US History Vocabulary 16.4-17.1

Ho Chi Minh

-(1890-1969) was one of the most influential anti-colonial leaders in Asia. He led North Vietnam's fight to reunify North and South Vietnam, serving as president of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) from 1945 to 1969 -In the 1800s, French military forces established control over Indochina, a peninsula in Southeast Asia that includes the modern countries of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. Slightly larger than the state of Texas, Indochina included almost 27 million people by the end of World War II. French colonial officials ruled Vietnam with an iron fist. They transplanted French laws into Vietnam and imposed high taxes. French business people acquired large rice and rubber plantations and controlled the mineral wealth of the country. Some Vietnamese, especially wealthier members of society, benefitted from western culture and technology. Many others, however, were impoverished by colonialism. Some Vietnamese rebelled against France's exploitative rule. Ho Chi Minh became the most important voice demanding independence for Vietnam. Born in 1890, Ho became involved in anti-French organizations as a young man and fled Vietnam in 1912. He traveled the world, visiting American ports and living periodically in London, Paris, and Moscow. During his 30-year absence, Ho constantly thought and wrote about Vietnam, and he searched for westerners who would support his plans for Vietnamese independence. Ho embraced communism, and eventually Soviet communists rallied to his cause. In Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh clamored for independence as France struggled to maintain its dwindling global power.

Nikita Khrushchev

-(1894-1971) was a Communist Party leader who served as premier of the Soviet Union from 1958 to 1964. He led the Soviet Union during the Cuban Missile Crisis, but lost power soon afterwards. -In a dramatic television address on October 22, 1962, he blamed Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet premier, for causing a "reckless and provocative threat to world peace." He also announced that he had approved a naval quarantine (blockade) of Cuba to prevent the Soviets from completing the bases. Behind the scenes, however, Kennedy worked toward a diplomatic settlement. He indicated that he would remove U.S. missiles in Turkey and Italy if the Soviets removed their missiles sin Cuba. After six tense days during which nuclear war seemed a real possibility, Khrushchev agreed to honor the blockade and remove the missiles. As Secretary of State Dean Rusk later told a reporter, "Remember, when you report this, that, eyeball to eyeball, they blinked first."

Barry Goldwater

-(1909-1998) served nearly 25 years in the U.S. Senate. In 1964, he ran for president and was soundly defeated by Lyndon Johnson. In 1974, he was instrumental in persuading President Nixon to resign in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal. -If Johnson was to continue his War on Poverty and other social goals, he needed to win the 1964 presidential election. In that year, the Republicans nominated Arizona senator Barry Goldwater, whose economic and social views were directly opposed to Johnson's. Whereas Johnson believed the federal government could best regular the economy and promotes coal justice, Goldwater maintained that the federal government was the problem, not the solution. According to Goldwater, social and economic issues, such as racism and poverty, should not be addressed by the federal government. Goldwater promised to rein in the federal government by reducing its size and restricting its activities He favored significant tax cuts and right-to-work laws, and he opposed social welfare legislation and government spending on educational, public housing, and urban renewal programs. In 1964, most Americans were not ready for Goldwater's conservative message. In addition, Johnson's campaign portrayed Goldwater as an extremist, suggesting that his election would ensure the repeal of civil rights legislation and economic ruin. Johnson had prosperity on his side, as well as his own impressive legislative record and the legacy of Kennedy. In the November election, he won a landslide victory, capturing more than 60 percent of the popular vote and carrying all but six states. Goldwater carried only Arizona and five southern states- Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina. Furthermore, the outcome of he election was significant. The South was no longer solidly Democrat. Not only hd Johnson won a ringing victory, but Democrats had captured both houses of Congress. Although Goldwater suffered a crushing political defeat in 1964, his conservative ideas resonated with many. Support for Goldwater's message remained strong in parts of California, propelling Ronald Reagan to the governor's office in 1966. When a conservative tide swept Reagan into the White House in 1981, Goldwater regained some influence and continued to be a strong voice on behalf of modern American conservatives.

Richard M. Nixon

-(1913-1994) served as a Republican member of Congress and the Senate as well as Vice President under Dwight D. Eisenhower. He ran for President in 1960 and lost to John F. Kennedy but won the office in 1968. His presidency was marked by significant accomplishments in foreign relations. In 1974, he resigned rather than be impeached for covering up illegal activities in the Watergate affair. -In the presidential election of 1960, John F. Kennedy and Republican Richard M. Nixon were quite similar in a variety of ways. For the first time in U.S. history, both candidates had been born in the twentieth century, Nixon in 1913 and Kennedy in 1917. Both had served in the navy during World War II. Both had been elected to Congress in 1946 and to the Senate in the early 1950s. Both were passionate about foreign affairs and supported the Cold War fight against communism. Found and energetic, intelligent and hardworking, both wanted to be the first of their generation to lead the country. Their differences, however, were as significant as their similarities. Nixon, born in California, did not enjoy the advantages of a wealthy upbringing. His father struggled to make a living. As a young man, Nixon had to balance his time between his school studies and work to help support the family. Many voters, however, respected him for his experiences as Vice President under Eisenhower.

John F. Kennedy

-(1917-1963) served in both the House of Representatives and the Senate before becoming the 35th President in 1961. He faced a number of foreign crises, especially in Cuba and Berlin, and managed to secure such achievements as the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty and the Alliance for Progress. He was assassinated in Dallas, Texas. -In the presidential election of 1960, John F. Kennedy and Republican Richard M. Nixon were quite similar in a variety of ways. For the first time in U.S. history, both candidates had been born in the twentieth century, Nixon in 1913 and Kennedy in 1917. Both had served in the navy during World War II. Both had been elected to Congress in 1946 and to the Senate in the early 1950s. Both were passionate about foreign affairs and supported the Cold War fight against communism. Found and energetic, intelligent and hardworking, both wanted to be the first of their generation to lead the country. Their differences, however, were as significant as their similarities. Kennedy was the son of a wealthy Boston businessmen. His grandfather had been a state senator, and his father had served as the ambassador to Great Britain. Kennedy attended Harvard University. Although he was a Catholic and his religion was an issue in the election, he instead that what church he attended should not be a factor.

Fidel Castro

-(1926-2016) helped to overthrow the Cuban government in 1959, and led the country from then until 2008. His communist government and ties to the Soviet Union were a source of conflict between Cuba and the United States -In 1959, Cuban revolutionary Fidel Castro succeeded in overthrowing the regime of Fulgencio Batista. Initially, the United States attempted to cultivate good relations with Castro. However, it soon became clear that the Cuban leader was determined to nationalize land held by U.S. citizens, enforce radical reform measures, and accept Soviet economic and military aid. Thousands of wealthy and middle-class Cubans fled to their country, many settling in Miami and southern Florida. Proud of their heritage and deeply anticommunist, they made new lives for themselves and their families in the United States.

Cuban missile crisis

-1962 conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union resulting from the Soviet Union installation of nuclear missiles in Cuba -Kennedy's efforts to contain communism were severely threatened during the Cuban missile crisis. In August and September of 1962 U.S. intelligence discovered that the Soviets were building nuclear missile sites in Cuba, apparently to protect Castro from another American invasion. When the sites were completed, major East Coast cities and the Panama Canal would be in rage of the missiles. In response to this Soviet aggression, Kennedy demanded the removal if the missiles. In a dramatic television address on October 22, 1962, he blamed Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet premier, for causing a "reckless and provocative threat to world peace." He also announced that he had approved a naval quarantine (blockade) of Cuba to prevent the Soviets from completing the bases. Behind the scenes, however, Kennedy worked toward a diplomatic settlement. He indicated that he would remove U.S. missiles in Turkey and Italy if the Soviets removed their missiles sin Cuba. After six tense days during which nuclear war seemed a real possibility, Khrushchev agreed to honor the blockade and remove the missiles. As Secretary of State Dean Rusk later told a reporter, "Remember, when you report this, that, eyeball to eyeball, they blinked first."

Equal Pay Act

-1963 law requiring men and women to receive equal pay for equal work -Kennedy established the President's Commission on the Status of Women, a blue-ribbon panel that studied how poverty and discrimination affected women. The difference in waged received by men and women for the same work was an especially glaring problem. The Equal Pay Act (1963) required equal wages for "equal work" in industries engaged in commerce or producing goods for commerce. Although it contained various loopholes, the law was a crucial step on the road to fair and equal employment practices. The next year Congress would prohibit discrimination by employers on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex.

Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

-1963 nuclear-weapons agreement that banned aboveground nuclear tests -In 1963, the year after the crisis, the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, the firs nuclear-weapons agreement, which ended aboveground nuclear tests. Thirty-six other nations soon signed the agreement.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

-1964 congressional resolution that authorized President Johnson to commit U.S. troops to South Vietnam to fight a war against North Vietnam -President Johnson asked Congress to authorize the use of force to defend American troops in the Vietnam War. With little debate and only two senators voting against it, Congress agreed to Johnson's request and passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. The resolution authorized the President "to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression." The resolution gave Johnson tremendous war powers. It allowed him to commit U.S. troops to South Vietnam and fight a war against North Vietnam without ever going back to Congress to ask for a declaration of war. By authorizing the resolution, Congress had handed its war powers as expressed in the Constitution to the executive branch. This raised questions about the relationship between the legislative and executive branches of government. Presidents Johnson and Nixon used the resolution as the legal basis for their military policies in Vietnam.

Civil Rights Act

-1964 law that banned discrimination in public places and employment based on race, religion, or national origin -On becoming President after Kennedy's assassination, Johnson radiated reassurance and strength. His every action indicated that he was ready for the job and that the government was in good hands. Less than a week after the assassination, Johnson addressed a joint session of Congress. With Johnson's ability t build consensus, or agreement on an issue by a group, the Civil Rights Act became law in the summer of 1964. It outlawed discrimination in voting, education, and public accommodations. The act demanded an end to discrimination in hospitals, restaurants, theaters, and other places open to the public. It also created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to fight discrimination in hiring. African Americans and Mexican Americans who faced almost daily discrimination, benefited immeasurably from the legislation. Finally, Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act prohibited discrimination on the basis of sex.

Tinker v. Des Moines School District

-1969 Supreme Court case in which the Court ruled that the right to free speech extended to other types of expression besides the spoken word -In several decisions, the Warren Court expanded the definition of what constitutes free speech. For example, in Tinker v. Des Moines School District (1969), the Court ruled that wearing black armbands in school to protest the Vietnam War was protected as "symbolic" speech. The decision also made it clear that students do not give up all of their rights to free speech while in school. In the Tinker decision, critics complained that the Court interpreted the Constitution too loosely, taking their judicial interpretation of the Constitution too far. The Court applied what critics have called judicial interpretation to the Constitution. That is, the Justices expanded the Constitution's meanings beyond the framers' original intent. In this case, the Court expanded the definition of free speech to include more than the spoken word. A narrow, or strict, construction of the First Amendment would have protected only actual speech.

Peace Corps

-American government organization that sends volunteers to provide technical, educational, and medical services to developing countries -The "Third World," as it was known at the time, was made up of developing nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America that did not align themselves with the United States or the Soviet Union. According to Soviet propaganda, Western capitalism created poverty and inequalities in the Third World, whereas communism promoted equality. Like previous American leaders, Kennedy believed that democracy combined with prosperity would contain or limit the spread of communism. Therefore, he initiated programs to economically and politically strengthen the nations of the Third World. The Peace Corps, created in 1961, sent American volunteers around the world on "missions of freedom" to assist developing countries. They worked to provide technical, educational, and health services. The first Peace Corps volunteers arrived in Ghana, Africa, in 1961, to work as teachers. By the end of the year, the Peace Corps had volunteered working in two other countries in Africa—Nigeria and Tanzania. The program celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2011 and had 8,073 volunteers in 76 countries in 2012.

John Kennedy (in relation to Cuba)

-John Kennedy's 1960 campaign stressed the need for the United States to move forward with vigor and determination. Kennedy argued that during the Eisenhower years America had lost ground in the Cold War struggle against communism. He pointed to the new communist regime under Fidel Castro in Cuba and charged tat there was now a "missile gap" that left the U.S. nuclear missile force inferior to that of the Soviet Union. The first goal of Kennedy's administration would be to build up the nation's armed forces. Nowhere was the difference between Eisenhower and Kennedy more evident than in two important 1961 addresses. In his farewell address, Eisenhower counseled caution in foreign affairs. "The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist ," he said. As the first President born in the twentieth century, Kennedy proclaimed that a "new generation of Americans" was ready to meet any challenge. In his inaugural address, Kennedy warned his country's enemies. As the Cold War continued into the 1960s, Kennedy took office facing the spread of communism abroad and the threat of nuclear war. Determined to succeed where he felt Eisenhower had failed, Kennedy's enthusiasm and commitment to change offered the hope that with hard work and persistence the United States could win the Cold War. Kennedy issued a challenge to Americans: "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country."

New Frontier

-President Kennedy's plan to improve the economy, fight racial discrimination, and explore space -President Kennedy promised Americans that his administration would blaze a "New Frontier." The term described Kennedy's proposals to improve the economy, education, healthcare, and civil rights. He also hoped to jump-start the space program.

Alliance for Progress

-President Kennedy's program that gave economic aid to Latin America -Other programs stressed purely economic development. One such project, the Alliance for Progress promised to resurrect America's Good Neighbor policy toward Latin America. During the 1950s, many Latin Americans had grown increasingly resentful of the United States, claiming that it had been too much influence in their region. Kennedy hoped the Alliance for Progress would change that view. At its start in 1961, the program pledged $20 billion to help 22 Latin American nations raise their per capita income, distribute income more equitably, and improve industry, agriculture, health, and welfare. Unlike the Peace Corps, however, the Alliance for Progress was not successful.

Great Society

-President Lyndon Johnson's goals in the areas of health care, education, the environment, discrimination, and poverty -In the spring of 1964, in a speech at the University of Michigan, Johnson outlined his vision for America, calling it the Great Society. He said that during the past hundred years, Americans had spread across the continent, developed industrially, and created great wealth. But the work of American was not complete. For Johnson, the Great Society demanded "an end to poverty and racial injustice" and opportunity for every child. In the first half of 1965, Congress passed parts of Johnson's Great Society legislation. Along with health, education was one of the centerpieces of the Great Society. Improved healthcare and education were necessary steps toward the goal of ending poverty. The Great Society program extended to improving the overall quality of American life. Although critics said that the Great Society programs did not work, many point out that these programs have improved the lives of millions of individual Americans. Poverty ad infant mortality rated declined. Medicare and Medicaid delivered needed healthcare to millions of elderly and poor Americans. Head Start and other antipoverty programs provided the educational tools many underprivileged Americans needed to escape poverty. Furthermore, Congress also provided artists and scholars with assistance through the National Endowment for the Arts and Humanities. The better future that the Great Society envisioned inspired many Americans, including women and minorities, to take action to expand their economic opportunities. Latino farm workers formed a union and organized national boycotts of farm products to win better wages. Latino students boycotted their schools to demand better education. Meanwhile, Asian Americans made economic gains unmatched by any other minority group. Women, too, made great advances during this time. By 1970 the percentage of women with college degrees was nearly double what it had been in 1950. The gReat Society victories may not have been as grandiose as Johnson predicted, but they were victories. The simple fact that 22.2 percent of all Americans lived below the poverty line in 1960 and 12.6 percent lived below the poverty line in 1970 says something about the triumphs of the Great Society.

War on Poverty

-President Lyndon Johnson's programs aimed at aiding the country's poor through education, job training proper health care, and nutrition -Johnson made his intentions clear in his first State of the Union address when he said it was time to "declare an unconditional war on poverty." The new President planned to fuse his dreams for America onto Kennedy's legislative agenda. Although Kennedy had failed to get Congress to approve his tax bill calling for dramatic tax cuts for middle-class Americans, Johnson was able to maneuver it through. In addition, he had added a billion-dollar War on Poverty to the bill. Johnson's War on Poverty introduced measures to train the jobless, educate the uneducated, and provide healthcare for those in need. The 1964 Economic Opportunity Act created the Job Corps to train young men and women between the ages of 16 and 21 in the work skills they needed to acquire better jobs and move out of poverty.

Vietcong

-South Vietnamese communist rebels who waged a guerrilla war against the government of South Vietnam throughout the Vietnam War -By 1957, a communist rebel group in the South, known as the National Liberation Front (NLF), had committed itself to undermining the Diem government and uniting Vietnam under a communist flag. NLF guerrilla fighters, called Vietcong, launched an insurgency in which they assassinated government officials and destroyed rods and bridges. Supplied by communists in North Vietnam, the Vietcong employed surprise hit-and-run tactics to weaken Diem's held on South Vietnam.

Warren Court

-Supreme Court of the 1960s under Chief Justice Earl Warren, whose decisions supported civil rights -During the 1960s, the Supreme Court demonstrated a willingness to take the lead on controversial social, religious, and political issues. Led by Chief Justice Earl Warren, the Supreme Court at this time-often called the Warren Court-became the most liberal in American history. Its decisions supported civil rights, civil liberties, voting rights, and personal privacy.

Warren Commission

-committee that investigated the assassination of President Kennedy -In November 1963, Kennedy traveled to Dallas, Texas, to mend political fences for his 1964 reelection bid. He never lived to see 1964. While his motorcade moved through the city, assassin Lee Harvey Oswald, perched by a window on the sixth floor of the Texas School Book Depository, fired three shots at the President. The third shot hit Kennedy in the back of his head. A half hour later, doctors at Parkland Memorial Hospital pronounced him dead. Texan Lyndon B. Johnson, Kennedy's Vice President, was sworn in as the new President. Although many people would later question whether Oswald acted alone, the Warren Commission, which conducted the official investigation of the assassination, described Oswald as the "lone killer."

space race

-competition between the United States and the Soviet Union to successfully land on the moon -Kennedy recognized that the United States and the Soviet Union were locked in a "space race." Space race was the term used to describe the competition between the Soviet Union and the United States to develop technology to successfully land on the moon. In May 1961, NASA put astronaut Alan Shepard into a suborbital space flight aboard the Project Mercury space capsule Freedom 7. Encouraged by the success of Project Mercury, Kennedy committed the United States to landing a man on the moon by 1970.

flexible response

-defense policy allowing for the appropriate action in any type of conflict -Eisenhower's defense policy of "massive retaliation" had emphasized the construction of nuclear weapons. Although Kennedy did not ignore the possibility of a nuclear war, he wanted to make sure that the United States was prepared to fight both conventional wars and conflicts against guerrilla forces. Kennedy therefore gave increased funding to conventional U.S. Army and Navy forces as well as to Army Special Forces, such as the Green Berets. He wanted a "flexible response" defense policy, one that prepared the United States to fight any type of conflict.

Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)

-defensive alliance aimed at preventing communism aggression in Asia -America channeled aid to South Vietnam in different ways. In 1954, the United States and seven other countries formed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). Similar to NATO's goal in Europe, SEATO's goal was to contain the spread of communism in Southeast Asia. The United States provided economic and military aid to the South Vietnamese government led by Ngo Dinh Diem. Diem was an ardent nationalist and anticommunist. Although he lacked popular appeal, his anticommunism guaranteed American support. When it came time for the 1956 unification elections, American intelligence analysts predicted that Diem would lose to the more popular Ho Chi Minh. Rather than risk losing, Diem refused to participate in the elections, a move made with the support of the U.S. government.

hot line

-direct telephone line between the White House and the Kremlin set up after the Cuban Missile Crisis -During the Cuban missile crisis, Kennedy and Khrushchev stood on the edge of a nuclear war and then slowly backed away. In the Soviet Union, Khrushchev lost prestige and more hard-line leaders chipped away at his power. In the United States, Kennedy emerged as a more mature and thoughtful lead, one who had faced a frightening test and had remained calm and resolute. The crisis prompted both leaders to move toward détente-a relaxing of tension between rivals. They installed a "hot line" telephone line system between Moscow and Washington, D.C., to improve communication.

Berlin Wall

-dividing wall built by East Germany in 1961 to isolate West Berlin from communist-controlled East Berlin -Since 1958, Khrushchev wanted to sign a peace treaty that would put the western zones of Berlin under control of East Germany. His actions were motivated by the steady flow of skilled East German workers into West Berlin. Desiring to show his strength, Kennedy stood firm on America's commitment to defending the rights of West Berliners and West Germans. At a conference in Vienna in June 1961, Kennedy and Khrushchev focused on Berlin as the key issue. Khrushchev called the present situation "intolerable." He demanded that the United States recognize the formal division of Germany and end its military presence in West Berlin. Kennedy refused. He did not want to give up occupation rights he considered critical to defending Western Europe. In a tense atmosphere, Khrushchev said, "I want peace, but if you want war, that is your problem." Kennedy answered, "It is you, not I who wants to force a change." The meeting ended abruptly. The conference, meant to relax Cold War tensions, only increased them. **After returning home, both world leaders made moves that threatened the peace. Kennedy asked Congress to dramatically increase military spending. Khrushchev ordered the construction of a wall between East and West Berlin. The Berlin Wall became a visible symbol of the reality of the two Germanys and the gulf between the communist East and the democratic West. Kennedy responded by sending 1,500 U.S. troops to West Berlin. For a time, Russian and American tanks moved within sight of each other. Yet, neither side could fully claim a victory.

Bay of Pigs invasion

-failed 1961 invasion of Cuba by a CIA-led force of Cuban exiles -After breaking diplomatic relations with Cuba in 1961, the Eisenhower administration authorized the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to plan an invasion of Cuba to overthrow Castro. The CIA recruited Cuban exiles and trained them in Guatemala. But when Eisenhower left office, the invasion plan was still that—an unexecuted plan. Pressured by members of the CIA and his own aides, Kennedy decided to implement the plan. On April 17, 1961, a CIA-led force of Cuban exiles attacked Cuba in the Bay of Pigs invasion. The invasion was greatly mismanaged. The poorly equipped forces landed at the site with no protective cover. All but 300 of the 1,400 invaders were killed or captured. Not only did the Bay of Pigs invasion fail, it probably strengthened Castro's position in Cuba. It also turned many Cuban Americans against Kennedy. Kennedy took personal responsibility for the failed invasion. He emphasized, however, that the United States would continue to resist "communist penetration" in the Western Hemisphere.

Medicare

-federal program created in 1965 to provide basic hospital insurance to most Americans over the age of sixty-five -In the first half of 1965, Congress passed parts of Johnson's Great Society legislation. Kennedy had supported similar legislation that failed to win congressional support. Johnson's agenda amended the Social Security Act by adding the Medical Care for the Aged Program, or Medicare, as it was more popularly called. Medicare provided basic health insurance for Americans in the Social Security system who were age 65 and older. It was funded by a new tax on workers' earnings and by payments from the Social Security benefits of retirees. When the Social Security Act was amended, few questions were raised about how programs like Medicare and Medicaid would be paid for in the years to come. Medicare has become increasingly expensive as medical costs have risen, the percent of retirees in the population relative to workers has increased, and because people live longer now than they did in 1965.

Medicaid

-federal program created in 1965 to provide low-cost health insurance to poor Americans of any age -In the first half of 1965, Congress passed parts of Johnson's Great Society legislation. Kennedy had supported similar legislation that failed to win congressional support. Johnson's agenda amended the Social Security Act by adding the Medical Care for the Aged Program, or Medicare, as it was more popularly called. The new law also included a Medicaid feature that provided basic medical services to poor and disabled Americans who were not part of the Social Security system. Johnson signed the bill into law in Independence, Missouri home of former President Harry Truman, who had called for a national health insurance program almost 20 years earlier.

domino theory

-idea that if a nation falls to communism, its closest neighbors will also fall under communist control -The domino theory was the idea that if Vietnam fell to communism, its closest neighbors would follow. This in turn would threaten Japan, the Philippines, and Australia. In short, stopping the communists in Vietnam was important to the protection of the entire region.

Economic Opportunity Act

-law passed in 1964 creating antipoverty programs -The 1964 Economic Opportunity Act created the Job Corps to train young men and women between the ages of 16 and 21 in the work skills they needed to acquire better jobs and move out of poverty. The act also established Volunteers in Service to America, or VISTA, patterned after Kennedy's Peace Corps, which sent American volunteers into poverty-stricken American communities in an effort to solve the country's pressing economic, educational, and medical problems. The volunteers served in inner city schools and on Indian reservations. They worked in rural health clinics and urban hospitals. Perhaps the most successful element of the Economic Opportunity Act was the Head Start program. Funds were provided for play groups, day care, and activities assigned to help underprivileged children get ready for elementary school. Head Start enjoyed bipartisan support for decades.

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

-law that changed the national quota system to limits of 170,000 immigrants per year from the Eastern Hemisphere and 120,000 per year from the Western Hemisphere -Meanwhile, the civil rights movement was raising questions about America's long-standing immigration policy. The National Origins Acts of 1921 and 1924 had established a quota system that favored Western European immigrants and limited immigrants from other parts of the world. Such a discriminatory policy was clearly out of touch with the mood of the country in the early 1960s. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 altered America's quota system. Nearly 170,000 immigrants from the Eastern Hemisphere were allowed into the country. Nearly 120,000 immigrants from the Western Hemisphere were welcomed. Immigrants from Latin America, Central America, the Caribbean, and Asia soon began to pour into the United States, providing the country with a pool of ideas, talent, and skills. The doors of America were once again open to immigrants from around the world. During the 1960s and 1970s, millions of immigrants would arrive on American shores. Like earlier immigrants, many came seeking economic opportunity. Others were fleeing war or social unrest or were in search of political or religious freedom. As in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, New York and the urban East and West coasts attracted many of the country's newest immigrants.

judicial interpretation

-practice by which the courts expand and apply the Constitution's intent beyond the meaning of its written words -In the Tinker decision, critics complained that the Court interpreted the Constitution too loosely, taking their judicial interpretation of the Constitution too far. The Court applied what critics have called judicial interpretation to the Constitution. That is, the Justices expanded the Constitution's meanings beyond the framers' original intent. In this case, the Court expanded the definition of free speech to include more than the spoken word. A narrow, or strict, construction of the First Amendment would have protected only actual speech.

deficit spending

-practice of a nation paying out more money than it is receiving in revenues -Kennedy believed that increased prosperity would help to eliminate some of the nation's social problems. When he became President, the country was suffering from a high unemployment rate and a sluggish economy. To help the sagging economy, Kennedy proposed tax credits to encourage business investment in new factory equipment. At the same time, increased military spending created new jobs and boosted the economy. In addition, Kennedy accepted the "new economics" of theorist John Maynard Keynes that advocated deficit spending to stimulate the economy. Deficit spending is the government practice of borrowing money in order to spend more than is received from taxes. In 1963, Kennedy called for dramatic tax cuts for middle-class Americans as a way to put more money in the pockets of more people. At the same time, he increased the tax burden on wealthier citizens. Kennedy's economic initiatives jump-started the tremendous economic growth of the late 1960s.