Week 3 Assignment Notes
The JDIT approach begins with instruction on basic principles and then moves to a job where a need for improvement has been identified. The improvement process follows five steps:
(1) observe work processes in action and identify problems; (2) brainstorm possible improvements; (3) analyze each improvement option; (4) implement improvements; and (5) analyze results and make adjustments.
Reviews of OJT practices have found that
(1) supervisors, coworkers, and to a lesser degree, HRD staff members conduct most of the structured OJT programs; (2) a majority of organizations provide train-the-trainer programs for these assigned OJT trainers; and (3) top management generally expressed support for structured OJT programs.
Mager states that useful objectives include three critical aspects or qualities, that is, they should describe
(1) the performance the learners (trainees) should be able to do, (2) the conditions under which they must do it, and (3) the criteria (how well they must do it) used in judging its success
Our first point, though, is that the choice of training method should be guided by:
(1) the program objectives (2) an explicit consideration of the current level of trainee expertise and (3) the resources available (both human and technological)
Michael Marquardt recommends the greatest use of open-ended questions, since these encourage creativity, with minimal use of direct or leading questions. He argues that good questions should:
(a) create clarity, (b) help people think analytically and critically, (c) inspire people to reflect and view things in new ways, (d) challenge assumptions, and (e) create ownership of solutions.
Audiovisual media
A method of classroom training that takes advantage of various media to illustrate or demonstrate the training material. Audiovisual media can bring complex events to life by showing and describing details that are often difficult to communicate in other ways.
Job instruction training (JIT)
A set sequence of instructional procedures used by the trainer to train employees while they work in their assigned job. It is most commonly used by supervisors to train new employees in the basic elements of their job.
Job rotation
A technique that is intended to develop job-related skills, which involves a series of assignments to different positions or departments for a specified period. During this assignment, the trainee is supervised by a department employee who is responsible for orienting, training, and evaluating the trainee. Throughout the training cycle, the trainee is expected to learn about how each department functions, including key roles, policies, and procedures.
Case study method
A training method that helps trainees learn analytical and problem-solving skills by presenting a story (called a case) about people in an organization who are facing a problem or a decision. Cases may be based on actual events involving real people in an organization, or they can be fictitious. Trainees should be given enough information to analyze the situation and recommend their own solutions. In solving the problem, the trainees are generally required to use a rational problem-solving process.
On-the-job training (OJT)
A training method that involves conducting training at a trainee's regular workstation (desk, machine, etc.). This is the most common form of training; most employees receive at least some training and coaching on the job. Virtually any type of one-on-one instruction between coworkers or between the employee and supervisor can be classified as OJT. On-the-job training has recently been promoted as a means for organizations to deal with the shortage of applicants who possess the skills needed to perform many current jobs.
Lecture method
A training method that involves the oral presentation of information by a subject matter expert to a group of listeners. It is a widely used training technique because of its efficiency in transmitting factual information to a large audience in a relatively short amount of time. When used in conjunction with visual aids, such as slides, charts, maps, and handouts, the lecture can be an effective way to facilitate the transfer of theories, concepts, procedures, and other factual material.
Business games
A training method that is intended to develop or refine problem-solving and decision-making skills. This technique tends to focus primarily on business management decisions (such as maximizing profits).
Intranet-based training (IBT)
A training method that uses internal computer networks for training purposes. Through IBT, trainers and HRD professionals are able to communicate with learners, conduct needs assessment and other administrative tasks, transmit course materials and other training documents, and administer tests at any time and throughout the organization, whether an employee is in the United States or located overseas.
Train-the-trainer programs
A training program that identifies in-house content experts (subject matter experts) who lack training skills, and then trains them to become effective trainers.
In-basket exercise
A type of simulation used in management development programs and assessment centers that assesses the trainee's ability to establish priorities, plan, gather relevant information, and make decisions.
Computer-aided instruction (CAI)
An instructional program that uses a computer system. CAI programs can range from electronic workbooks, using the drill-and-practice approach, to compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM) presentation of a traditional training program.
Performance
An objective always says what a learner is expected to be able to do and/or produce to be considered competent; the objective sometimes describes the product or result of the doing. Example: "Write a product profile for a proposed new product."
Conditions
An objective describes the important conditions (if any) under which the performance is to occur. Example: "Given all available engineering data regarding a proposed product, trainee will write a product profile."
Intranets
Computer networks that use Internet and World Wide Web technology, software tools, and protocols for finding, managing, creating, and distributing information within one organization.
Videoconferencing
Conducting conferences between remote locations using telecommunications technology.
There are several limitations of the discussion method.
First, a skilled facilitator is needed to manage the discussion process. Second, sufficient time must be available for meaningful discussion to take place. Third, trainees need to have a common reference point for meaningful discussion to occur.
Conducting training away from the work setting has several advantages over OJT.
First, classroom settings permit the use of a variety of training techniques, such as video/DVD, lecture, discussion, role playing, and simulation. Second, the environment can be designed or controlled to minimize distractions and create a climate conducive to learning. Third, classroom settings can accommodate larger numbers of trainees than the typical on-the-job setting, allowing for more efficient delivery of training
Telecommunications
Methods for transmitting training programs to different locations, such as via satellite, microwave, cable (CATV), and fiber-optic networks.
checklist for a successful employee learning experience
The goals of the employee training or development program are clear The employees are involved in determining the knowledge, skills and abilities to be learned The employees are participating in activities during the learning process The work experiences and knowledge that employees bring to each learning situation are used as a resource A practical and problem-centered approach based on real examples is used New material is connected to the employee's past learning and work experience The employees are given an opportunity to reinforce what they learn by practicing The learning environment is informal, safe and supportive The individual employee is shown respect The learning opportunity promotes positive self-esteem
Training manual
The instructional materials used for training. This can include basic instructional material, readings, exercises, and self-tests.
Training competency
The knowledge and varied skills needed to design and implement a training program.
Size of HRD
The size of an HRD department is important for assessing the capacity to design, conduct, and/or implement skills training (as opposed to using an outside agency)
Structured OJT programs are generally conducted by
an assigned trainer who is recognized, rewarded, and trained to provide appropriate instructional techniques.
experiential methods generally require more time to complete than instruction-centered approaches, they
are not as commonly used to reach large numbers of individuals
Slides
are often used in ways similar to printed materials, but by projecting a computer- or camera-generated image onto a screen, they can serve as a common focus for discussion.
Although not impossible, it is much harder to write specific behavioral objectives for interventions dealing with
attitudes or emotions.
objectives are used as the
basis for determining which methods should be used to achieve the specified outcome.
as trainees' existing level of expertise increases, they
become more creative and confident.
Open-ended questions
can be used to challenge the trainees to increase their understanding of a specific topic
Direct questions
can be used to illustrate or produce a very narrow response
Reflective questions
can be used to mirror what someone else says to make sure their message is received as intended
Effective trainers must be able to
communicate their knowledge clearly, use various instructional techniques, have good interpersonal skills, and the ability to motivate others to learn.
When thinking about what training method (or methods) to use, it is useful to consider the ________________________________________ that trainees possess.
current level of expertise
second phase of the HRD process
designing training and HRD interventions.
In many cases, simply presenting employees with objectives (goals) for learning or performance may be
enough to elicit the desired behavior.
Coaching typically occurs between an employee and that person's supervisor and focuses on
examining employee performance and taking actions to maintain effective performance and correct performance problems.
When organizations, large or small, elect to go outside to purchase training services and programs, they should,
first conduct a needs assessment so that they can make an informed decision.
Job rotation is often used for
first-level management training, particularly for new employees.
In mentoring, a senior manager is paired with a more junior employee for the purpose of
giving support, helping the employee learn the ropes, and preparing the employee for increasing responsibility
Printed materials,
handouts, charts, guides, reference books, and textbooks, allow trainees to keep the material and refer to it before, during, and after a training session
intentional learning
happens when you engage in activities with an attitude of "what can I learn from this?"
Jack and Patricia Phillips emphasize that, to be effective, objectives must link to
important organizational outcomes, e.g., reaction, learning, application, impact, and return on investment
two potential disadvantages of classroom methods
increased costs and dissimilarity to the job setting
Research indicates that informal OJT "leads to
increased error rates, lower productivity, and decreased training efficiency."
Unfortunately, much on-the-job training is conducted
informally, without structure, planning, or careful thought.
The content of a JIT program is distinguished by
its simplicity.
Eric Day and colleagues have presented an "integrative training design matrix," which
links objectives to many important design and evaluation decisions.
There are three primary training approaches:
on-the-job training, classroom, and computer-based training.
the novice learner may easily get confused or anxious, therefore novice trainees generally
require more guided or instruction-centered training methods.
An effective behavioral objective will
spell out clearly what is expected of the learner/trainee.
One practical headache for many training programs is managing
the registration process.
behavioral objectives have served HRD professionals extremely well for the past fifty years, because
they put the focus squarely on what the trainee is expected to do at the completion of training.
sometimes people do not meet performance expectations because
they were never clearly told what the expectations were or how they were supposed to meet them.
an insistence of lengthy and detailed behavioral objectives has been criticized by
those challenging the traditional ISD model (see the boxed insert in
incidental learning;
you have learned without really thinking about it or meaning to.
A lesson plan should specify:
• Content to be covered • Sequencing of activities • Selection or design of training media • Selection or development of experiential exercises (or both) • Timing and planning of each activity • Selection of the method of instruction to be used • Number and type of evaluation items to be used
Some questions to ask when writing objectives include:
• Is your main intent stated (concerning what you want the trainee to do)? • Have you described all of the conditions that will influence trainee performance? • Have you described how well the trainee must perform for his or her performance to be considered acceptable?
Osigweh encourages potential users of the case study method to match factors such as:
• Specific instructional objectives • Objectives of the case approach • Attributes of the particular incident or case (i.e., its content) • Characteristics of the learner • Instructional timing • General prevailing environment (class size, course level, etc.) • The teacher's own personal and instructional characteristics
Lesson plan
A guide for the delivery of the content of a training program. Creating a lesson plan requires the trainer to determine in advance what is to be covered and how much time to devote to each part of the session.
One rational way to do this is to determine the match between a vendor's product or capability with an organization's needs and objectives. The criteria for these decisions vary among organizations, but in general they include:
1. Cost: price relative to program content and quality 2. Credentials: including certificates, degrees, and other documentation of the vendor's expertise 3. Background: number of years in business and experience in the particular content area 4. Experience: vendor's prior clients, success with those clients, references 5. Philosophy: comparison of the vendor's philosophy to that of the organization 6. Delivery method: training methods and techniques used 7. Content: topics included in program or materials 8. Actual product: including appearance, samples, or whether a pilot program is available 9. Results: expected outcomes 10. Support: especially in terms of implementation and follow-up 11. Request for proposal (RFP): the match between a vendor's offer and the requirement spelled out in the organization's request for a proposal
Rothwell and Kazanas pose several further questions that can guide the proper selection of audiovisual methods:
1. How much time is available to plan and test instruction? 2. What equipment is available to use in designing or delivering instruction, or in doing both? 3. For what media can instructional designers prepare instruction? Do staff skills lend themselves to some media better than others? 4. How much is an organization willing to spend on the design and development of instruction?
Kearsley makes five recommendations concerning media selection:
1. Identify the media attributes required by the conditions, performance, or standards of each instructional objective 2. Identify student characteristics that suggest or preclude particular media 3. Identify characteristics of the learning environment that favor or preclude particular media 4. Identify practical considerations that may determine which media are feasible 5. Identify economic or organizational factors that may determine which media are feasible
Five primary categories of classroom training include:
1. Lecture 2. Discussion 3. Audiovisual media 4. Experiential methods 5. Computer-based training (classroom-based)
In solving a problem, trainees are generally required to use a rational problem-solving process that includes:
1. Restating important facts 2. Drawing inferences from the facts 3. Stating the problem or problems 4. Developing alternative solutions and then stating the consequences of each 5. Determining and supporting a course of action
The key activities involved in designing an HRD program are:
1. Setting objectives 2. Selecting the trainer or vendor 3. Developing a lesson plan 4. Selecting program methods and techniques (including the appropriate use of technology) 5. Preparing materials 6. Scheduling the program
Clive Shepherd, chair of the eLearning Network in England, proposes four key skills that a workplace learning professional needs to provide successful e-learning programs:
1. Strategic Skills - these include: a) establishing an overall strategy for e-learning, b) analyzing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats regarding the use of e-learning in an organization, c) setting up the technical infrastructure, d) marketing the e-learning strategy, and e) evaluating the effectiveness of all programs (electronic, blended, and traditional). 2. Curriculum Design Skills - these include: a) analyzing the learning requirements, b) analyzing the characteristics of the target audience, c) selecting effective methods for each stage of the intervention, and d) choosing the appropriate media to deliver each method effectively. 3. Content Creation Skills - these include: a) project management skills in overseeing the content creation process, b) designing the content, c) preparing the written and spoken elements of the content, including testing items, d) using authoring tools to build the content, and e) testing and refining the content. 4. Facilitation Skills - these include: a) facilitating live online sessions, b) setting up learning interventions in a "virtual environment" (e.g., using a learning management system), c) developing and facilitating online learning activities, and d) employing technology effectively in classroom settings.
In addition to contracting with an outside vendor, less qualified trainers can be aided through:
1. Teaming skilled trainers with in-house subject matter experts to form an instructional team 2. Using a training technique that does not require a human trainer, such as computer-aided or online instructional programs (these options will be discussed in the next chapter) 3. Train-the-trainer programs, which involve identifying in-house content experts who lack training skills and training them to become effective trainers
With such an array of training methods and media available, how does an HRD professional choose which approach is most appropriate for maximum learning? Several factors should be considered:
1. The objectives of the program. 2. Time and money available. 3. Availability of other resources. 4. Trainee characteristics and preferences.
The sequence of events involved in an in-basket exercise typically includes the following:
1. The trainees are told that they have been promoted to a management position that has suddenly vacated. They are given background information about the organization, including personnel, relationships, policies, and union contracts. 2. The trainees then receive the contents of the manager's in-basket. This material includes documents such as telephone messages, notes, memos, letters, and reports. 3. The trainees are then asked to read, organize, prioritize, and make decisions regarding the issues presented by the in-basket material. 4. At the end of the decision period, the trainees' decisions are then evaluated by trained scorers.
an organization following effective HRD practices will have completed Phase I of the training and HRD process—needs assessment—and will have data that indicate:
1. Where the training or HRD program is needed 2. What kind of training or HRD program is needed 3. Who needs to be trained 4. The conditions under which training will occur
Training program objectives
A collection of words, symbols, pictures and/or diagrams describing what you intend for trainees to achieve.
Blended learning
A combination of traditional (classroom-based) and technology-enhanced training.
Computer-based training
An instructional method that uses computer technology, CBT can be implemented using a computer at an employee's desk or workstation, in a company classroom, or even at an employee's home. The primary advantage of CBT is its interactivity and flexibility.
Computer-based training (CBT)
An instructional method that uses computer technology, CBT can be implemented using a computer at an employee's desk or workstation, in a company classroom, or even at an employee's home. The primary advantage of CBT is its interactivity and flexibility.
Intelligent computer-assisted instruction (ICAI)
An instructional program that is able to discern the learner's capability from the learner's response patterns and by analyzing the learner's errors. The goal of ICAI systems is to provide learners with an electronic teacher's assistant that can patiently offer advice to individual learners, encourage learner practice, and stimulate learners' curiosity through experimentation.
Scheduling after Work Hours
Extending the workday and workweek can cause a hardship for some employees, particularly those who have familial obligations or other personal commitments. Even when after-work and weekend programs do not cause hardships, many employees are reluctant to give up their leisure time. In these situations, some organizations provide inducements, including overtime pay, compensatory time (equal time off), training as a qualification for promotion, and leisure activities to coincide with the training session (e.g., by conducting the training at a resort area).
Formal OJT has two distinct advantages over classroom training.
First, OJT facilitates the transfer of learning to the job because the trainee has an immediate opportunity to practice the work tasks on the job. Transfer of learning is enhanced because the learning environment is the same as the performance environment. Second, OJT reduces training costs because no training facilities are needed.
limitations to OJT
First, the job site may have physical constraints, noise, or other distractions that inhibit learning. Second, using expensive equipment for training could result in costly damage or disruption of the production schedule. Third, using OJT while customers are present may inconvenience them and temporarily reduce the quality of service. Fourth, OJT involving heavy equipment or chemicals may threaten the safety of others who are working in close proximity.
Static media
Fixed illustrations that use both words and images. This can include printed materials, computer slides, and overhead transparencies.
Number of Trainees
Generally, the larger the number of trainees the greater the likelihood the organization will be willing to design the program itself; for just a few trainees, the HRD department will likely send them to an outside training agency
Opportunities for feedback, interaction, and practice are different online than in the traditional classroom. Cher Ping Lim provides a number of practical design recommendations for online learning, such as:
Help online learners develop appropriate learning strategies for online learning Provide "advance organizers" for learners to understand the structure of the online learning environment and where they will be going as they navigate the online course structure Facilitate online discussions with appropriate questions, focus, and expertise in responding to answers given Provide a variety of activities and the necessary guidance for how learners can navigate their way through these activities.
Subject Matter
If the subject matter is sensitive or proprietary, the HRD department conducts the program in-house using employees as trainers
Subject matter expert (SME)
Individuals with particular expertise on a given topic. Many train-the-trainer programs seek to provide SMEs with the necessary knowledge and skills to design and implement a training program.
Training methods
Instructional approaches including both on-the-job training as well as various classroom (off-site) techniques. The selection of the appropriate technique should be guided by the specific objectives to be obtained, as well as by participant expertise.
Classroom training
Instructional methods that take place away from the normal work setting. In this sense, a classroom can be any training space that is away from the work site, such as a lecture hall, a company cafeteria, or a meeting room. It is a common instructional method.
Scheduling during Work Hours
One popular option for program scheduling is running the program during normal working hours. This both avoids outside conflicts (such as commuting, family, and personal obligations) and sends a message to employees that learning is an important part of their job. The day of the week becomes an issue because employees often favor some days for time off, such as Monday, Friday, and the days surrounding a holiday. Time of day is another factor. Programs scheduled for the start of the workday may face a significant proportion of tardy or tired participants. Peak work hours are the times of the day, week, month, or year that departments are the busiest and when scheduling a training program would cause a potential conflict.
SCHEDULING AN HRD PROGRAM
Our discussion applies to scheduling programs that require participants be in attendance at the time the program is delivered. In contrast, one of the main advantages of individually-oriented delivery methods, such as CD-ROM or self-paced instruction, is that such approaches can be done whenever the participants have the time to do them.
"X" Factor
Some other extraneous conditions that make it preferable that an outside agency be used to conduct skills training
Dynamic media
Techniques used to present dynamic sequences of events. It includes audiocassettes and compact discs (CDs), film, videotape, and videodisc.
Cost
The HRD department always considers cost, but only in concert with other factors
Discussion method
The discussion method of training involves the trainer in two-way communication with the trainees, and the trainees in communication with each other. Because active participation is encouraged, the discussion method offers trainees an opportunity for feedback, clarification, and sharing points of view.
Expertise
When an organization lacks specialized KSAOs needed to design and implement an HRD program
Timeliness
When it is timelier to hire an outside agency to facilitate the process
Criteria
Wherever possible, an objective identifies the criteria of acceptable performance by describing how well the learner must perform in order to be considered acceptable. Example: "The product profile must describe all of the commercial characteristics of the product that are appropriate for its introduction to the market, including descriptions of at least three major product uses."
Robert Mager defines an objective as
a "description of a performance you want learners to be able to exhibit before you consider them competent."
