weather

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Weather is the state of the atmosphere, describing for example the degree to which it is hot or cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy.[1] Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere, the troposphere,[2][3] just below the stratosphere. Weather refers to day-to-day temperature and precipitation activity, whereas climate is the term for the averaging of atmospheric conditions over longer periods of time.[4] When used without qualification, "weather" is generally understood to mean the weather of Earth. Weather is driven by air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place and another. These differences can occur due to the sun's angle at any particular spot, which varies with latitude. The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the largest scale atmospheric circulations: the Hadley Cell, the Ferrel Cell, the Polar Cell, and the jet stream. Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow. Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year. On Earth's surface, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (−40 °F to 100 °F) annually. Over thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbit can affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth, thus influencing long-term climate and global climate change. Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. Higher altitudes are cooler than lower altitudes, as most atmospheric heating is due to contact with the Earth's surface while radiative losses to space are mostly constant. Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. The Earth's weather system is a chaotic system; as a result, small changes to one part of the system can grow to have large effects on the system as a whole. Human attempts to control the weather have occurred throughout history, and there is evidence that human activities such as agriculture and industry have modified weather patterns. Studying how the weather works on other planets has been helpful in understanding how weather works on Earth. A famous landmark in the Solar System, Jupiter's Great Red Spot, is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years. However, weather is not limited to planetary bodies. A star's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind. Contents 1Causes 2Shaping the planet Earth 3Effect on humans3.1Effects on populations 4Forecasting 5Modification 6Microscale meteorology 7Extremes on Earth 8Extraterrestrial within the Solar System 9Space weather 10See also 11References 12External links Causes[edit] Cumulus mediocris cloud surrounded by stratocumulus On Earth, the common weather phenomena include wind, cloud, rain, snow, fog and dust storms. Less common events include natural disasters such as tornadoes, hurricanes, typhoons and ice storms. Almost all familiar weather phenomena occur in the troposphere (the lower part of the atmosphere).[3] Weather does occur in the stratosphere and can affect weather lower down in the troposphere, but the exact mechanisms are poorly understood.[5] Weather occurs primarily due to air pressure, temperature and moisture differences between one place to another. These differences can occur due to the sun angle at any particular spot, which varies by latitude from the tropics. In other words, the farther from the tropics one lies, the lower the sun angle is, which causes those locations to be cooler due the spread of the sunlight over a greater surface.[6] The strong temperature contrast between polar and tropical air gives rise to the large scale atmospheric circulation cells and the jet stream.[7] Weather systems in the mid-latitudes, such as extratropical cyclones, are caused by instabilities of the jet stream flow (see baroclinity).[8] Weather systems in the tropics, such as monsoons or organized thunderstorm systems, are caused by different processes. 2015 - Warmest Global Year on Record (since 1880) - Colors indicate temperature anomalies (NASA/NOAA; 20 January 2016).[9] Because the Earth's axis is tilted relative to its orbital plane, sunlight is incident at different angles at different times of the year. In June the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun, so at any given Northern Hemisphere latitude sunlight falls more directly on that spot than in December (see Effect of sun angle on climate).[10] This effect causes seasons. Over thousands to hundreds of thousands of years, changes in Earth's orbital parameters affect the amount and distribution of solar energy received by the Earth and influence long-term climate. (See Milankovitch cycles).[11] The uneven solar heating (the formation of zones of temperature and moisture gradients, or frontogenesis) can also be due to the weather itself in the form of cloudiness and precipitation.[12] Higher altitudes are typically cooler than lower altitudes, which the result of higher surface temperature and radiational heating, which produces the adiabatic lapse rate.[13][14] In some situations, the temperature actually increases with height. This phenomenon is known as an inversion and can cause mountaintops to be warmer than the valleys below. Inversions can lead to the formation of fog and often act as a cap that suppresses thunderstorm development. On local scales, temperature differences can occur because different surfaces (such as oceans, forests, ice sheets, or man-made objects) have differing physical characteristics such as reflectivity, roughness, or moisture content. Surface temperature differences in turn cause pressure differences. A hot surface warms the air above it causing it to expand and lower the density and the resulting surface air pressure.[15] The resulting horizontal pressure gradient moves the air from higher to lower pressure regions, creating a wind, and the Earth's rotation then causes deflection of this air flow due to the Coriolis effect.[16] The simple systems thus formed can then display emergent behaviour to produce more complex systems and thus other weather phenomena. Large scale examples include the Hadley cell while a smaller scale example would be coastal breezes. The atmosphere is a chaotic system. As a result, small changes to one part of the system can accumulate and magnify to cause large effects on the system as a whole.[17] This atmospheric instability makes weather forecasting less predictable than tides or eclipses.[18] Although it is difficult to accurately predict weather more than a few days in advance, weather forecasters are continually working to extend this limit through meteorological research and refining current methodologies in weather prediction. However, it is theoretically impossible to make useful day-to-day predictions more than about two weeks ahead, imposing an upper limit to potential for improved prediction skill.[19] Shaping the planet Earth[edit] Main article: Weathering Weather is one of the fundamental processes that shape the Earth. The process of weathering breaks down the rocks and soils into smaller fragments and then into their constituent substances.[20] During rains precipitation, the water droplets absorb and dissolve carbon dioxide from the surrounding air. This causes the rainwater to be slightly acidic, which aids the erosive properties of water. The released sediment and chemicals are then free to take part in chemical reactions that can affect the surface further (such as acid rain), and sodium and chloride ions (salt) deposited in the seas/oceans. The sediment may reform in time and by geological forces into other rocks and soils. In this way, weather plays a major role in erosion of the surface.[21] Effect on humans[edit] Further information: Biometeorology Weather, seen from an anthropological perspective, is something all humans in the world constantly experience through their senses, at least while being outside. There are socially and scientifically constructed understandings of what weather is, what makes it change, the effect it has on humans in different situations, etc.[22] Therefore, weather is something people often communicate about. Effects on populations[edit] New Orleans, Louisiana, after being struck by Hurricane Katrina. Katrina was a Category 3 hurricane when it struck although it had been a category 5 hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico. Weather has played a large and sometimes direct part in human history. Aside from climatic changes that have caused the gradual drift of populations (for example the desertification of the Middle East, and the formation of land bridges during glacial periods), extreme weather events have caused smaller scale population movements and intruded directly in historical events. One such event is the saving of Japan from invasion by the Mongol fleet of Kublai Khan by the Kamikaze winds in 1281.[23] French claims to Florida came to an end in 1565 when a hurricane destroyed the French fleet, allowing Spain to conquer Fort Caroline.[24] More recently, Hurricane Katrina redistributed over one million people from the central Gulf coast elsewhere across the United States, becoming the largest diaspora in the history of the United States.[25] The Little Ice Age caused crop failures and famines in Europe. The 1690s saw the worst famine in France since the Middle Ages. Finland suffered a severe famine in 1696-1697, during which about one-third of the Finnish population died.[26] Forecasting[edit] Main article: Weather forecasting Forecast of surface pressures five days into the future for the north Pacific, North America, and north Atlantic Ocean as on 9 June 2008 Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the state of the atmosphere for a future time and a given location. Human beings have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia, and formally since at least the nineteenth century.[27] Weather forecasts are made by collecting quantitative data about the current state of the atmosphere and using scientific understanding of atmospheric processes to project how the atmosphere will evolve.[28] Once an all-human endeavor based mainly upon changes in barometric pressure, current weather conditions, and sky condition,[29][30] forecast models are now used to determine future conditions. On the other hand, human input is still required to pick the best possible forecast model to base the forecast upon, which involve many disciplines such as pattern recognition skills, teleconnections, knowledge of model performance, and knowledge of model biases. The chaotic nature of the atmosphere, the massive computational power required to solve the equations that describe the atmosphere, error involved in measuring the initial conditions, and an incomplete understanding of atmospheric processes mean that forecasts become less accurate as the difference in current time and the time for which the forecast is being made (the range of the forecast) increases. The use of ensembles and model consensus helps to narrow the error and pick the most likely outcome.[31][32][33] There are a variety of end users to weather forecasts. Weather warnings are important forecasts because they are used to protect life and property.[34][35] Forecasts based on temperature and precipitation are important to agriculture,[36][37][38][39] and therefore to commodity traders within stock markets. Temperature forecasts are used by utility companies to estimate demand over coming days.[40][41][42] In some areas, people use weather forecasts to determine what to wear on a given day. Since outdoor activities are severely curtailed by heavy rain, snow and the wind chill, forecasts can be used to plan activities around these events, and to plan ahead to survive through them. Modification[edit] The aspiration to control the weather is evident throughout human history: from ancient rituals intended to bring rain for crops to the U.S. Military Operation Popeye, an attempt to disrupt supply lines by lengthening the North Vietnamese monsoon. The most successful attempts at influencing weather involve cloud seeding; they include the fog- and low stratus dispersion techniques employed by major airports, techniques used to increase winter precipitation over mountains, and techniques to suppress hail.[43] A recent example of weather control was China's preparation for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games. China shot 1,104 rain dispersal rockets from 21 sites in the city of Beijing in an effort to keep rain away from the opening ceremony of the games on 8 August 2008. Guo Hu, head of the Beijing Municipal Meteorological Bureau (BMB), confirmed the success of the operation with 100 millimeters falling in Baoding City of Hebei Province, to the southwest and Beijing's Fangshan District recording a rainfall of 25 millimeters.[44] Whereas there is inconclusive evidence for these techniques' efficacy, there is extensive evidence that human activity such as agriculture and industry results in inadvertent weather modification:[43] Acid rain, caused by industrial emission of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, adversely affects freshwater lakes, vegetation, and structures. Anthropogenic pollutants reduce air quality and visibility. Climate change caused by human activities that emit greenhouse gases into the air is expected to affect the frequency of extreme weather events such as drought, extreme temperatures, flooding, high winds, and severe storms.[45] Heat, generated by large metropolitan areas have been shown to minutely affect nearby weather, even at distances as far as 1,600 kilometres (990 mi).[46] The effects of inadvertent weather modification may pose serious threats to many aspects of civilization, including ecosystems, natural resources, food and fiber production, economic development, and human health.[47] Microscale meteorology[edit] Microscale meteorology is the study of short-lived atmospheric phenomena smaller than mesoscale, about 1 km or less. These two branches of meteorology are sometimes grouped together as "mesoscale and microscale meteorology" (MMM) and together study all phenomena smaller than synoptic scale; that is they study features generally too small to be depicted on a weather map. These include small and generally fleeting cloud "puffs" and other small cloud features.[48] Extremes on Earth[edit] Early morning sunshine over Bratislava, Slovakia. February 2008. The same area, just three hours later, after light snowfall Main articles: Extremes on Earth and List of weather records On Earth, temperatures usually range ±40 °C (100 °F to −40 °F) annually. The range of climates and latitudes across the planet can offer extremes of temperature outside this range. The coldest air temperature ever recorded on Earth is −89.2 °C (−128.6 °F), at Vostok Station, Antarctica on 21 July 1983. The hottest air temperature ever recorded was 57.7 °C (135.9 °F) at 'Aziziya, Libya, on 13 September 1922,[49] but that reading is queried. The highest recorded average annual temperature was 34.4 °C (93.9 °F) at Dallol, Ethiopia.[50] The coldest recorded average annual temperature was −55.1 °C (−67.2 °F) at Vostok Station, Antarctica.[51] The coldest average annual temperature in a permanently inhabited location is at Eureka, Nunavut, in Canada, where the annual average temperature is −19.7 °C (−3.5 °F).[52] Extraterrestrial within the Solar System[edit] Jupiter's Great Red Spot in February 1979, photographed by the unmanned Voyager 1 NASA space probe. Studying how the weather works on other planets has been seen as helpful in understanding how it works on Earth.[53] Weather on other planets follows many of the same physical principles as weather on Earth, but occurs on different scales and in atmospheres having different chemical composition. The Cassini-Huygens mission to Titan discovered clouds formed from methane or ethane which deposit rain composed of liquid methane and other organic compounds.[54] Earth's atmosphere includes six latitudinal circulation zones, three in each hemisphere.[55] In contrast, Jupiter's banded appearance shows many such zones,[56] Titan has a single jet stream near the 50th parallel north latitude,[57] and Venus has a single jet near the equator.[58] One of the most famous landmarks in the Solar System, Jupiter's Great Red Spot, is an anticyclonic storm known to have existed for at least 300 years.[59] On other gas giants, the lack of a surface allows the wind to reach enormous speeds: gusts of up to 600 metres per second (about 2,100 km/h or 1,300 mph) have been measured on the planet Neptune.[60] This has created a puzzle for planetary scientists. The weather is ultimately created by solar energy and the amount of energy received by Neptune is only about 1⁄900 of that received by Earth, yet the intensity of weather phenomena on Neptune is far greater than on Earth.[61] The strongest planetary winds discovered so far are on the extrasolar planet HD 189733 b, which is thought to have easterly winds moving at more than 9,600 kilometres per hour (6,000 mph).[62] Space weather[edit] Aurora Borealis Main article: Space weather Weather is not limited to planetary bodies. Like all stars, the Sun's corona is constantly being lost to space, creating what is essentially a very thin atmosphere throughout the Solar System. The movement of mass ejected from the Sun is known as the solar wind. Inconsistencies in this wind and larger events on the surface of the star, such as coronal mass ejections, form a system that has features analogous to conventional weather systems (such as pressure and wind) and is generally known as space weather. Coronal mass ejections have been tracked as far out in the Solar System as Saturn.[63] The activity of this system can affect planetary atmospheres and occasionally surfaces. The interaction of the solar wind with the terrestrial atmosphere can produce spectacular aurorae,[64] and can play havoc with electrically sensitive systems such as electricity grids and radio signals.[65] See also[edit] Glossary of meteorology Outline of meteorology Weather station References[edit] ^ Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Weather. Retrieved on 27 June 2008. ^ Glossary of Meteorology. Hydrosphere. Archived 15 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 27 June 2008. ^ Jump up to:a b Glossary of Meteorology. Troposphere. Archived 28 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 27 June 2008. ^ "Climate". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 14 May 2008. ^ O'Carroll, Cynthia M. (18 October 2001). "Weather Forecasters May Look Sky-high For Answers". Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA). Archived from the original on 12 July 2009. ^ NASA. World Book at NASA: Weather. Archived copy at WebCite (10 March 2013). Retrieved on 27 June 2008. ^ John P. Stimac. [1] Air pressure and wind. Retrieved on 8 May 2008. ^ Carlyle H. Wash, Stacey H. Heikkinen, Chi-Sann Liou, and Wendell A. Nuss. A Rapid Cyclogenesis Event during GALE IOP 9. Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Brown, Dwayne; Cabbage, Michael; McCarthy, Leslie; Norton, Karen (20 January 2016). "NASA, NOAA Analyses Reveal Record-Shattering Global Warm Temperatures in 2015". NASA. Retrieved 21 January 2016. ^ Windows to the Universe. Earth's Tilt Is the Reason for the Seasons! Archived 8 August 2007 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Milankovitch, Milutin. Canon of Insolation and the Ice Age Problem. Zavod za Udz̆benike i Nastavna Sredstva: Belgrade, 1941. ISBN 86-17-06619-9. ^ Ron W. Przybylinski. The Concept of Frontogenesis and its Application to Winter Weather Forecasting. Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Mark Zachary Jacobson (2005). Fundamentals of Atmospheric Modeling (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83970-9. OCLC 243560910. ^ C. Donald Ahrens (2006). Meteorology Today (8th ed.). Brooks/Cole Publishing. ISBN 978-0-495-01162-0. OCLC 224863929. ^ Michel Moncuquet. Relation between density and temperature. Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Encyclopedia of Earth. Wind. Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Spencer Weart. The Discovery of Global Warming. Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Lorenz, Edward (July 1969). "How Much Better Can Weather Prediction Become?"(PDF). web.mit.edu/. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 21 July 2017. ^ "The Discovery of Global Warming: Chaos in the Atmosphere". history.aip.org. January 2017. Retrieved 21 July 2017. ^ NASA. NASA Mission Finds New Clues to Guide Search for Life on Mars. Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ West Gulf River Forecast Center. Glossary of Hydrologic Terms: E Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Crate, Susan A; Nuttall, Mark, eds. (2009). Anthropology and Climate Change: From Encounters to Actions (PDF). Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. pp. 70-86, i.e. the chapter 'Climate and weather discourse in anthropology: from determinism to uncertain futures' by Nicholas Peterson & Kenneth Broad. ^ James P. Delgado. Relics of the Kamikaze. Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Mike Strong. Fort Caroline National Memorial. Archived 17 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Anthony E. Ladd, John Marszalek, and Duane A. Gill. The Other Diaspora: New Orleans Student Evacuation Impacts and Responses Surrounding Hurricane Katrina.Archived 24 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 29 March 2008. ^ "Famine in Scotland: The 'Ill Years' of the 1690s". Karen J. Cullen (2010). Edinburgh University Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-7486-3887-3 ^ Eric D. Craft. An Economic History of Weather Forecasting. Archived 3 May 2007 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 15 April 2007. ^ NASA. Weather Forecasting Through the Ages. Retrieved on 25 May 2008. ^ Weather Doctor. Applying The Barometer To Weather Watching. Retrieved on 25 May 2008. ^ Mark Moore. Field Forecasting: A Short Summary. Archived 25 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 25 May 2008. ^ Klaus Weickmann, Jeff Whitaker, Andres Roubicek and Catherine Smith. The Use of Ensemble Forecasts to Produce Improved Medium Range (3-15 days) Weather Forecasts. Retrieved on 16 February 2007. ^ Todd Kimberlain. Tropical cyclone motion and intensity talk (June 2007). Retrieved on 21 July 2007. ^ Richard J. Pasch, Mike Fiorino, and Chris Landsea. TPC/NHC'S REVIEW OF THE NCEP PRODUCTION SUITE FOR 2006.[permanent dead link] Retrieved on 5 May 2008. ^ National Weather Service. National Weather Service Mission Statement. Archived24 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 25 May 2008. ^ National Meteorological Service of Slovenia ^ Blair Fannin. Dry weather conditions continue for Texas. Archived 3 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 26 May 2008. ^ Dr. Terry Mader. Drought Corn Silage. Archived 5 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 26 May 2008. ^ Kathryn C. Taylor. Peach Orchard Establishment and Young Tree Care. Archived 24 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 26 May 2008. ^ Associated Press. After Freeze, Counting Losses to Orange Crop. Retrieved on 26 May 2008. ^ The New York Times. FUTURES/OPTIONS; Cold Weather Brings Surge In Prices of Heating Fuels. Retrieved on 25 May 2008. ^ BBC. Heatwave causes electricity surge. Retrieved on 25 May 2008. ^ Toronto Catholic Schools. The Seven Key Messages of the Energy Drill Program.Archived 17 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 25 May 2008. ^ Jump up to:a b American Meteorological Society Archived 12 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine ^ Huanet, Xin (9 August 2008). "Beijing disperses rain to dry Olympic night". Chinaview. Retrieved 24 August 2008. ^ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ^ Zhang, Guang (28 January 2012). "Cities Affect Temperatures for Thousands of Miles". ScienceDaily. ^ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ^ Rogers, R. (1989). A Short Course in Cloud Physics. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 61-62. ISBN 978-0-7506-3215-7. ^ Global Measured Extremes of Temperature and Precipitation. National Climatic Data Center. Retrieved on 21 June 2007. ^ Glenn Elert. Hottest Temperature on Earth. Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Glenn Elert. Coldest Temperature On Earth. Archived 10 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Canadian Climate Normals 1971-2000 - Eureka ^ Britt, Robert Roy (6 March 2001). "The Worst Weather in the Solar System". Space.com. Archived from the original on 2 May 2001. ^ M. Fulchignoni; F. Ferri; F. Angrilli; A. Bar-Nun; M.A. Barucci; G. Bianchini; et al. (2002). "The Characterisation of Titan's Atmospheric Physical Properties by the Huygens Atmospheric Structure Instrument (Hasi)". Space Science Reviews. 104 (1): 395-431. Bibcode:2002SSRv..104..395F. doi:10.1023/A:1023688607077. ^ Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Overview - Climate: The Spherical Shape of the Earth: Climatic Zones. Archived 26 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Anne Minard. Jupiter's "Jet Stream" Heated by Surface, Not Sun. Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ ESA: Cassini-Huygens. The jet stream of Titan. Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Georgia State University. The Environment of Venus. Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Ellen Cohen. "Jupiter's Great Red Spot". Hayden Planetarium. Archived from the original on 8 August 2007. Retrieved 16 November 2007. ^ Suomi, V.E.; Limaye, S.S.; Johnson, D.R. (1991). "High Winds of Neptune: A possible mechanism". Science. 251 (4996): 929-932. Bibcode:1991Sci...251..929S. doi:10.1126/science.251.4996.929. PMID 17847386. ^ Sromovsky, Lawrence A. (14 October 1998). "Hubble Provides a Moving Look at Neptune's Stormy Disposition". HubbleSite. ^ Knutson, Heather A.; David Charbonneau; Lori E. Allen; Jonathan J. Fortney; Eric Agol; Nicolas B. Cowan; et al. (10 May 2007). "A map of the day-night contrast of the extrasolar planet HD 189733b". Nature. 447 (7141): 183-186. arXiv:0705.0993. Bibcode:2007Natur.447..183K. doi:10.1038/nature05782. PMID 17495920. ^ Bill Christensen. Shock to the (Solar) System: Coronal Mass Ejection Tracked to Saturn. Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ AlaskaReport. What Causes the Aurora Borealis? Retrieved on 28 June 2008. ^ Rodney Viereck. Space Weather: What is it? How Will it Affect You?[permanent dead link]Retrieved on 28 June 2008. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Weather. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Weather showvteElements of nature

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"Vegan" redirects here. For other uses, see Vegan (disambiguation). For notable vegans, see List of vegans. VeganismClockwise from top-left:Seitan pizza, roasted sprouts, tofu and pasta; cocoa-avocado brownies and leek and bean cassoulet with dumplings.PronunciationVeganism /ˈviːɡənɪzəm/ VEE-gə-niz-əmVegan /ˈviːɡən/ VEE-gənDescriptionElimination of the use of animal products, particularly in dietEarliest proponentsAl-Maʿarri (c. 973 - c. 1057)[a]Roger Crab (1621-1680)[2]Johann Conrad Beissel (1691-1768)[3]James Pierrepont Greaves (1777-1842)[4]Amos Bronson Alcott (1799-1888)[5]Donald Watson (1910-2005)[6]Term coined byDonald Watson (November 1944)[7]Notable vegansList of vegansNotable publicationsList of vegan media Veganism is the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals.[b] A follower of the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan.[c] Distinctions may be made between several categories of veganism. Dietary vegans (also known as "strict vegetarians") refrain from consuming meat, eggs, dairy products, and any other animal-derived substances.[d] An ethical vegan (also known as a "moral vegetarian") is someone who not only follows a vegan diet but extends the philosophy into other areas of their lives, and opposes the use of animals for any purpose.[e] Another term is "environmental veganism", which refers to the avoidance of animal products on the premise that the industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.[21] Well-planned vegan diets are regarded as appropriate for all stages of life, including infancy and pregnancy, by the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics,[f] Dietitians of Canada,[23] the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council,[24] New Zealand Ministry of Health,[25] Harvard Medical School,[26] and the British Dietetic Association.[27] The German Society for Nutrition does not recommend vegan diets for children or adolescents, or during pregnancy and breastfeeding.[g] In preliminary clinical research, vegan diets lowered the risk of type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, and ischemic heart disease.[29][30][31][32] Vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fiber, magnesium, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, iron, and phytochemicals; and lower in dietary energy, saturated fat, cholesterol, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B12.[h] As with a poorly-planned diet of any other variation, an unbalanced vegan diet may lead to nutritional deficiencies that nullify any beneficial effects and may cause serious health issues.[33][34][35] Some of these deficiencies can only be prevented through the choice of fortified foods or the regular intake of dietary supplements.[33][36] Vitamin B12 supplementation is especially important because its deficiency causes blood disorders and potentially irreversible neurological damage.[35][37][38] Donald Watson coined the term "vegan" in 1944 when he co-founded the Vegan Society in England. At first he used it to mean "non-dairy vegetarian",[39][40] and by May 1945 vegans explicitly abstained from "eggs, honey; and animals' milk, butter and cheese". From 1951 the Society defined it as "the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals".[41] Interest in veganism increased in the 2010s,[42][43] especially in the latter half.[43] More vegan stores opened and vegan options became increasingly available in supermarkets and restaurants worldwide. Contents 1Origins1.1Vegetarian etymology1.2History1.3Vegetarian Society1.4Vegan etymology (1944) 2Increasing interest2.1Alternative food movements2.2Mainstream 3Veganism by country 4Animal products4.1Avoidance4.2Eggs and dairy products4.3Honey and silk4.4Pet food 5Vegan diet5.1Soy5.2Plant milk, cheese, mayonnaise5.3Egg replacements5.4Raw veganism5.5Nutrients5.6Health research5.7Professional and government associations5.8Pregnancy, infants and children 6Personal items 7Philosophy7.1Ethical veganism7.2Environmental veganism7.3Feminist veganism7.4Religious veganism 8Symbols 9Economics of veganism 10See also 11Notes 12References 13External links Origins Further information: History of vegetarianism Vegetarian etymology The term "vegetarian" has been in use since around 1839 to refer to what was previously described as a vegetable regimen or diet.[44] Its origin is an irregular compound of vegetable[45] and the suffix -arian (in the sense of "supporter, believer" as in humanitarian).[46] The earliest-known written use is attributed to actress, writer and abolitionist Fanny Kemble, in her Journal of a Residence on a Georgian plantation in 1838-1839.[i] History The practice can be traced to Indus Valley Civilization in 3300-1300 BCE in the Indian subcontinent,[49][50][51] particularly in northern and western ancient India.[52] Early vegetarians included Indian philosophers such as Mahavira and Acharya Kundakunda, the Tamil poet Valluvar, the Indian emperors Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka; Greek philosophers such as Empedocles, Theophrastus, Plutarch, Plotinus, and Porphyry; and the Roman poet Ovid and the playwright Seneca the Younger.[53][54] The Greek sage Pythagoras may have advocated an early form of strict vegetarianism,[55][56] but his life is so obscure that it is disputed whether he ever advocated any form of vegetarianism at all.[57] He almost certainly prohibited his followers from eating beans[57] and from wearing woolen garments.[57] Eudoxus of Cnidus, a student of Archytas and Plato, writes that "Pythagoras was distinguished by such purity and so avoided killing and killers that he not only abstained from animal foods, but even kept his distance from cooks and hunters".[57] One of the earliest known vegans was the Arab poet al-Maʿarri (c. 973 - c. 1057).[a][58] Their arguments were based on health, the transmigration of souls, animal welfare, and the view—espoused by Porphyry in De Abstinentia ab Esu Animalium ("On Abstinence from Animal Food", c. 268 - c. 270)—that if humans deserve justice, then so do animals.[53] Vegetarianism established itself as a significant movement in 19th-century England and the United States.[59] A minority of vegetarians avoided animal food entirely.[60] In 1813, the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley published A Vindication of Natural Diet, advocating "abstinence from animal food and spirituous liquors", and in 1815, William Lambe, a London physician, stated that his "water and vegetable diet" could cure anything from tuberculosis to acne.[61] Lambe called animal food a "habitual irritation", and argued that "milk eating and flesh-eating are but branches of a common system and they must stand or fall together".[62] Sylvester Graham's meatless Graham diet—mostly fruit, vegetables, water, and bread made at home with stoneground flour—became popular as a health remedy in the 1830s in the United States.[63] Several vegan communities were established around this time. In Massachusetts, Amos Bronson Alcott, father of the novelist Louisa May Alcott, opened the Temple School in 1834 and Fruitlands in 1844,[64][j] and in England, James Pierrepont Greaves founded the Concordium, a vegan community at Alcott House on Ham Common, in 1838.[4][66] Vegetarian Society Further information: Vegetarian Society Fruitlands, a short-lived vegan community established in 1844 by Amos Bronson Alcott in Harvard, Massachusetts. Mahatma Gandhi, Vegetarian Society, London, 20 November 1931, with Henry Salt on his right[k] In 1843, members of Alcott House created the British and Foreign Society for the Promotion of Humanity and Abstinence from Animal Food,[68] led by Sophia Chichester, a wealthy benefactor of Alcott House.[69] Alcott House also helped to establish the UK Vegetarian Society, which held its first meeting in 1847 in Ramsgate, Kent.[70] The Medical Times and Gazette in London reported in 1884: There are two kinds of Vegetarians—one an extreme form, the members of which eat no animal food products what-so-ever; and a less extreme sect, who do not object to eggs, milk, or fish. The Vegetarian Society ... belongs to the latter more moderate division.[60] An article in the Society's magazine, the Vegetarian Messenger, in 1851 discussed alternatives to shoe leather, which suggests the presence of vegans within the membership who rejected animal use entirely, not only in diet.[71] By the 1886 publication of Henry S. Salt's A Plea for Vegetarianism and Other Essays, he asserts that, "It is quite true that most—not all—Food Reformers admit into their diet such animal food as milk, butter, cheese, and eggs..."[72] Russell Thacher Trall's The Hygeian Home Cook-Book published in 1874 is the first known vegan cookbook in America.[73] The book contains recipes "without the employment of milk, sugar, salt, yeast, acids, alkalies, grease, or condiments of any kind."[73] An early vegan cookbook, Rupert H. Wheldon's No Animal Food: Two Essays and 100 Recipes, was published in London in 1910.[74] The consumption of milk and eggs became a battleground over the following decades. There were regular discussions about it in the Vegetarian Messenger; it appears from the correspondence pages that many opponents of veganism came from vegetarians.[7][75] During a visit to London in 1931, Mahatma Gandhi—who had joined the Vegetarian Society's executive committee when he lived in London from 1888 to 1891—gave a speech to the Society arguing that it ought to promote a meat-free diet as a matter of morality, not health.[67][76] Lacto-vegetarians acknowledged the ethical consistency of the vegan position but regarded a vegan diet as impracticable and were concerned that it might be an impediment to spreading vegetarianism if vegans found themselves unable to participate in social circles where no non-animal food was available. This became the predominant view of the Vegetarian Society, which in 1935 stated: "The lacto-vegetarians, on the whole, do not defend the practice of consuming the dairy products except on the ground of expediency."[77] Vegan etymology (1944) External images The Vegan Newsfirst edition, 1944Donald Watsonfront row, fourth left, 1947[78] In August 1944, several members of the Vegetarian Society asked that a section of its newsletter be devoted to non-dairy vegetarianism. When the request was turned down, Donald Watson, secretary of the Leicester branch, set up a new quarterly newsletter in November 1944, priced tuppence.[6] He called it The Vegan News. He chose the word vegan himself, based on "the first three and last two letters of 'vegetarian'" because it marked, in Mr Watson's words, "the beginning and end of vegetarian",[6][79] but asked his readers if they could think of anything better than vegan to stand for "non-dairy vegetarian". They suggested allvega, neo-vegetarian, dairyban, vitan, benevore, sanivores, and beaumangeur.[6][80] The first edition attracted more than 100 letters, including from George Bernard Shaw, who resolved to give up eggs and dairy.[7] The new Vegan Society held its first meeting in early November at the Attic Club, 144 High Holborn, London. Those in attendance were Donald Watson, Elsie B. Shrigley, Fay K. Henderson, Alfred Hy Haffenden, Paul Spencer and Bernard Drake, with Mme Pataleewa (Barbara Moore, a Russian-British engineer) observing.[81] World Vegan Day is held every 1 November to mark the founding of the Society and the month of November is considered by the Society to be World Vegan Month.[82] Barbara Moore attended the first meeting of the Vegan Society as an observer.[81] The Vegan News changed its name to The Vegan in November 1945, by which time it had 500 subscribers.[83] It published recipes and a "vegan trade list" of animal-free products, such as toothpastes, shoe polishes, stationery and glue.[84] Vegan books appeared, including Vegan Recipes by Fay K. Henderson and Aids to a Vegan Diet for Children by Kathleen V. Mayo.[85] The Vegan Society soon made clear that it rejected the use of animals for any purpose, not only in diet. In 1947, Watson wrote: "The vegan renounces it as superstitious that human life depends upon the exploitation of these creatures whose feelings are much the same as our own ...".[86] From 1948, The Vegan's front page read: "Advocating living without exploitation", and in 1951, the Society published its definition of veganism as "the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals".[86][87] In 1956, its vice-president, Leslie Cross, founded the Plantmilk Society; and in 1965, as Plantmilk Ltd and later Plamil Foods, it began production of one of the first widely distributed soy milks in the Western world.[88] The first vegan society in the United States was founded in 1948 by Catherine Nimmo and Rubin Abramowitz in California, who distributed Watson's newsletter.[89][90] In 1960, H. Jay Dinshah founded the American Vegan Society (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of ahimsa, "non-harming" in Sanskrit.[90][91][92] According to Joanne Stepaniak, the word vegan was first published independently in 1962 by the Oxford Illustrated Dictionary, defined as "a vegetarian who eats no butter, eggs, cheese, or milk".[93] Increasing interest Alternative food movements In the 1960s and 1970s, a vegetarian food movement emerged as part of the counterculture in the United States that focused on concerns about diet, the environment, and a distrust of food producers, leading to increasing interest in organic gardening.[94][95] One of the most influential vegetarian books of that time was Frances Moore Lappé's 1971 text, Diet for a Small Planet.[96] It sold more than three million copies and suggested "getting off the top of the food chain".[97] The following decades saw research by a group of scientists and doctors in the United States, including physicians Dean Ornish, Caldwell Esselstyn, Neal D. Barnard, John A. McDougall, Michael Greger, and biochemist T. Colin Campbell, who argued that diets based on animal fat and animal protein, such as the Western pattern diet, were detrimental to health.[98] They produced a series of books that recommend vegan or vegetarian diets, including McDougall's The McDougall Plan (1983), John Robbins's Diet for a New America (1987), which associated meat eating with environmental damage, and Dr. Dean Ornish's Program for Reversing Heart Disease (1990).[99] In 2003 two major North American dietitians' associations indicated that well-planned vegan diets were suitable for all life stages.[100] This was followed by the film Earthlings (2005), Campbell's The China Study (2005), Rory Freedman and Kim Barnouin's Skinny Bitch (2005), Jonathan Safran Foer's Eating Animals (2009), and the film Forks over Knives (2011).[101] In the 1980s, veganism became associated with punk subculture and ideologies, particularly straight edge hardcore punk in the United States;[102] and anarcho-punk in the United Kingdom.[103] This association continues on into the 21st century, as evinced by the prominence of vegan punk events such as Fluff Fest in Europe.[104][105] Mainstream See also: 2010s in food and List of vegans The vegan diet became increasingly mainstream in the 2010s,[42][43][106] especially in the latter half.[43][107] The Economist declared 2019 "the year of the vegan".[108] The European Parliament defined the meaning of vegan for food labels in 2010, in force as of 2015.[109] Chain restaurants began marking vegan items on their menus and supermarkets improved their selection of vegan processed food.[110] The global mock-meat market increased by 18 percent between 2005 and 2010,[111] and in the United States by eight percent between 2012 and 2015, to $553 million a year.[112] The Vegetarian Butcher (De Vegetarische Slager), the first known vegetarian butcher shop, selling mock meats, opened in the Netherlands in 2010,[111][113] while America's first vegan butcher, the Herbivorous Butcher, opened in Minneapolis in 2016.[112][114] Since 2017, more than 12,500 chain restaurant locations have begun offering Beyond Meat and Impossible Foods products including Carl's Jr. outlets offering Beyond Burgers and Burger King outlets serving Impossible Whoppers. Plant-based meat sales in the U.S have grown 37% in the past two years.[115] By 2016, 49% of Americans were drinking plant milk, and 91 percent still drank dairy milk.[116] In the United Kingdom, the plant milk market increased by 155 percent in two years, from 36 million litres (63 million imperial pints) in 2011 to 92 million (162 million imperial pints) in 2013.[117] There was a 185% increase in new vegan products between 2012 and 2016 in the UK.[107] In 2011, Europe's first vegan supermarkets appeared in Germany: Vegilicious in Dortmund and Veganz in Berlin.[118][119] In 2017, veganism rose in popularity in Hong Kong and China, particularly among millennials.[120] China's vegan market is estimated to rise by more than 17% between 2015 and 2020,[120][121] which is expected to be "the fastest growth rate internationally in that period".[120] This exceeds the projected growth in the second and third fastest-growing vegan markets internationally in the same period, the United Arab Emirates (10.6%) and Australia (9.6%) respectively.[121][122] In total, as of 2016, the largest share of vegan consumers globally currently reside in Asia Pacific with nine percent of people following a vegan diet.[121] In 2013, the Oktoberfest in Munich — traditionally a meat-heavy event — offered vegan dishes for the first time in its 200-year history.[123] Veganz in Berlin, Europe's first vegan supermarket Veganism by country See also: Vegetarianism by country § Demographics Australia: Australians topped Google's worldwide searches for the word "vegan" between mid-2015 and mid-2016.[124] A Euromonitor International study concluded the market for packaged vegan food in Australia would rise 9.6% per year between 2015 and 2020, making Australia the third-fastest growing vegan market behind China and the United Arab Emirates.[121][122] Austria: In 2013, Kurier estimated that 0.5 percent of Austrians practised veganism, and in the capital, Vienna, 0.7 percent.[125] Belgium: A 2016 iVOX online study found that out of 1000 Dutch-speaking residents of Flanders and Brussels of 18 years and over, 0.3 percent were vegan.[126] Canada: In 2018, one survey estimated that 2.1 percent of adult Canadians considered themselves as vegans.[127] Germany: As of 2016, data estimated that people following a vegan diet in Germany varied between 0.1% and 1% of the population (between 81,000 and 810,000 persons).[28] India: In the 2005-06 National Health Survey, 1.6% of the surveyed population reported never consuming animal products. Veganism was most common in the states of Gujarat (4.9%) and Maharashtra (4.0%).[128] Israel: Five percent (approx. 300,000) in Israel said they were vegan in 2014, making it the highest per capita vegan population in the world.[129] A 2015 survey by Globes and Israel's Channel 2 News similarly found 5% of Israelis were vegan.[130] Veganism increased among Israeli Arabs.[131] The Israeli army made special provision for vegan soldiers in 2015, which included providing non-leather boots and wool-free berets.[132] Italy: Between 0.6 and three percent of Italians were reported to be vegan as of 2015.[133] Netherlands: In 2018, the Dutch Society for Veganism (Nederlandse Vereniging voor Veganisme) estimated there were more than 100,000 Dutch vegans (0.59 percent), based on their membership growth.[134] Romania: Followers of the Romanian Orthodox Church keep fast during several periods throughout the ecclesiastical calendar amounting to a majority of the year. In the Romanian Orthodox tradition, devotees abstain from eating any animal products during these times. As a result, vegan foods are abundant in stores and restaurants; however, Romanians may not be familiar with a vegan diet as a full-time lifestyle choice.[135] Sweden: Four percent said they were vegan in a 2014 Demoskop poll.[136] Switzerland: Market research company DemoSCOPE estimated in 2017 that three percent of the population was vegan.[137] United Kingdom: In the UK, where the tofu and mock-meats market was worth £786.5 million in 2012, two percent said they were vegan in a 2007 government survey.[138] A 2016 Ipsos MORI study commissioned by the Vegan Society, surveying almost 10,000 people aged 15 or over across England, Scotland, and Wales, found that 1.05 percent were vegan; the Vegan Society estimates that 542,000 in the UK follow a vegan diet.[139] According to a 2018 survey by Comparethemarket.com, the number of people who identify as vegans in the United Kingdom has risen to over 3.5 million, which is approximately seven percent of the population, and environmental concerns were a major factor in this development.[140] However, doubt was cast on this inflated figure by the UK-based Vegan Society, who perform their own regular survey: the Vegan Society themselves found in 2018 that there were 600,000 vegans in Great Britain (1.16%), which was seen as a dramatic increase on previous figures.[141][142] United States: Estimates of vegans in the U.S. vary from 2% (Gallup, 2012)[143] to 0.5% (Faunalytics, 2014). According to the latter, 70% of those who adopted a vegan diet abandoned it.[144] Top Trends in Prepared Foods 2017, a report by GlobalData, estimated that "6% of US consumers now claim to be vegan, up from just 1% in 2014."[145] Animal products Avoidance Further information: Rendering (food processing) Wikimedia Commons has media related to Animal products. Mock meats in Veganz, a vegan supermarket in Berlin Vegans do not eat beef, pork, poultry, fowl, game, animal seafood, eggs, dairy, or any other animal products. Dietary vegans might use animal products in clothing (as leather, wool, and silk), toiletries, and similar. Ethical veganism extends not only to matters of food but also to the wearing or use of animal products, and rejects the commodification of animals altogether.[19]:62 The British Vegan Society will certify a product only if it is free of animal involvement as far as possible and practical, including animal testing,[146][147][148] but "recognises that it is not always possible to make a choice that avoids the use of animals",[149] an issue that was highlighted in 2016 when it became known that the UK's newly-introduced £5 note contained tallow.[150][151] An important concern is the case of medications, which are routinely tested on animals to ensure they are effective and safe,[152] and may also contain animal ingredients, such as lactose, gelatine, or stearates.[149] There may be no alternatives to prescribed medication or these alternatives may be unsuitable, less effective, or have more adverse side effects.[149] Experimentation with laboratory animals is also used for evaluating the safety of vaccines, food additives, cosmetics, household products, workplace chemicals, and many other substances.[153] Philosopher Gary Steiner argues that it is not possible to be entirely vegan, because animal use and products are "deeply and imperceptibly woven into the fabric of human society".[154] Animal products in common use include albumen, allantoin, beeswax, blood, bone char, bone china, carmine, casein, castoreum, cochineal, elastin, emu oil, gelatin, honey, isinglass, keratin, lactic acid, lanolin, lard, rennet, retinol, shellac, squalene, tallow (including sodium tallowate), whey, and yellow grease. Some of these are chemical compounds that can be derived from animal products, plants, or petrochemicals. Allantoin, lactic acid, retinol, and squalene, for example, can be vegan. These products and their origins are not always included in the list of ingredients.[155] Vegetables themselves, even from organic farms, may use animal manure; "vegan" vegetables use plant compost only.[156] Some vegans will not buy woollen jumpers, silk scarves, leather shoes, bedding that contains goose down or duck feathers, pearl jewellery, seashells, ordinary soap (usually made of animal fat), or cosmetics that contain animal products. They avoid certain vaccines; the flu vaccine, for example, is usually grown in hens' eggs. An effective alternative, Flublok, is widely available in the United States.[157] Non-vegan items acquired before they became vegan might be donated to charity or used until worn out. Some vegan clothes, in particular leather alternatives, are made of petroleum-based products, which has triggered criticism because of the environmental damage involved in their production.[158] Eggs and dairy products Modern methods of factory farming are considered highly unethical by most vegans. The main difference between a vegan and vegetarian diet is that vegans exclude dairy products and eggs. Ethical vegans avoid them on the premise that their production causes animal suffering and premature death. In egg production, most male chicks are culled because they do not lay eggs.[159] To obtain milk from dairy cattle, cows are made pregnant to induce lactation; they are kept lactating for three to seven years, then slaughtered. Female calves can be separated from their mothers within 24 hours of birth, and fed milk replacer to retain the cow's milk for human consumption. Most male calves are slaughtered at birth, sent for veal production, or reared for beef.[160][161] Honey and silk Vegan groups disagree about insect products.[162] Neither the Vegan Society nor the American Vegan Society considers honey, silk, and other insect products as suitable for vegans.[163][148] Some vegans believe that exploiting the labor of bees and harvesting their energy source is immoral, and that commercial beekeeping operations can harm and even kill bees.[164] Insect products can be defined much more widely, as commercial bees are used to pollinate about 100 different food crops.[162] Pet food See also: Vegetarian and vegan dog diet, Dog food § Vegetarian and vegan dog food, Cat food § Vegetarian or vegan food, and Cat health § Diet and nutrition Due to the environmental impact of meat-based pet food[165][166] and the ethical problems it poses for vegans,[167][168] some vegans extend their philosophy to include the diets of pets.[166][169][170][171] This is particularly true for domesticated cats[172] and dogs,[173] for which vegan pet food is both available and nutritionally complete,[166][169][170] such as Vegepet. This practice has been met with caution and criticism,[169][174] especially regarding vegan cat diets because felids are obligate carnivores.[168][169][174] Nutritionally complete vegan pet diets are comparable to meat-based ones for cats and dogs.[175] A 2015 study found that 6 out of 24 commercial vegan pet food brands do not meet the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) labeling regulations for amino acid adequacy.[176] Vegan diet Further information: Vegan nutrition and Plant-based diet Vegan cuisine at Wikibook Cookbooks Vegan diets are based on grains and other seeds, legumes (particularly beans), fruits, vegetables, edible mushrooms, and nuts.[177] Warm tofu (soybean curd) with garlic sauce Soy Meatless products based on soybeans (tofu), or wheat-based seitan are sources of plant protein, commonly in the form of vegetarian sausage, mince, and veggie burgers.[178] Soy-based dishes are common in vegan diets because soy is a protein source.[179] They are consumed most often in the form of soy milk and tofu (bean curd), which is soy milk mixed with a coagulant. Tofu comes in a variety of textures, depending on water content, from firm, medium firm and extra firm for stews and stir-fries to soft or silken for salad dressings, desserts and shakes. Soy is also eaten in the form of tempeh and textured vegetable protein (TVP); also known as textured soy protein (TSP), the latter is often used in pasta sauces.[179] Plant milk, cheese, mayonnaise Wikimedia Commons has media related to Plant milk. showNutritional content of cows', soy, and almond milk Plant milks—such as soy milk, almond milk, cashew milk, grain milks (oat milk, flax milk and rice milk), hemp milk, and coconut milk—are used in place of cows' or goats' milk.[l] Soy milk provides around 7 g (¼oz) of protein per cup (240 mL or 8 fl oz), compared with 8 g (2/7oz) of protein per cup of cow's milk. Almond milk is lower in dietary energy, carbohydrates, and protein.[184] Soy milk should not be used as a replacement for breast milk for babies. Babies who are not breastfed may be fed commercial infant formula, normally based on cows' milk or soy. The latter is known as soy-based infant formula or SBIF.[185][186] Butter and margarine can be replaced with alternate vegan products.[187] Vegan cheeses are made from seeds, such as sesame and sunflower; nuts, such as cashew,[188] pine nut, and almond;[189] and soybeans, coconut oil, nutritional yeast, tapioca,[190] and rice, among other ingredients; and can replicate the meltability of dairy cheese. Nutritional yeast is a common substitute for the taste of cheese in vegan recipes.[187] Cheese substitutes can be made at home, including from nuts, such as cashews.[188] Egg replacements Tofu can be used as an egg replacement Further information: Egg substitutes As of 2019 in the United States, there were numerous vegan egg substitutes available, including products used for "scrambled" eggs, cakes, cookies, and doughnuts.[191][192] Baking powder, silken (soft) tofu, mashed potato, bananas, flaxseeds, and aquafaba from chickpeas can also be used as egg substitutes.[187][192][193] Raw veganism Main article: Raw veganism Raw veganism, combining veganism and raw foodism, excludes all animal products and food cooked above 48 °C (118 °F). A raw vegan diet includes vegetables, fruits, nuts, grain and legume sprouts, seeds, and sea vegetables. There are many variations of the diet, including fruitarianism.[194] Nutrients Protein Further information: Protein quality, Pea protein, Protein (nutrient), Protein-energy malnutrition, Rice protein, Soy protein, and Hemp protein Rice and beans is a common vegan protein combination. Proteins are composed of amino acids. Vegans obtain all their protein from plants, omnivores usually a third, and ovo-lacto vegetarians half.[195] Sources of plant protein include legumes such as soy beans (consumed as tofu, tempeh, textured vegetable protein, soy milk, and edamame), peas, peanuts, black beans, and chickpeas (the latter often eaten as hummus); grains such as quinoa, brown rice, corn, barley, bulgur, and wheat (the latter eaten as bread and seitan); and nuts and seeds. Combinations that contain high amounts of all the essential amino acids include rice and beans, corn and beans, and hummus and whole-wheat pita.[196] Soy beans and quinoa are known as complete proteins because they each contain all the essential amino acids in amounts that meet or exceed human requirements.[197] Mangels et al. write that consuming the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of protein—0.8 g/kg (12gr/lb) of body weight—in the form of soy will meet the biologic requirement for amino acids.[179] In 2012, the United States Department of Agriculture ruled that soy protein (tofu) may replace meat protein in the National School Lunch Program.[198] The American Dietetic Association said in 2009 that a variety of plant foods consumed over the course of a day can provide all the essential amino acids for healthy adults, which means that protein combining in the same meal is generally not necessary.[199] Mangels et al. write that there is little reason to advise vegans to increase their protein intake; but erring on the side of caution, they recommend a 25 percent increase over the RDA for adults, to 1g/kg (15gr/lb) of body weight.[200] Vitamin B12 Further information: Vitamin B12 deficiency, Vitamin B12 § Supplements, and Food fortification Tahini miso soup with brown rice, turnips, squash, radishes and nori (an edible seaweed). Nori has been cited as a plant source of B12,[201] but the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics established in 2016 that is not an adequate source of this vitamin. Vegans need to consume regularly fortified foods or supplements containing B12.[36] Vitamin B12 is a bacterial product needed for cell division, the formation and maturation of red blood cells, the synthesis of DNA, and normal nerve function. A deficiency may cause megaloblastic anaemia and neurological damage, and, if untreated, may lead to death.[37][202][m] The high content of folacin in vegetarian diets may mask the hematological symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency, so it may go undetected until neurological signs in the late stages are evident, which can be irreversible, such as neuropsychiatric abnormalities, neuropathy, dementia and, occasionally, atrophy of optic nerves.[22][35][204] Vegans sometimes fail to obtain enough B12 from their diet because among non-fortified foods, only those of animal origin contain sufficient amounts.[35][204][n] The best source is ruminant food.[38] Vegetarians are also at risk, as are older people and those with certain medical conditions.[206][207] A 2013 study found that "vegetarians develop B12 depletion or deficiency regardless of demographic characteristics, place of residency, age, or type of vegetarian diet. Vegans should take preventive measures to ensure adequate intake of this vitamin, including regular consumption of supplements containing B12."[o] B12 is produced in nature only by certain bacteria and archaea; it is not made by any animal, fungus, or plant.[38][209][210] It is synthesized by some gut bacteria in humans and other animals, but humans cannot absorb the B12 made in their guts, as it is made in the colon which is too far from the small intestine, where absorption of B12 occurs.[38] Ruminants, such as cows and sheep, absorb B12 produced by bacteria in their guts.[38] Animals store vitamin B12 in liver and muscle and some pass the vitamin into their eggs and milk; meat, liver, eggs and milk are therefore sources of B12.[211][212] It has been suggested that nori (an edible seaweed), tempeh (a fermented soybean food), and nutritional yeast may be sources of vitamin B12.[201][p][214][q] In 2016, the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics established that nori, fermented foods (such as tempeh), spirulina, chlorella algae, and unfortified nutritional yeast are not adequate sources of vitamin B12 and that vegans need to consume regularly fortified foods or supplements containing B12. Otherwise, vitamin B12 deficiency may develop, as has been demonstrated in case studies of vegan infants, children, and adults.[36] Vitamin B12 is mostly manufactured by industrial fermentation of various kinds of bacteria, which make forms of cyanocobalamin, which are further processed to generate the ingredient included in supplements and fortified foods.[216][217] The Pseudomonas denitrificans strain was most commonly used as of 2017.[218][219] It is grown in a medium containing sucrose, yeast extract, and several metallic salts. To increase vitamin production, it is supplemented with sugar beet molasses, or, less frequently, with choline.[218] Certain brands of B12 supplements are vegan.[202] Calcium Further information: Calcium in biology, Calcium carbonate, Calcium citrate, and Disorders of calcium metabolism Vegan cheeses Calcium is needed to maintain bone health and for several metabolic functions, including muscle function, vascular contraction and vasodilation, nerve transmission, intracellular signalling, and hormonal secretion. Ninety-nine percent of the body's calcium is stored in the bones and teeth.[220][221][222]:35-74 High-calcium foods may include fortified plant milk, and kale, collards and raw garlic as common vegetable sources.[223] A 2007 report based on the Oxford cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition, which began in 1993, suggested that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures over meat eaters and vegetarians, likely because of lower dietary calcium intake. The study found that vegans consuming at least 525 mg (8gr) of calcium daily have a risk of fractures similar to that of other groups.[r][226] A 2009 study found the bone mineral density (BMD) of vegans was 94 percent that of omnivores, but deemed the difference clinically insignificant.[227][s] Vitamin D Further information: Vitamin D deficiency, Rickets, and Hypervitaminosis D Vitamin D (calciferol) is needed for several functions, including calcium absorption, enabling mineralization of bone, and bone growth. Without it bones can become thin and brittle; together with calcium it offers protection against osteoporosis. Vitamin D is produced in the body when ultraviolet rays from the sun hit the skin; outdoor exposure is needed because UVB radiation does not penetrate glass. It is present in salmon, tuna, mackerel and cod liver oil, with small amounts in cheese, egg yolks, and beef liver, and in some mushrooms.[229] Most vegan diets contain little or no vitamin D without fortified food. People with little sun exposure may need supplements. The extent to which sun exposure is sufficient depends on the season, time of day, cloud and smog cover, skin melanin content, and whether sunscreen is worn. According to the National Institutes of Health, most people can obtain and store sufficient vitamin D from sunlight in the spring, summer, and fall, even in the far north. They report that some researchers recommend 5-30 minutes of sun exposure without sunscreen between 10 am and 3 pm, at least twice a week. Tanning beds emitting 2-6% UVB radiation have a similar effect, though tanning is inadvisable.[229][230] Vitamin D comes in two forms. Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) is synthesized in the skin after exposure to the sun or consumed from food, usually from animal sources. Ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) is derived from ergosterol from UV-exposed mushrooms or yeast and is suitable for vegans. When produced industrially as supplements, vitamin D3 is typically derived from lanolin in sheep's wool. However, both provitamins and vitamins D2 and D3 have been discovered in Cladina spp. (especially Cladina rangiferina)[231] and these edible lichen are harvested in the wild for producing vegan vitamin D3.[232] Conflicting studies have suggested that the two forms of vitamin D may or may not be bioequivalent.[233] According to researchers from the Institute of Medicine, the differences between vitamins D2 and D3 do not affect metabolism, both function as prohormones, and when activated exhibit identical responses in the body.[234] Iron Further information: Human iron metabolism, Iron supplement, and Iron deficiency Oatmeal with blueberries, toasted almonds and almond milk; one packet of instant oatmeal contains 8.2 mg (1/8gr) of iron.[235] In some cases iron and the zinc status of vegans may also be of concern because of the limited bioavailability of these minerals.[33] There are concerns about the bioavailability of iron from plant foods, assumed by some researchers to be 5-15 percent compared to 18 percent from a nonvegetarian diet.[236] Iron-deficiency anemia is found as often in nonvegetarians as in vegetarians, and vegetarians' iron stores are lower.[237] Because of the lower bioavailability of iron from plant sources, the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences established a separate RDA for vegetarians and vegans of 14 mg (¼gr) for vegetarian men and postmenopausal women, and 33 mg (½gr) for premenopausal women not using oral contraceptives.[238] It is recommended that supplements should be used with caution after consulting a physician, because iron can accumulate in the body and cause damage to organs.[citation needed] This is particularly true of anyone with hemochromatosis, a relatively common condition that can remain undiagnosed.[239] High-iron vegan foods include soybeans, blackstrap molasses, black beans, lentils, chickpeas, spinach, tempeh, tofu, and lima beans.[240][241] Iron absorption can be enhanced by eating a source of vitamin C at the same time,[242] such as half a cup of cauliflower or five fluid ounces of orange juice. Coffee and some herbal teas can inhibit iron absorption, as can spices that contain tannins such as turmeric, coriander, chiles, and tamarind.[241] Omega-3 fatty acids, iodine Further information: Essential fatty acid interactions, Iodine in biology, and Iodine deficiency Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid, is found in walnuts, seeds, and vegetable oils, such as canola and flaxseed oil.[243] EPA and DHA, the other primary omega-3 fatty acids, are found only in animal products and algae.[244] Iodine supplementation may be necessary for vegans in countries where salt is not typically iodized, where it is iodized at low levels, or where, as in Britain and Ireland, dairy products are relied upon for iodine delivery because of low levels in the soil.[245] Iodine can be obtained from most vegan multivitamins or regular consumption of seaweeds, such as kelp.[246] Health research Vegan products in a supermarket (Oceanside, California, 2014) As of 2014, few studies were rigorous in their comparison of omnivore, vegetarian, and vegan diets, making it difficult to discern whether health benefits attributed to veganism might also apply to vegetarian diets or diets that include moderate meat intake. In preliminary clinical research, vegan diets lowered the risk of type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, and ischemic heart disease.[29][30][31][32] A 2017 systematic review of multiple observational studies of vegetarians and vegans showed a significantly reduced risk of total cancer incidence in vegans studied.[247] Eliminating all animal products may increase the risk of deficiencies of vitamins B12 and D, calcium, and omega-3 fatty acids.[33] Vitamin B12 deficiency occurs in up to 80% of vegans that do not supplement with vitamin B12.[248] Vegans might be at risk of low bone mineral density without supplements.[33][249] Lack of B12 inhibits normal function of the nervous system.[250][251] Professional and government associations The American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and Dietitians of Canada state that properly planned vegan diets are appropriate for all life stages, including pregnancy and lactation.[252] They indicate that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders, but that its adoption may serve to camouflage a disorder rather than cause one. The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council similarly recognizes a well-planned vegan diet as viable for any age,[253][254][24] as does the New Zealand Ministry of Health,[255] British National Health Service,[256] British Nutrition Foundation,[257] Dietitians Association of Australia,[258] United States Department of Agriculture,[259] Mayo Clinic,[260] Canadian Pediatric Society,[261] and Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada.[262] The British National Health Service's Eatwell Plate allows for an entirely plant-based diet,[263] as does the United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA) MyPlate.[264][265] The USDA allows tofu to replace meat in the National School Lunch Program.[198] The German Society for Nutrition does not recommend a vegan diet for babies, children and adolescents, or for women pregnant or breastfeeding.[28] Harvard Medical School has commented that "plant-based eating is recognized as not only nutritionally sufficient but also as a way to reduce the risk for many chronic illnesses".[26] Kaiser Permanente, the largest healthcare organization in the United States, has written, "Research shows that plant-based diets are cost-effective, low-risk interventions that may lower body mass index, blood pressure, HbA1C, and cholesterol levels. They may also reduce the number of medications needed to treat chronic diseases and lower ischemic heart disease mortality rates."[266] The American Institute for Cancer Research has stated, "When focusing on specific types of vegetarian diets, the vegan diets showed protection for overall cancer incidence also."[267] Pregnancy, infants and children Further information: Nutrition and pregnancy The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and Dietitians of Canada consider well-planned vegetarian and vegan diets "appropriate for individuals during all stages of the lifecycle, including pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence, and for athletes".[268] The German Society for Nutrition cautioned against a vegan diet for pregnant women, breastfeeding women, babies, children, and adolescents.[28] The position of the Canadian Pediatric Society is that "well-planned vegetarian and vegan diets with appropriate attention to specific nutrient components can provide a healthy alternative lifestyle at all stages of fetal, infant, child and adolescent growth. It is recommended that attention should be given to nutrient intake, particularly protein, vitamins B12 and D, essential fatty acids, iron, zinc, and calcium.[261] According to a 2015 systematic review, there is little evidence available about vegetarian and vegan diets during pregnancy, and a lack of randomized studies meant that the effects of diet could not be distinguished from confounding factors.[269] It concluded: "Within these limits, vegan-vegetarian diets may be considered safe in pregnancy, provided that attention is paid to vitamin and trace element requirements."[269] A daily source of vitamin B12 is important for pregnant and lactating vegans, as is vitamin D if there are concerns about low sun exposure.[t] A different review found that pregnant vegetarians consumed less zinc than pregnant non-vegetarians, with both groups' intake below recommended levels; however, the review found no significant difference between groups in actual zinc levels in bodily tissues, nor any effect on gestation period or birth weight.[271] Researchers have reported cases of vitamin B12 deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers that were linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children.[272][273] It is recommended that a doctor or registered dietitian should be consulted about taking supplements during pregnancy.[274][275] Vegan diets have attracted negative attention from the media because of cases of nutritional deficiencies that have come to the attention of the courts, including the death of a baby in New Zealand in 2002 due to hypocobalaminemia, i.e. vitamin B12 deficiency.[34] Personal items Further information: Testing cosmetics on animals Vegan soap made from olive oil; soap is usually made from tallow (animal fat). Vegans replace personal care products and household cleaners containing animal products with products that are vegan, such as vegan dental floss made of bamboo fiber. Animal ingredients are ubiquitous because they are relatively inexpensive. After animals are slaughtered for meat, the leftovers are put through a rendering process and some of that material, particularly the fat, is used in toiletries. Common animal-derived ingredients include: tallow in soap; collagen-derived glycerine, which used as a lubricant and humectant in many haircare products, moisturizers, shaving foams, soaps and toothpastes;[276] lanolin from sheep's wool is often found in lip balm and moisturizers; stearic acid is a common ingredient in face creams, shaving foam and shampoos, (as with glycerine, it can be plant-based, but is usually animal-derived); Lactic acid, an alpha-hydroxy acid derived from animal milk, is used in moisturizers; allantoin— from the comfrey plant or cows' urine —is found in shampoos, moisturizers and toothpaste;[276] and carmine from scale insects, such as the female cochineal, is used in food and cosmetics to produce red and pink shades;[277][278] Logos Vegan Society sunflower:certified vegan, no animal testing PETA bunny:certified vegan, no animal testing Leaping bunny:no animal testing, might not be vegan Animal Ingredients A to Z (2004) and Veganissimo A to Z (2013) list which ingredients might be animal-derived. The British Vegan Society's sunflower logo and PETA's bunny logo mean the product is certified vegan, which includes no animal testing. The Leaping Bunny logo signals no animal testing, but it might not be vegan.[279][280] The Vegan Society criteria for vegan certification are that the product contain no animal products, and that neither the finished item nor its ingredients have been tested on animals by, or on behalf of, the manufacturer or by anyone over whom the manufacturer has control. Its website contains a list of certified products,[147][281] as does Australia's Choose Cruelty Free (CCF).[282] Beauty Without Cruelty, founded as a charity in 1959, was one of the earliest manufacturers and certifiers of animal-free personal care products.[283] Several international companies produce animal-free products, including clothes, shoes, fashion items, and candles.[284] Vegans avoid clothing that incorporates silk, wool (including lambswool, shearling, cashmere, angora, mohair, and a number of other fine wools), fur, feathers, pearls, animal-derived dyes, leather, snakeskin, and any other kind of skin or animal product. Most leather clothing is made from cow skins. Vegans regard the purchase of leather, particularly from cows, as financial support for the meat industry.[285]:115 Vegans may wear clothing items and accessories made of non-animal-derived materials such as hemp, linen, cotton, canvas, polyester, artificial leather (pleather), rubber, and vinyl.[285]:16 Leather alternatives can come from materials such as cork, piña (from pineapples), and mushroom leather.[286][287] Philosophy Ethical veganism Further information: Animal rights, Carnism, Cruelty to animals § Welfare concerns of farm animals, and Ethics of eating meat Pigs, as well as chicken and cattle, often have their movement restricted Ethical veganism, also known as moral vegetarianism, is based on opposition to speciesism, the assignment of value to individuals on the basis of species membership alone. Divisions within animal rights theory include the utilitarian, protectionist approach, which pursues improved conditions for animals. It also pertains to the rights-based abolitionism, which seeks to end human ownership of non-humans. Abolitionists argue that protectionism serves only to make the public feel that animal use can be morally unproblematic (the "happy meat" position).[19]:62-63 Donald Watson, the first vegan activist and founder of The Vegan Society, stated in response to a question on why he was an ethical vegan, "If an open-minded, honest person pursues a course long enough, and listens to all the criticisms, and in one's own mind can satisfactorily meet all the criticisms against that idea, sooner or later one's resistance against what one sees as evil tradition has to be discarded."[288] On bloodsports, he has said that "to kill creatures for fun must be the very dregs," and that vivisection and animal experimentation "is probably the cruelest of all Man's attack on the rest of Creation." He has also stated that "vegetarianism, whilst being a necessary stepping-stone, between meat eating and veganism, is only a stepping stone."[288] Alex Hershaft, co-founder of the Farm Animal Rights Movement and Holocaust survivor, states he "was always bothered by the idea of hitting a beautiful, living, innocent animal over the head, cutting him up into pieces, then shoving the pieces into [his] mouth," and that his experiences in the Nazi Holocaust allowed him "to emphasize with the conditions of animals in factory farms, auction yards, and slaughterhouses" because he "knows firsthand what it's like to be treated like a worthless object."[289] Law professor Gary Francione, an abolitionist, argues that all sentient beings should have the right not to be treated as property, and that adopting veganism must be the baseline for anyone who believes that non-humans have intrinsic moral value.[u][19]:62 Philosopher Tom Regan, also a rights theorist, argues that animals possess value as "subjects-of-a-life", because they have beliefs, desires, memory and the ability to initiate action in pursuit of goals. The right of subjects-of-a-life not to be harmed can be overridden by other moral principles, but Regan argues that pleasure, convenience and the economic interests of farmers are not weighty enough.[291] Philosopher Peter Singer, a protectionist and utilitarian, argues that there is no moral or logical justification for failing to count animal suffering as a consequence when making decisions, and that killing animals should be rejected unless necessary for survival.[292] Despite this, he writes that "ethical thinking can be sensitive to circumstances", and that he is "not too concerned about trivial infractions".[293] An argument proposed by Bruce Friedrich, also a protectionist, holds that strict adherence to veganism harms animals, because it focuses on personal purity, rather than encouraging people to give up whatever animal products they can.[294] For Francione, this is similar to arguing that, because human-rights abuses can never be eliminated, we should not defend human rights in situations we control. By failing to ask a server whether something contains animal products, we reinforce that the moral rights of animals are a matter of convenience, he argues. He concludes from this that the protectionist position fails on its own consequentialist terms.[19]:72-73 Philosopher Val Plumwood maintained that ethical veganism is "subtly human-centred", an example of what she called "human/nature dualism" because it views humanity as separate from the rest of nature. Ethical vegans want to admit non-humans into the category that deserves special protection, rather than recognize the "ecological embeddedness" of all.[295] Plumwood wrote that animal food may be an "unnecessary evil" from the perspective of the consumer who "draws on the whole planet for nutritional needs"—and she strongly opposed factory farming—but for anyone relying on a much smaller ecosystem, it is very difficult or impossible to be vegan.[296] Bioethicist Ben Mepham,[297] in his review of Francione and Garner's book The Animal Rights Debate: Abolition or Regulation?, concludes that "if the aim of ethics is to choose the right, or best, course of action in specific circumstances 'all things considered', it is arguable that adherence to such an absolutist agenda is simplistic and open to serious self-contradictions. Or, as Farlie puts it, with characteristic panache: 'to conclude that veganism is the "only ethical response" is to take a big leap into a very muddy pond'."[298] He cites as examples the adverse effects on animal wildlife derived from the agricultural practices necessary to sustain most vegan diets and the ethical contradiction of favoring the welfare of domesticated animals but not that of wild animals; the imbalance between the resources that are used to promote the welfare of animals as opposed to those destined to alleviate the suffering of the approximately one billion human beings who undergo malnutrition, abuse, and exploitation; the focus on attitudes and conditions in western developed countries, leaving out the rights and interests of societies whose economy, culture and, in some cases, survival rely on a symbiotic relationship with animals.[298] David Pearce, a transhumanist philosopher, has argued that humanity has a "hedonistic imperative" to not merely avoid cruelty to animals or abolish the ownership of non-human animals, but also to redesign the global ecosystem such that wild animal suffering ceases to exist.[299] In the pursuit of abolishing suffering itself, Pearce promotes predation elimination among animals and the "cross-species global analogue of the welfare state". Fertility regulation could maintain herbivore populations at sustainable levels, "a more civilised and compassionate policy option than famine, predation, and disease".[300] The increasing number of vegans and vegetarians in the transhumanism movement has been attributed in part to Pearce's influence.[301] A growing political philosophy that incorporates veganism as part of its revolutionary praxis is veganarchism, which seeks "total abolition" or "total liberation" for all animals, including humans. Veganarchists identify the state as unnecessary and harmful to animals, both human and non-human, and advocate for the adoption of a vegan lifestyle within a stateless society. The term was popularized in 1995 with Brian A. Dominick's pamphlet Animal Liberation and Social Revolution, described as "a vegan perspective on anarchism or an anarchist perspective on veganism".[302] Direct action is a common practice among veganarchists (and anarchists generally) with groups like the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) and Revolutionary Cells - Animal Liberation Brigade (RCALB) often engaging in such activities, sometimes criminally, to further their goals. Steven Best, animal rights activist and professor of philosophy at the University of Texas at El Paso, is an advocate of this approach, and has been critical of vegan activists like Francione for supporting animal liberation, but not total liberation, which would include not only opposition to "the property status of animals", but also "a serious critique of capitalism, the state, property relations, and commodification dynamics in general." In particular, he criticizes the focus on the simplistic and apolitical "Go Vegan" message directed mainly at wealthy Western audiences, while ignoring people of color, the working class and the poor, especially in the developing world, noting that "for every person who becomes vegan, a thousand flesh eaters arise in China, India and Indonesia." The "faith in the singular efficacy of conjectural education and moral persuasion," Best writes, is no substitute for "direct action, mass confrontation, civil disobedience, alliance politics, and struggle for radical change."[303] Donald Watson has stated that he "respects the people enormously who do it, believing that it's the most direct and quick way to achieve their ends."[288] Some vegans also embrace the philosophy of anti-natalism, as they see the two as complementary in terms of "harm reduction" to animals and the environment.[304] Exploitation concerns Further information: Animal slaughter § Effects on livestock workers The Vegan Society has written, "by extension, [veganism] promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of humans."[305] Many ethical vegans and vegan organizations cite the poor working conditions of slaughterhouse workers as a reason to reject animal products.[306] The first vegan activist, Donald Watson, has stated, "If these butchers and vivisectors weren't there, could we perform the acts that they are doing? And, if we couldn't, we have no right to expect them to do it on our behalf. Full stop! That simply compounds the issue. It means that we're not just exploiting animals; we're exploiting human beings."[288] Environmental veganism Further information: Environmental vegetarianism, Environmental impact of meat production, and Vegan organic gardening Paul Watson, founder of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society Environmental vegans focus on conservation, rejecting the use of animal products on the premise that fishing, hunting, trapping and farming, particularly factory farming, are environmentally unsustainable. In 2010, Paul Watson of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society called pigs and chicken "major aquatic predators", because livestock eat 40 percent of the fish that are caught.[21] Since 2002, all Sea Shepherd ships have been vegan for environmental reasons. This specific form of veganism focuses its way of living on how to have a sustainable way of life without consuming animals.[307] According to a 2006 United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization report, Livestock's Long Shadow, around 26% of the planet's terrestrial surface is devoted to livestock grazing.[308] The UN report also concluded that livestock farming (mostly of cows, chickens and pigs) affects the air, land, soil, water, biodiversity and climate change.[309] Livestock consumed 1,174 million tonnes of food in 2002—including 7.6 million tonnes of fishmeal and 670 million tonnes of cereals, one-third of the global cereal harvest.[310] A 2017 study published in the journal Carbon Balance and Management found animal agriculture's global methane emissions are 11% higher than previous estimates based on data from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.[311] A 2018 study found that global adoption of plant-based diets would reduce agricultural land use by 76% (3.1 billion hectares, an area the size of Africa) and cut total global greenhouse gas emissions by 28% (half of this emissions reduction came from avoided emissions from animal production including methane and nitrous oxide, and half came from trees re-growing on abandoned farmland which remove carbon dioxide from the air).[312][313] Reduction of one's carbon footprint for various actions. A plant-based diet in this study referred to a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet. Vegan diets are known to have lower carbon footprints.[314] A 2010 UN report, Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production, argued that animal products "in general require more resources and cause higher emissions than plant-based alternatives".[315]:80 It proposed a move away from animal products to reduce environmental damage.[v][316] A 2007 Cornell University study concluded that vegetarian diets use the least land per capita, but require higher quality land than is needed to feed animals.[317] A 2015 study determined that significant biodiversity loss can be attributed to the growing demand for meat, which is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat destruction, with species-rich habitats being converted to agriculture for livestock production.[318] A 2017 study by the World Wildlife Fund found that 60% of biodiversity loss can be attributed to the vast scale of feed crop cultivation needed to rear tens of billions of farm animals, which puts an enormous strain on natural resources resulting in an extensive loss of lands and species.[319] Livestock make up 60% of the biomass of all mammals on earth, followed by humans (36%) and wild mammals (4%). As for birds, 70% are domesticated, such as poultry, whereas only 30% are wild.[320][321] In November 2017, 15,364 world scientists signed a warning to humanity calling for, among other things, "promoting dietary shifts towards mostly plant-based foods".[322] The 2019 IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services found that industrial agriculture and overfishing are the primary drivers of the extinction crisis, with the meat and dairy industries having a substantial impact.[323][324] On August 8, 2019, the IPCC released a summary of the 2019 special report which asserted that a shift towards plant-based diets would help to mitigate and adapt to climate change.[325] Feminist veganism See also: Vegetarian ecofeminism Pioneers One of the leading activists and scholars of feminist animal rights is Carol J. Adams. Her premier work, The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory (1990), sparked what was to become a movement in animal rights as she noted the relationship between feminism and meat consumption. Since the release of The Sexual Politics of Meat, Adams has published several other works including essays, books, and keynote addresses. In one of her speeches, "Why feminist-vegan now?"[326]—adapted from her original address at the "Minding Animals" conference in Newcastle, Australia (2009)—Adams states that "the idea that there was a connection between feminism and vegetarianism came to [her] in October 1974", illustrating that the concept of feminist veganism has been around for nearly half a century. Other authors have also paralleled Adams' ideas while expanding on them. Angella Duvnjak states in "Joining the Dots: Some Reflections on Feminist-Vegan Political Practice and Choice" that she was met with opposition to the connection of feminist and veganism ideals, although the connection seemed more than obvious to her and other scholars (2011).[327] Other scholars elaborate on the connections between feminism, such as Carrie Hamilton who makes the connection to sex workers and animal reproductive rights.[328] Many other scholars of feminist vegan philosophy continue to add to the arguments that Adams, Duvnjak, and Hamilton have brought forth. Animal and human abuse parallels Some of the main concepts of feminist veganism is that is the connection between the violence and oppression of animals. For example, Marjorie Spiegal compares the consumption or servitude of animals for human gain to slavery.[327] Animals are purchased from a breeder, used for personal gain—either for further breeding or manual labor—and then discarded, most frequently as food. This capitalist use of animals for personal gain has held strong, despite the work of animal rights activists and ecofriendly feminists. Similar notions that suggest animals—like fish, for example—feel less pain are brought forth today as a justification for animal cruelty.[327] The feminist side of the argument states that there i

CLIMIT - Programme for Power Generation with Carbon Capture and Storage. The programme is managed by Gassnova in cooperation with the Research Council of Norway. Responsibilities have been divided: whereas the Research Council of Norway is in charge of the research projects, Gassnova is responsible for the prototype and demonstration projects. CO2 (carbon dioxide) before, during or after power production Compression and handling of CO2 Transport of CO2 Long-term storage[clarification needed] of CO2 and other areas of application Gassnova shall focus on co-funding projects seen as having an obvious commercial potential and which include a market-oriented business plan. For research grants within the same field, please refer to the calls for proposals issued by the Research Council of Norway. References[edit] External links[edit] CLIMIT - Programme for Power Generation with Carbon Capture and Storage Gassnova - Statens foretak for CO2-håndtering CO2 Capture & Storage Categories: Carbon capture and sequestrationClimate change in NorwayClimate change mitigation Navigation menu Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Article Talk Read Edit View history Search Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version Languages Norsk bokmål Edit links This page was last edited on 11 February 2019, at 14:52 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Open main menu Wikipedia Search Spam (food) Language Watch Edit For other uses, see Spam (disambiguation). Spam (stylized as SPAM) is a brand of canned cooked pork made by Hormel Foods Corporation, based in Minnesota. It was first introduced in 1937 and gained popularity worldwide after its use during World War II.[1] By 2003, Spam was sold in 41 countries on six continents and trademarked in over 100 countries (not including the Middle East and North Africa).[2] Spam's basic ingredients are pork with ham meat added, salt, water, modified potato starch (as a binder), sugar, and sodium nitrite (as a preservative). Natural gelatin is formed during cooking in its tins on the production line.[3] Many have raised concerns over Spam's nutritional attributes, in large part due to its high content of fat, sodium, and preservatives.[4] Spam SPAM logo.jpg Course Main course or ingredient Place of origin US Created by Hormel Foods Corporation Serving temperature Hot or cold Main ingredients Pork Other information A precooked canned meat product Cookbook: Spam Media: Spam It has became the subject of several appearances in pop culture, notably a Monty Python sketch, which led to its name being borrowed for unsolicited electronic messages, especially email.[5] History International usage In popular culture Nutritional data Varieties See also References External links Last edited 4 days ago by Jayron32 RELATED ARTICLES Spam Jam Treet Canned meat product Spamarama Wikipedia Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted.

for verification. The ocean currents. File:Perpetual Ocean.ogvPlay media Distinctive white lines trace the flow of surface currents around the world. File:Ocean flows at surface and 2000 meters below sea level.webmPlay media Visualization showing global ocean currents from Jan 01, 2010 to Dec 31, 2012 at sea level then at 2000 meters below sea level. File:Circulation of Ocean Currents Around the Western Antarctic Ice Shelves.ogvPlay media Animation of circulation around ice shelves of Antarctica. An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of sea water generated by a number of forces acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, breaking waves, cabbeling, and temperature and salinity differences. Depth contours, shoreline configurations, and interactions with other currents influence a current's direction and strength. Ocean currents are primarily horizontal water movements. An ocean current flows for great distances and together they create the global conveyor belt, which plays a dominant role in determining the climate of many of Earth's regions. More specifically, ocean currents influence the temperature of the regions through which they travel. For example, warm currents traveling along more temperate coasts increase the temperature of the area by warming the sea breezes that blow over them. Perhaps the most striking example is the Gulf Stream, which makes northwest Europe much more temperate than any other region at the same latitude. Another example is Lima, Peru, where the climate is cooler, being sub-tropical, than the tropical latitudes in which the area is located, due to the effect of the Humboldt Current. Function Thermohaline circulation Importance See also References Further reading External links Last edited 5 days ago by WereSpielChequers RELATED ARTICLES North Atlantic Deep Water deep water mass formed in the North Atlantic Ocean Physical oceanography The study of physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean Thermohaline circulation A part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes Wikipedia Content is available under CC BY-SA 3.0 unless otherwise noted. Terms of UsePrivacyDesktop

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