literacy tests Requirement that a voter show an "understanding" of the state constitution Disenfranchisement led to the end of black participation in politics By 1940 only 3 percent of black adults in the South were registered to vote Poor and illiterate whites were also disenfranchised Southern "demagogues" mobilized white voters by appealing to their racism Could not have occurred without northern approval (Senate and Supreme Court) 14th Amendment (states that deprived male citizens of the franchise was supposed to lose part of its representation) - was ruled not to apply to blacks
Redrawing the Boundaries: Self-Help
The Emergence of Booker T. Washington Some black leaders began to emphasize self-help and individual self-advancement into middle class America as an alternative to politics 1895 - Washington delivered a speech at the Atlanta Cotton Exposition urging blacks to accommodate segregation and cease agitation for civil and political rights Founded Tuskegee Institute in Alabama - center for vocational training Whites - embraced his vision because they wanted a docile labor force that would not form unions and would work cheaply Blacks - supported him because they believed that direct assaults on white power did not work and that they should build up their own communities
The segregated south: Laws
The Law of Segregation Segregation was imposed throughout the South Laws and local customs required separating the races In the North before the Civil War In the South during Reconstruction, but the 1880s were fluid with mixed race relations 1883 - Supreme Court invalidated the Civil Rights Act of 1875 (previously outlawed racial discrimination by hotel and other public facilities) by interpreting the 14th Amendment as only applying to state authorities not private business 1896 - Plessy v. Ferguson - the Court approved state laws requiring separate facilities for blacks and whites - they were allowed as long as they were "separate but equal" The Law of Segregation Segregation and White Domination States responded to Plessy by passing laws requiring segregation in every part of southern life (schools, hospitals, toilets, and cemeteries) "Separate but equal" - black facilities were either inferior or nonexistent System of white supremacy in the South - disenfranchisement, economic inequality, inferior education reinforced one another Ensured that whites would have the advantage wherever they met blacks Social racial etiquette development - blacks had to give way to whites on sidewalks, and could not raise their voices to whites or be assertive
Redrawing the Boundaries: Immigration
The New Immigration and the New Nativism American was fractured along racial and class lines in the late 19th century Far reaching obsession to redraw the boundary of freedom through identification and exclusion Adoption of a more exclusive definition of nationhood and national identity Immigrants were seen as a threat to America's sense of identity and traditions 3.5 million immigrants came to the US in 1890 - came from primarily Italy and the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires (unlike previous immigrations from Europe) New immigrants were seen as members of a distinct races with a lower level of civilization - which explained their acceptance of low-paying jobs and innate criminality Immigration Restriction League (Boston 1894) - called for reducing immigration by barring the illiterate from entering the country (passed in 1897, but vetoed by President Clevalnd) States stopped allowing immigrants to vote before they had become citizens Suffrage became more of a privilege than a right The New Immigration and the New Nativism Chinese Exclusion and Chinese Rights Chinese men had been welcomed as cheap contract labor in the West Migration of Chinese families began in 1870s (Congress barred women from migrating) 1883 - Congress temporarily excluded all Chinese immigrants from entering the country - first time that race had been used to exclude an entire group of people (made permanent in 1902) 100,000 people of Chinese descent lived in America (mostly on the West Coast) and suffered intense discrimination and occasional mob violence Supreme Court upheld the right of the Chinese to pursue a living and citizenship of Chinese born in the US - but also affirmed the right of Congress to erect racial restrictions on immigration.
Becoming a World Power: Imperialism
The New Imperialism America's narrowed definition of freedom was projected abroad as the rose as an imperial power in the last quarter of the 19th century - which is known as the "age of imperialism" when rival European empires divided large parts of the world among themselves Age of Imperialism US was considered a "second rate" nation and d id not initially participate in this imperialism while nations such as the British, French, Spanish, Russian, Ottoman and Chinese empires dominated much of the 19th cent., but after the 1870s a new imperialism emerged dominated by European powers and Japan Africa - Belgium, Great Britain, and France consolidated their colonies and Germany also acquired colonies on that continent Central Asia - Great Britain and Russia intensified struggle for control China - all European powers competed By the early 20th century - Most of Africa, Asia, the Middle East, and the Pacific had been divided among these empires Justified domination in the name of bringing civilization to backward people They needed instruction in Western values, government, Christianity and labor practices
the segregated south: Inequality
The Redeemers in Power The Failure of the New South Dream 1880s - Henry Grady (Atlanta editor) promoted a dream of the "New South" where industry and agriculture would deliver prosperity Planters, merchants, and industrialists were prosperous, but the region was impoverished By 1900 - except for Birmingham, Alabama (major iron and steel city) southern cities had little industry and mostly relied on the export of cotton, tobacco, and rice South remained dependent on North for capital and manufactured goods
The segregated south: Violence
The Rise of Lynching Blacks who challenged white supremacy faced political and legal power and immediate violent reprisal Each year between 1883-1905 more than fifty persons (mostly black) were lynched (killed by a mob) in the South Some were secret, but others were public and promoted by organizers and the media Law enforcement rarely prevented lynching and did not punish lynchers Victims were accused of having raped or assaulted white women (white southerners considered preserving white womanhood a sufficient basis for extrajudicial murder) Lynching is virtually unknown as a phenomenon anywhere else in the world Politics, Religion, and Memory Northern and Southern reconciliation - cost racial equality -Civil War remembrance - tragic quarrel between brothers in which blacks had played no role - primarily directed at the preservation of states' rights and the Union not slavery -Reconstruction - understood as a period of black misrule imposed on the South by the -North (aiding in the disenfranchisement and segregation in the South) Southern governments and schools celebrated the "Lost -Cause" of the Confederacy and condemned the evils of Reconstruction Churches -Northern Protestants abandoned concern for racial justice and turned to sectional reconciliation, but southern churches refused to reunited - keeping the idea of the "Old South" -Images of blacks fighting in the Civil War was forgotten and sometimes black veterans were often refused to participate in memorials
